Public PolicyPublic Policy

RizwanRizwan KhairKhair

WHAT do you understand by WHAT do you understand by Public Policy?Public Policy?

DefinitionsDefinitions•• Purposive course of action followed by a Purposive course of action followed by a

actor or set of actors in dealing with a actor or set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern ( Anderson problem or matter of concern ( Anderson 1984)1984)

•• A deliberate course of action or inaction A deliberate course of action or inaction taken by those in office under the influence taken by those in office under the influence of values and pressures on the way of values and pressures on the way resources/expenditures and coercion are resources/expenditures and coercion are used in pursuit of objectives or in support of used in pursuit of objectives or in support of other policies ( Smith 1976)other policies ( Smith 1976)

•• Anything a government chooses to do or Anything a government chooses to do or not to do ( Dye 1978)not to do ( Dye 1978)

A Working Definition of Public PolicyA Working Definition of Public Policy

……the study of what governments do, the study of what governments do, why they do it, and what difference it why they do it, and what difference it makes.makes.Thomas DyeThomas Dye

……the sum of government activities, the sum of government activities, whether acting directly or through whether acting directly or through agents, as it has an influence on the agents, as it has an influence on the lives of citizens.lives of citizens.G. Guy PetersG. Guy Peters

A Working Definition of Public PolicyA Working Definition of Public Policy

……the combination of basic decisions, the combination of basic decisions, commitments, and actions made by those commitments, and actions made by those who hold or affect government positions of who hold or affect government positions of authority.authority.Larry N. GerstonLarry N. Gerston

According to Hogwood and Gunn According to Hogwood and Gunn (1984) Public Policy Involves(1984) Public Policy Involves::

•• A label for a field of activity ( economic A label for a field of activity ( economic policy, foreign policy)policy, foreign policy)

•• An expression of general purpose or a An expression of general purpose or a desired state of affairs ( poverty desired state of affairs ( poverty reduction, job creation)reduction, job creation)

•• Specific proposals (provision of free Specific proposals (provision of free primary education, land holding ceiling primary education, land holding ceiling upto X hectares)upto X hectares)

•• Formal authorisation (through legislation, Formal authorisation (through legislation, actsacts))

•• As a programme As a programme •• As an output, that is what the government As an output, that is what the government

actually delivers ( land redistributed)actually delivers ( land redistributed)•• As an outcome, that is what government As an outcome, that is what government

achieves, identified through impacts of achieves, identified through impacts of activities (living standards or agricultural activities (living standards or agricultural output of a land reform package)output of a land reform package)

•• As a model (incentives will increase output)As a model (incentives will increase output)•• As a process, where policy is considered As a process, where policy is considered

over a long period of time.over a long period of time.

Levels of GovernmentLevels of Government

National

State

Local[County, City, Town/Village, etc.]

Public Policy Environments

Public institutions are the Public institutions are the vehicles through which public vehicles through which public policies are formulated and policies are formulated and carried out.carried out.

Which public institutions Which public institutions address public policy issues?address public policy issues?

Executive Branch - The President can sign executive orders.Legislative Branch - State legislatures make policy with the hundreds of statutes or laws it enacts each year.Judicial Branch –courts establish policy through interpretation of the law.Bureaucracy - A collection of agencies designed to carry out relatively specific tasks, is concerned more with implementation but also involved with formulation of policies.

Contexts of Public PolicyContexts of Public Policy

•• Social contextSocial context–– Societal changes (e.g., population changes)Societal changes (e.g., population changes)

•• Economic contextEconomic context–– State of the economy (e.g., surplus vs. deficit)State of the economy (e.g., surplus vs. deficit)

•• Political contextPolitical context–– Political/ideological issues (who is in power?)Political/ideological issues (who is in power?)

•• Governing contextGoverning context–– Structure of government (e.g., separation of Structure of government (e.g., separation of

powers)powers)

•• Cultural contextCultural context–– Values, beliefs (e.g., in state, regions)Values, beliefs (e.g., in state, regions)

Policy and different regimes Policy and different regimes

•• Public policy in Public policy in liberal democraciesliberal democracies: open, : open, freefree--flowing and chaotic flowing and chaotic

•• Public policy in authoritarian regimes:Public policy in authoritarian regimes:controlled, manipulated and driven by interests controlled, manipulated and driven by interests of elite of elite

•• Public policy in illiberal democracies:Public policy in illiberal democracies:strong political control of key economic strong political control of key economic resources, particularly commodities, with a freer resources, particularly commodities, with a freer market in less sensitive sectors of the economy. market in less sensitive sectors of the economy. The populist leader but problems of capacityThe populist leader but problems of capacity--buildingbuilding

Why does government Why does government intervene?intervene?

•• Political reasonsPolitical reasons•• Moral, or ethical, reasonsMoral, or ethical, reasons•• Economics and market failuresEconomics and market failures

–– when the market fails to be efficient when the market fails to be efficient –– four categoriesfour categories

•• the existence of monopolies or oligopoliesthe existence of monopolies or oligopolies•• externalitiesexternalities•• information failuresinformation failures•• inability to provide public or collective goodsinability to provide public or collective goods

Constants of Public PolicyConstants of Public Policy

IssuesIssues that appear on the public agendathat appear on the public agenda

ActorsActors who present, interpret, and respond to who present, interpret, and respond to those issuesthose issues

ResourcesResources affected by those issuesaffected by those issues

InstitutionsInstitutions that deal with issuesthat deal with issues

Levels of governmentLevels of government that address issuesthat address issues

Public policyPublic policy……

•• is purposiveis purposive•• is responsiveis responsive•• is authoritativeis authoritative•• resolves conflictresolves conflict•• has public inputhas public input

Public policy can bePublic policy can be……

SubstantiveSubstantive -- major rearrangements of public major rearrangements of public resources or values; e.g., tax reform, school resources or values; e.g., tax reform, school uniformsuniforms

SymbolicSymbolic -- policies that tend to provide more policies that tend to provide more psychological relief than actual change in the psychological relief than actual change in the political system; e.g., legislation against flag political system; e.g., legislation against flag burning burning

Sometimes substantive issues are addressed by Sometimes substantive issues are addressed by symbolic responses.symbolic responses.

CharacteristicsCharacteristics

•• PublicnessPublicness--meant to protect interest of publicmeant to protect interest of public•• In line with ConstitutionIn line with Constitution•• ConsistentConsistent-- with international laws, norms and with international laws, norms and

conventionsconventions•• Reflects political commitmentReflects political commitment-- of the party in of the party in

powerpower•• CompulsoryCompulsory-- for allfor all•• Goal oriented and purposiveGoal oriented and purposive•• Reactive or ProactiveReactive or Proactive

Who are the players in Who are the players in public policy making?public policy making?

Public policy issues gain their status when they Public policy issues gain their status when they reach the eyes and ears of government reach the eyes and ears of government actorsactors. . The process is initiated by:The process is initiated by:

IndividualsIndividuals

Interest GroupsInterest Groups

MediaMedia

Government Government

Assumptions about Policy makingAssumptions about Policy making

•• Practice rational decisionPractice rational decision--makingmaking•• Prioritize goals and objectivesPrioritize goals and objectives•• Examine alternative solutions Examine alternative solutions

systematicallysystematically•• Choose alternatives that maximize Choose alternatives that maximize

goalsgoals

Researchers may assume that policymakers:

However Policymaking is However Policymaking is NotNotSimple & Linear in ProcessSimple & Linear in Process

PROBLEMSSOLUTIONS

POLITICS

Policies happen when a Window of Policies happen when a Window of Opportunity opensOpportunity opensfor solutions to problems/issuesfor solutions to problems/issues

Window of opportunity

POLITICS

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

Stages in the Public Policy ProcessStages in the Public Policy Process

Feedback on the Public Policy

Development of the Public

Policy

Implementation of the Public Policy

Genesis of the Public Policy

Stage IV

Stage I

Stage II

Stage III

Steps to Policy Making Steps to Policy Making

•• Identify Policy Issue/ problemIdentify Policy Issue/ problem•• Assess AlternativesAssess Alternatives•• Make the Decision ( POLICY)Make the Decision ( POLICY)•• Implement PolicyImplement Policy•• Evaluate ImpactEvaluate Impact•• Make AdjustmentsMake Adjustments•• New Policy CycleNew Policy Cycle

Analytical FrameworksAnalytical Frameworks

•• ECONOMICECONOMIC-- Welfare EconomicsWelfare Economics-- Public ChoicePublic Choice

POLITICALPOLITICAL-- PluralismPluralism--CorporatismCorporatism--MarxistMarxist--InstitutionalismInstitutionalism

Models for Policy AnalysisModels for Policy Analysis

•• A simplified representation of some aspects of A simplified representation of some aspects of real worldreal world

•• Abstraction of realityAbstraction of reality

They help us to:They help us to:Simplify and clarify our thinking about public Simplify and clarify our thinking about public policypolicyIdentify important aspects of policy problemsIdentify important aspects of policy problemsHelps us to better understand public policiesHelps us to better understand public policiesSuggest explanations for public policies and Suggest explanations for public policies and predict its consequencespredict its consequences

Different ModelsDifferent Models

•• InstitutionalInstitutional•• ProcessProcess•• SystemsSystems•• GroupGroup•• EliteElite•• RationalRational•• IncrementalIncremental•• Game TheoryGame Theory•• Public ChoicePublic Choice

Institutional ModelInstitutional Model

•• Policy as institutional outputPolicy as institutional output•• Institutions give legitimacy, universality Institutions give legitimacy, universality

and and coersioncoersion•• This approach focused on structures, This approach focused on structures,

organisations and functions of Institutionsorganisations and functions of Institutions•• Does not provide linkages between Does not provide linkages between

institutional arrangements and public institutional arrangements and public policies policies

Process ModelProcess Model

•• Focuses on political processes and Focuses on political processes and behaviourbehaviour

•• Involves identification of problems, Involves identification of problems, setting agenda for decision making, setting agenda for decision making, formulating policy proposals, formulating policy proposals, legitimisinglegitimisingpolicies and implementing policiespolicies and implementing policies

•• Shows how decisions are made and even Shows how decisions are made and even to study how they should be madeto study how they should be made

Systems ModelSystems Model

Political System

OutputsInputs

Support

Decisions & actions

Demands

ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENT

Group TheoryGroup Theory

•• Policies are result of equilibrium of Policies are result of equilibrium of struggle for group interestsstruggle for group interests

•• Changes occur when relative interest of Changes occur when relative interest of any group changesany group changes

Elite ModelElite Model

•• Reflects preferences and values of ElitesReflects preferences and values of Elites

Rational ModelRational Model

•• MaximisesMaximises social gain ( gains exceed social gain ( gains exceed costs, produces greatest benefits over costs, produces greatest benefits over costs)costs)

•• Used in public spending decisionsUsed in public spending decisions•• PromlematicPromlematic as policy makers are as policy makers are

concerned with own rewards, benefits concerned with own rewards, benefits gpgptptp specific groupsspecific groups

Incremental ModelIncremental Model

•• Variations from past actions, only Variations from past actions, only incremental changesincremental changes

•• Easy to implement and generally Easy to implement and generally acceptableacceptable

Game Theory ModelGame Theory Model

•• Two or more participants have choices to Two or more participants have choices to make and outcome depends by choices make and outcome depends by choices made by eachmade by each

•• Used in policy areas where there are no Used in policy areas where there are no independently best choice and where best independently best choice and where best outcomes depend on what others do ( outcomes depend on what others do ( nuclear policy)nuclear policy)

•• Helps in dealing with conflict situationsHelps in dealing with conflict situations•• Does not always reflect reality Does not always reflect reality

Public Choice ModelPublic Choice Model

•• Built on the idea that political actors try to Built on the idea that political actors try to maximisemaximise personal interests in politics and personal interests in politics and market ( market ( J.BuchananJ.Buchanan))

•• Collective decision making can result in Collective decision making can result in mutual benefits mutual benefits

ExerciseExercise

••How are policies How are policies formulated in the context formulated in the context of Bangladesh?of Bangladesh?

Policy Scenario in BangladeshPolicy Scenario in Bangladesh

•• Is usually topIs usually top--downdown•• Closed system with little participation of Closed system with little participation of

stakeholdersstakeholders•• Donor drivenDonor driven•• Too ambitiousToo ambitious•• Tendency for policy reversals with regime Tendency for policy reversals with regime

changechange