Qualitative data analysis

byAtia Ramadan

NEU 2014

Outline• What is qualitative data?• What is QDA?• Grounded theory inductive approach.• Features of grounded theory.• Stages in QDA• What is coding?• Open coding• Axial coding• Selective coding.

Qualitative data

• Qualitative data is a mass of information gained

from recordings of interviews, fieldnotes of

observations, and analysis of documents as well as

reflective notes of the researcher. This mass of

information have to be organised, summarised,

described and interpreted (Lacey & Luff, 2001).

What is qualitative data analysis?

• data analysis is the process of reducing large amounts of collected data to make sense of them (according Lecompte and Schensul:1999).

• In another definition ,according to (Lewins, A.,Taylor, C.& Gibbs.2005), QDA is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating.

Qualitative data process

process dataData collection

analysis data

Listen

Observe

InterviewRaw Data

Sort &classify

Open coding

Axial coding

Selective coding

Audio Recording

Visual Recording

Jotted Notes

Field notes

Recorded data

Processed data

Approaches to analysis

There are many different ways of analysing qualitative data. However ,

there is more agreement in the analysis of QD but there is less

agreement on how to analysis QD. They analyses the relationships

and patterns between the categories or themes that have been

identified. These themes or categories may be derived using two

approaches:

Approaches to analysis

• Inductively: the themes or categories allowed to emerge

From the data gradually. This has been termed as

grounded theory.

• Deductively: allows to determine categories or themes

early.

Grounded theory- Inductive approachdefinition and important principle

• This theory developed from the work of sociologists (Glaser and Strauss ,1967).They defined the grounded theory as ‘The discovery of theory from data – systematically obtained and analysed in social research’.

• The grounded theory approach offers a rigorous approach in generating theory from qualitative data.It is particularly well suited for exploratory studies where little is known.

• It is inductive approach in analysis of qualitative data in which theory is systematically generated from data.

Grounded theory

• The appeal of grounded theory analysis is that it allows for the theory to emerge from the data through a process of rigorous analysis.

• The word theory is used to mean the concepts and categories are related to each other in order to resolves the main concern of the participants in a substantive area.

Main feature of the grounded theory

• The use of constant comparison technique.

• Using this technique to compare categories that emerge from one analysis stage with that emerge from previous stage.

• The research continues with this technique until theoretical saturation is reached or no new significant categories or concepts emerge.

• the grounded theory procedure is cyclical involving frequent revisiting of data in the light of emergence of new categories or concepts.

Stages in qualitative data analysisAccording to (Lacey and Luff,2001) the stages of QDAStart with.1- Familiarisation with the data through review, reading, listening etc.

2- Transcription is the process of converting audio recorded data or handwritten fieldnotes Obtained from interviews and observation into written or printed for easy reading. Do not forget

Stages in qualitative data analysis data

a- How long did the transcription take you, compared with the original interview?

b- Highlight the non-verbal communication.

C- Look at the questions you asked, and any comments you made.

d- listen to the recording again, with the transcript in front of you.

Stages in QDS 3- Organisation: After transcription, it is necessary to organise your data into easily retrievable sections . How

A- by giving each participant (pseudonym, e .g . Join, Dina….) or referred to cod number ( S1, S2,…… S8 )

B- keep a file that links the pseudonym or code number to the original information

C- determine whether you intend to analyse at the wordLevel, sentence level of paragraph level.

Be carful, you will so much data and if not properly organised you may be drowned in the mass of information which can very frustrating.

Stages in QDACoding: according Merriam (1998).Merriam describes the process of data analysis as being a complex action of moving back and forth between dataand concepts, between description and interpretation,using both inductive and deductive reasoning .

coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words , sentences or paragraphs and assigning codes or labels. Codes can be based on• Themes, topics, ideas concepts, terms. Phrases , keywords.• The codes are given meaningful names that gives an

indication of the idea or concepts that underpins the theme or category.

Stages in qualitative date

analysis

Familiarisation Transcription Organisation

Coding

Grounded theory

Framework analysis

Reporting writing

Coding

• strauss and corbin (1990) provided direction for

researchers to develop grounded theory using three

types of coding: open, axial and selective coding.

they content that concepts are the building blocks of

theory.

Open codingAccording to Strauss and Corbin (1990)open coding: is the process by which concepts are identified and developed in terms of their properties and dimensions. this includes asking questions about the data, making comparisons for similarities and differences between incidents, events, or other phenomena. Similar ones are grouped to form categories.

In (1998), Strauss and Corbin said Open coding is where you “sweep” through the dataand marking the text.

Types of open coding

There are a number of ways to do open coding.1- Line by line2- Sentence by sentence3- Several phrases or sentences4- paragraph by paragraph

coding

R: How long have you been a teacher in this school?T: For about 10 years.R: Your principle, how would you describe him?T: Quite a hot-tempered guy.R. What do you mean hot-tempered?T: Well, in the last staff meeting, I objected to his idea of cutting down the number of fieldtrips for students. He argued that that it was too much of a responsibility for the school. Also, it was getting more and more expensive for the school.R: What happened than? T: Before I could say anything, he lost his cool and came for me. He refused to listen to what I had to say….he just went on and on. R: What do you think?T: Personally, I think it was not fair of him to scold me. After all this is a democracy and he should at least listen to what I had to say. It was very unpleasant and many of my colleagues were very disturbed over the incident.R: How do the others feel?T. Many of us prefer to keep quite and suffer in silence. You know, he is quite close with the higher-ups. Anyone who questions his decisions are ridiculed You know he determines whether we get promoted or not. You know, it’s the usual thing!R: How often does this happen?T: Almost always…..all meetings becomes a one man show …it’s all …talk….talk.

Extraction of key phrases hot-tempered     lost his coolrefused to listenjust went on and on   not fairscold  ridiculed for questioning

Coding• Eight descriptions of the principal’s behaviour in staff meetings and the

following codes are assigned. B1 – hot tempered; B2 – lost his cool B3 – refused to listen B4 – just went on and on B6 – scolds B7 – ridiculed for questioning B8 – one man show

Next you may want to recode the eight descriptions into one or two categories. In other words, the category emerges from the data. You may have to assign a name for the category. In this example, B3 and B8 could be recoded to A1 and assigned the category or theme ‘autocratic’. Go on doing this until you haveexhausted the data in terms and developing any new cods.

Axial coding

Axial coding is the set of procedures used to put data Back together in different ways after open coding ,by Making connections between categories. This is achieved through use of a coding paradigm that includes the following.

Causal condition= what influences the central phenomenon, events, incidence, happenings.

Phenomenon= the central idea, event, happening incident about which a set of actions or interaction are directed at managing handling or to which the set of actions is related.

Axial coding

• Strategies for addressing the phenomenon purposeful, goal oriented.

• Context- location of events.

• Intervening condition- that shape, facilitate or constrain the strategies that take with a specific context.

Axial coding

• Action/Interaction- strategies devised to manage handle, carryout, respond to a phenomenon under a set of perceived conditions.

• Consequences- outcomes or result of action or interaction, result from the strategies

Ground theory coding from open coding to the axial coding paradigm

Open coding categories Axial coding paradigm

Select one open coding category and use it as the core phenomenon in the axial coding paradigm

category

category

category

category

category

Causal conditions

Core category or phenomenon Strategies Consequences

context

Intervening conditions

Selective coding• Selective coding is the process of selecting the

core category, systematically relating the core

category to other categories, validating those

relationships, and filling in categories that need

further refinement and development. The core

category is central phenomenon around which

all the other categories are integrated.

Report writing• Introducing your study

a- begin with something interesting.

b- introduce you question or curiosity. What is it that you want to understand?

c- tell why there’s a need for study.

d- describe the intended audience for your research (e.g, the public , family).• Research method- Identify and generally describe your research method.(e.g,

ethnographic , field study, single case study).- Cite the authors who described your research method- Describe the procedures you took to protect the rights of your

subject.

Report writing- Describe the kind of data you coll

Thank you so much

References

Barbara, B. Kawulich (2004). Data analysis techniques in qualitative research. State university of West Georgia.

Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson.

Lacey, A. & Luff, D. (2001). Trent focus for research and development in primary health care: An introduction to qualitative

analysis. London: Trent Focus.

Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, G. (2005). What is qualitative data analysis? School of Human & Health Sciences, University

of Huddersfield. United Kingdome.

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage .