PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 8Learning

Learning

Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Association

We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years

ago Associative Learning

learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Classical Conditioning: video clip

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

studied digestive secretions

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s device for recording salivation


Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two

stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus


Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--

automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth


Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus


Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus

with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)


Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when

a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when

a response is no longer reinforced


Spontaneous Recovery reappearance, after a rest

period, of an extinguished CR

Stimulus Generalization tendency for stimuli similar

to CS to elicit similar responses


Stimulus Discrimination in classical conditioning, the

learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

Behaviorism

John B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted

by all schools of thought today

Behaviorism: John B. Watson continued….

Stimulus-Response Behavior Watson argued that psychology

should study only stimulus-response relationships

Watson on Sigmund Freud Watson was not pleased with the

growing acceptance of Freud’s psychoanalytic viewpoint

Watson believed Freud’s approach relied too heavily on the unconscious mind as a means to explain behavior

Behaviorism: John B. Watson continued….

Watson on phobias phobias are disruptive, irrational

fears Freud said these phobias were

unconscious fears left over from childhood

Watson believed these fears were created by classical conditioning

Behaviorism: John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner

Little Albert Watson intentionally established a fear of

rats in an 11-month-old boy now known as Little Albert

Albert was not afraid of rats at first

Watson and his assistant Rayner were able to change this by sneaking up behind Albert when he was in the presence of the rat

They would bang a steel bar behind his head to make a startling noise


Little Albert continued…. The banging of the steel bar was the UCS

which produced the UCR of fear in the form of crying

Because the UCS was paired with the rat, the rat became the CS which produced the same fear response in the form of crying which became the CR


Little Albert continued…. Watson and Rayner were able to prove

that Little Albert’s fear was a predictable outcome of an environmental condition

In this case, it was proven that his response did not represent some sort of repressed, unconscious conflict (Freudian)

Law of Effect: video clips

Edward Thorndike Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely


Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment


Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic

response to stimulus behavior learned through

classical conditioning


B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

developed behavioral technology

Operant Chamber

Skinner Box chamber with a

bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses


Reinforcer any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows Shaping through successive

approximations operant conditioning procedure

in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal


Principles of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer innately reinforcing stimulus i.e., satisfies a biological need-

food Conditioned Reinforcer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer

secondary reinforcer- money

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each

time it occurs Partial (Intermitent) Reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time

results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction


Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified

number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay in which people get paid

based on the number of items they produce and not by the amount of time that they are at work


Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of

unpredictability


Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a

specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the

anticipated time for reward draws near like people checking more frequently as

the “normal” time for their mail delivery approaches

like people checking to see if the JELLO is ready to eat because the time stated on the box has almost elapsed


Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like a pop quiz like checking for an email like checking for a text message


Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

Punishment

Punishment aversive event that

decreases the behavior that it follows

powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Punishment An undesirable event following the

behavior a toddler puts his hand on a

painfully hot stove burner the behavior of touching the

burner is punished, because it leads to an undesirable event: getting burned

Punishment A desirable state or event ENDS

following the behavior traffic fines are another example

of punishment a revoked driver’s license is

another example of punishment

Problems with Punishment

Many learning experts oppose the use of punishment These experts feel that punishment is

likely to back fire in the long run


Punishment does not end the desire to engage in the behavior Children punished for using bad language

often continue to use bad language- just not in the presence of the one who punished them for it

Punishment can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem Frequently punished children or animals may

learn to engage in avoidance behaviors: Run away from home Drop out of school


Punishment is aggressive behavior when adult role models use aggression to

solve their problems, children learn to model that aggressive behavior is a problem-solving strategy

This may help explain why abusive parents tend to come from abusive families

Although, most abused children do not go on to be abusive parents

How Punishment is effective

Punishment can effectively control certain behaviors Punishment can effectively certain

behaviors especially if the punisher’s goal is to protect a child from a dangerous situation

For example, if a toddler has developed the bad habit of running into the street, a harsh reprimand or a smack on the hand may be appropriate

A young child needs to develop some fear and avoidance of the street

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of

one’s environment Example: after exploring a maze, rats

act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Latent Learning learning that occurs, but is not

apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it


Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for

its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments


Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward

for doing what one already likes to do

the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Observational Learning

Observational Learning learning by observing others Albert Bandura conducted the now famous

Bobo doll experiment children observed adults acting aggressively

toward the Bobo doll and imitated that behavior when provided with their own Bobo doll

Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific

behavior


Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior Mahatma Gandhi & Martin Luther King, Jr.

drew on the power of modeling they made nonviolent action a powerful force

for social change by modeling the actions of previous historical figures who had also acted nonviolently


Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists have discovered

these mirror neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire when

performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy


Mirror Neurons When a monkey performs a task such as

grasping, holding, or tearing, these neurons fire

But they also fire when the monkey observes another monkey performing the same task

Thus the phrase, “Monkey see, monkey do.”


Mirror Neurons examples…… Mimicry

yawning sticking out your tongue Laughter smiling

Language development- mirror neurons help children learn by observation how to mimic lip and tongue movements when forming new words

Empathy- brain activity related to actual pain is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one; you can emapthize with them and “feel their pain”

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PSYCHOLOGY