Psych 145 Report

7/27/2019 Psych 145 Report

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BASIC GRAMMATICAL CONCEPTS

Languages differ in a host of ways

Word order English

Strict changing the order of words sometimes

completely changes the meaning

Basic: S V O

Japanese

Basic: S O V

Taroo ga Hanako ni sono hon o yatta.

to that book gave


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Suffixes and prefixes

RussianAny permutation of the words Viktor, celuet, and Lenu

mean the same thing

Turkish

Combine different elementary meaning into very long

words

Gelmeans come

Gelemedim means I couldnt come

Gelemeyeceklermis means those people wont be

able to come



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The differences, however, are not

random and languages actually

have underlying similarities



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DUALITY OF PATTERNING

Phones and phonemes

Phones Speech sounds

Two sounds are different if they differ in a physically

specifiable way

Indicated by brackets

Phonemes

Differences in sound that make a contribution to meaning

Indicated by slashes

Category may very from language to language



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Distinctive features

Characteristic of speech sound whose presence or absence

distinguishes the sound from other sounds

Distinctive feature theory

Contrasts are binary with the presence of the feature

indicated by + and its absence by

Bilabial

Lips press together

Voicing

Vocal chords vibrate

Stop

Airflow from lungs is completely stopped during

production



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Claims that these are independent units thatare combined to form phonemes

Useful in identifying how to formulate linguistic

rules

Have psychological validity, according to Millerand Nicely (1955)

People confuse phones that have less

distinctive features that are different



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MORPHOLOGY

System of rules that governs using different forms

of the same word to convey different shades ofmeaning

Morpheme

Smallest meaningful unit in a language

Two kindsFree may stand alone

Bound (grammatical morphemes) are not

words, but contribute to word meaning



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PHRASE STRUCTURE

Constituents

Groups of words into which a sentence is

divided

Phrase-structure rules

Syntactic rules that specify thepermissible sequences of constituents in a

language

Each rule rewrites a constituent into one

or more other constituents (derivation)



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Sample sentence:

The young swimmer accepted the silver medal


A simple set of phrase structure rulesPS 1 S (sentence) NP + VPPS 2 NP (noun phrase) Det + (adj) + NPS 3 VP (verb phrase) V + NPPS 4 N (noun) swimmer, medalPS 5 V (verb) acceptedPS 6 adj (adjective) young, silverPS 7 det (determiner) the


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Steps in the derivation of sample sentence


1. Rule PS 1 NP + VP2. Rule PS 2 det + adj + N + VP3. Rule PS 3 det + adj + N + V + NP4. Rule PS 2 det + adj + N + V + det + adj + N5. Rule PS 7 The + adj + N + V + the + adj + N6. Rule PS 6 The + young + N + V + the + silver + N7. Rule PS 4 The + young + swimmer + V + the + silver + medal

8. Rule PS 5 The + young + swimmer + accepted + the + silver + medal


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LINGUISTIC PRODUCTIVITY

(linguistic creativity) ability to create and

comprehend novel utterances

Instead of storing sentences, we store rules for

creating sentences

Recursive rule / recursion

S NP + V + S (example)Related to language productivity because there is

no limit to the number of times we can embed

one sentence into another

Resilient property of human language



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Distinguishes human language from animal

language

Also illustrated by coining of new words as

they are needed, sometimes blending

existing ones into new combinations



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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIGNED AND

SPOKEN LANGUAGES

Spoken language Sign languageMore arbitrary there is no intrinsicrelationship between the set of sounds

and the object to whish the sounds referMore iconic many of the signs resemble theobjects or activities to which they refer

Largely sequential there are rules that

dictate how words should be arranged to

be considered correctMore simultaneous combination of features

are present in a sign; meaning is not specifiedby order of signs, organized spatially rather

than temporally

INSIGHTS FROM SIGN LANGUAGE


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SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SIGNED AND

SPOKEN LANGUAGES

Duality of patterning

Major parameters Hand configuration

Handshapes (19)

Place of articulation

Level of hand relative to the signers body (12)

Movement

Direction that the hand goes (24)

Signs with similar patterns of distinctive features were

psychologically similar to one another



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Morphology

ASL has a rich morphological system that signals variousgrammatical distinctions

Linguistic productivity

Property of embedding one sign into another also occurs

Phrase structure

Order in which the constituents are signed is subject verb object; makes use of temporal order

ASL uses spatial processes to convey syntactic distinctions



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SIGNIFICANCE OF SIGN LANGUAGE

There are areas of research that have

benefited from study of sign language.

Language production

Language acquisition

Link between language and brain



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LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

Definitions and characterizations

Language Infinite set of well-formed sentences

Grammar

Formal device with a finite set of rules that generates the

sentences in the language

We can deduce the sentences in a language by using therules of grammar

Grammars are theories of language, composed of more

specific hypotheses about the structure or organization of

some part of the language

TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR


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Evaluation of grammars

To be able to tell how good a theory a grammar is,Chomsky (1972) outlined three criteria

Observational adequacy It must specify what is

and what is not an acceptable sequence in the

language

Descriptive adequacy It must specify the

relationships between various sequences in the

language

Explanatory adequacy It should be able to explain

the role of linguistic universals in languageacquisition



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DEEP AND SURFACE STRUCTURE

Deep structure

Underlying structure of a sentence that

conveys the meaning of a sentence

Surface structure

Superficial arrangement of constituentsand is close to how the sentence is

actually pronounced



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Arguments on why there is a need to distinguish

between these twoDeep-structure ambiguity comes from a single

surface structure that is derived from two distinct

deep structure

Some pairs of sentences are similar in theirphrase structure but not in their underlying

structure

There are sentences with different surface

arrangement but similar in their deep structure



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TRANSFORMATIONAL RULES

Derivation of a sentence is a two part process

Phrase-structure rules are used to generate theunderlying deep structure

A sequence of transformational rules

(transformations) is applied to the deep structure

and the intermediate structures ultimatelygenerating the surface structure of the sentence

Transformations apply to entire strings of

constituents by adding, deleting or moving

constituents



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Examples

Particle-movement transformation

Particle movement is defined in

terms of constituents, not words

Passive transformations

Rules may be blocked under certain

circumstances



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IS LANGUAGE INNATE?

Two views

NativistsAssert that children are born with some linguistic

knowledge

Empiricists

Claim that children acquire language from linguisticexperience

Common sense would lead you to believe that

experience is important to learning language, but there

are studies about deaf children whose parents dont

believe in ASL who make their own gestural form oflanguage.

ISSUES IN GRAMMATICAL THEORY


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Parameter-setting theorists

Parameter grammatical feature that can

be st to any of several values

Suggest that children are born with the

parameters and with the values of theparameters. What they must learn from

experience is which value is present in

their native language

ISSUES IN GRAMMATICAL THEORY


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THE INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM


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Environmental information issuccessively encoded, stored, andretrieved by a set of distinct mentalstructures; represented in each

structure in a particular way Emphasis is on the flow of information

through the system



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SENSORY STORES

Take in variety of colors, tones, tastes, and smells that

we experience and retain them in a raw, unanalyzedform

Visual sensory store

Sperling (1960)

(image attached)Considerable amount of information is available

immediately after it is presented

Information persisted for approximately 1 second



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Auditory sensory store

Advantage of partial report over whole

report persists for approx. 4 seconds

Longer duration allows to reanalyse

auditory messages Sensory stores function as a means of

preserving information long enough for more

extensive processing to occur



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WORKING MEMORY

Also referred to as short-term

memory

Can hold approximately seven plus or

minus two units of information

Clustering grouping individual pieces

into large units to increase retention



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Working memory is more dynamic

Has both storage & processing

functions

Processing capacity total amount of

cognitive resources we devote to atask

When tasks are new/difficult, we

require more processing capacity thusleaving less space for storage



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PERMANENT MEMORY

Holds all the information we retained from the

past that is not currently active; used tointerpret new experiences

Semantic memory - general information

Episodic memorypersonal experiences



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Relevance for Language Processing



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SERIAL AND PARALLEL PROCESSING

Serial Processing group of processes takes

place one at a timeDivides language processing into stages but each

stage happens one at a time with no overlap

Parallel Processing two or more processes take

place simultaneouslyEach stage can occur at the same time

CENTRAL ISSUES IN LANGUAGE PROCESSING


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Parallel Distributed Processing

Views the mind as massively parallel,

simultaneously processing a large amount of

information

(examples attached)Models are inspired by neural networks



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AUTOMATIC AND CONTROLLED PROCESSES

Assumption: We have a fixed processing capacity

for handling information

Controlled processes processes that draw

substantially from the limited capacity

Automatic processesprocesses that do not

require extensive capacity



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May be determined by sensitivity to developmentaland strategy effects

oControlled tasks are more sensitive to these

variables

Certain automatic tasks are biologically built intoour cognitive equipment

Recognition of common words is more automatic

while development of phrase structure is more

controlled



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MODULARITY

Language processing system is a unique set ofcognitive abilities that cannot be reduced to general

principles of cognition

Interconnection between language and cognitive

processes

Speech Perception how we perceive speech is

different from how perceive music or art

Linguistic subsystems operate independently

rather than interactively



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EXAMPLE OF LANGUAGE PROCESSING

I was afraid of Alis powerful punch,

especially since it had already laid out

many tougher men who had bragged

they could handle that much alcohol


DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCESSING SYSTEM


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How do children acquire language? Towhat extent is the information

processing system operating during

the first few years of life?


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PERCEPTUAL PROCESSING

Fantz (1963) found that infants could distinguishamong forms and preferred some to others;

Condon & Sander (1974) have shown that infnats

make synchronized movements to the syllables in

the speech signal

Eimas, et al. (1971) have found that infants make

distinctions between different speech sounds very

early in life



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WORKING MEMORY

Change in either the storage or processing functionof working memory would affect the other; if you

become better at processing then there is less

need for storage

Case, et al. (1982) conducted two experiments to

test this analysis and concluded that there is no

substantial increase in overall working memory with

development



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SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Piaget (1952) claimed that childrens thinking

process are qualitatively different from those of

adults

oObject Permanence objects continue to exist

even when they cannot be perceived

oPretend play

oDeferred imitation



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Observed differences may be due to with the use of

information processing resources than with

changes in thinking

There is more of a change in efficiency or a decrease in

cognitive capacity needed for a task

Language acquisition requires the child to simultaneouslyanalyse on the phonological, semantic, syntactic,

morphological, & pragmatic levels

Later in life, when syntax becomes easier to process, the

child will master the level simultaneously



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THE STRUCTURE OF SPEECH

The process of speech perception seems simple, but is

actually very complex. This is due to two reasons:

1. The environmental context often interferes with the

speech signal

2. The variability of the speech signal


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PROSODIC FACTORS

Factors that influence the overall meaning of anutterance through changes in stress and overallintonation pattern.

Composed of:

Stress - refers to the emphasis given tosyllables in a sentence

Intonation - refers to the use of pitch to signifydifferent meanings

Rate - refers to the speed at which speech isarticulated



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ARTICULATORY PHONETICS

Is the study of the

pronunciation of speechsounds.

Sounds in a language can be

described in terms of themovement of the physical

structures of the vocal tract.



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Manner of Articulation

Stops - obstructs airflow completely, for a period of

time then releases it

Fricatives - obstructs airflow partially

Affricate - produced by a stop-like closure followed

by a slow release



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Voicing

voiced - the airstream must force its way

through the glottis since the glottis is closed

voiceless - the airstream is not obstructed

since the glottis is open



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S


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Spectrograms

Sound Spectrogramone of the most common way

of describing the acoustical energy of speech

sounds.

Sound Spectrographa device which consists of

filters that analyze the sound and then project it

onto a moving belt of phosphor, producing the

spectrogram.

Formantsdark bands that appear horizontally on

the spectrogram.

Formant Transitionlarge rises or drops in formant

frequency that occur over short durations of time.



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Parallel Transmission

Refers to the fact that different

phonemes of the same syllable are

encoded into the speech signal

simultaneously.



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Context-Conditioned Variation

Describe the phenomenon that the exact

spectrographic appearance of a given

phone is related to (or conditioned by)the speech context.



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Manner of Articulation

Manner in which syllables are produced.

Coarticulation the phenomenon of

producing more than one speech sound at agiven time.


LEVELS OF SPEECH PROCESSING


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LEVELS OF SPEECH PROCESSING

Auditory Levelsignal is represented in terms of its

frequency, intensity and temporal attributes.

Phonetic Levelwe identify individual phones by

combination of acoustic cues.

Phonological Levelthe phonetic segment is

converted into a phoneme, and phonological rules

are applied to the sound sequence.

PERCEPTION OF ISOLATED SPEECH SEGMENTS

SPEECH AS A MODULAR SYSTEM


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SPEECH AS A MODULAR SYSTEM

Problem of Invariance

The fact that there is no one-to-onecorrespondence between acoustic

cues and perceptual events



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Categorical Perception

Refers to a failure to discriminate

speech sounds any better than you

can identify them.



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Binaural Perception Procedure

Presenting the base (steady states plus

first and second formant transitions) the

third formant transitions together to bothears.



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Duplex Perception Procedure

The base is presented to one ear and the

third formant transition to the other.


THE MOTOR THEORY OF SPEECH


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THE MOTOR THEORY OF SPEECH


PROSODIC FACTORS IN SPEECH RECOGNITION


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PROSODIC FACTORS IN SPEECH RECOGNITION

Stress

We tend to interpret continuous speech in

terms of stress patterns.

PERCEPTION OF CONTINUOUS SPEECH


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Rate Normalization

taking information about speech rate whenidentifying individual speech segments

Speaker Normalization

the use of the pitch of the speech signal as a cue

for vocal tract size and making perceptual

adjustments on this basis


SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC FEATURES IN


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SPEECH RECOGNITION

Context and Speech Recognition

Our knowledge of the general organization of the

input enables us to predict some of the sensory

features that are to follow. Most likely to happen when the speech context is

semantically reasonable and familiar to the listener.



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Accidents kill motorists on the highways.

Accidents carry honey between the

house.Around accidents country honey the

shoot.



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Phonemic Restoration

It is the context that helps determine how phonemic

restorations take place.



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It was found that the *eel was on the axle.It was found that the *eel was on the shoe.

It was found that the *eel was on the orange.

It was found that the *eel was on the table.


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Mispronunciation Detection

Detection performance is better formispronunciations at the beginning of a word

compared with those later in a word, and better

earlier in a sentence than later on.



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It has been zuggested that students be

required to preregister.


THE TRACE MODEL OF SPEECH PERCEPTION


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THE TRACE MODEL OF SPEECH PERCEPTION

challenges the assumption that phonemic

processing is unaffected by higher levels ofprocessing

assumes that several levels of processing

distinctive features, phonemes, words aresimultaneously active during speech perception

and interact with each other


DIFFERENT WRITING SYSTEMS


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DIFFERENT WRITING SYSTEMS

Orthography

mapping the sounds of a language onto a set ofwritten symbols

Logography

takes the word or morpheme as the linguistic unit

and pairs the unit with some pictorial symbol

PERCEPTION OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE


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Radical

strokes related to meaning

Syllabary

takes the syllable as the linguistic unit and

associates it with some visual representation

Alphabet

a system in which each letter is supposed to

represent a phoneme


LEVELS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE PROCESSING


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LEVELS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE PROCESSING

Feature Level

physical features that comprise a letter

Letter Level

an identity separate from its physical manifestation

Word Level

an array of features and letters is recognized as a

familiar word


EYE MOVEMENTS DURING READING


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EYE MOVEMENTS DURING READING

Saccades

movements of the eyes during reading

Regressions

saccades that move backward

Fixations

the time we spend at a given location between eye

movements


GODRQCCOOGRD


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URDCGOURDGQO

GDQUOCGRUQDOGOQUCDDUZGRO

DUCOQCUCGRODUDRCOQDQRCGU

RCQCOUQDOCGU


IVMXEWIVWMEX


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EWVMIXIEVMWX

IXEMWVXEMIWVVXWEMIWXIMEV

MXVEWIEMWIVXEXWMVIWVZMXE

MWXVIEIVEMXW

PERCEPTION OF LETTERS IN ISOLATION


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PERCEPTION OF LETTERS IN ISOLATION

Under conditions of brief presentation without

word context, we can extract some but not

all of the features associated with that letter.



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The word context influences our perception of

letters.

When words are familiar, we can perceive them as

complete units rather than as sets of letters.


THE INTERACTION ACTIVATION MODEL


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THE INTERACTION ACTIVATION MODEL

First Assumption

Processing occurs at three different levels: feature,

letter and word.



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Second Assumption

Processing is occurring simultaneously on all three

levels.


Third Assumption


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Third Assumption

Interaction occurs among the three levels.

Excitatory Interaction

the activation at one level increases the

activation at another level

Inhibitory Interaction

activation at one level decreases the

activation at another level



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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Which of the following is not a level of

written language processing?

A) word

B) letterC) feature

D) shape


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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Which of the following is not a level of

written language processing?

A) word

B) letterC) feature

D) shape


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The information in the auditory sensory

store persists for how many seconds?

A) 1

B) 2C) 3

D) 4

REVIEW QUESTIONS


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The information in the auditory sensory

store persists for how many seconds?

A) 1

B) 2C) 3

D) 4

REVIEW QUESTIONS


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REVIEW QUESTIONS

_________ is the study of the pronunciation of

speech sounds.

A) Articulatory Phonetics

B) Acoustic Phonetics

C) Parallel Transmission

D) Phonemic Restoration


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REVIEW QUESTIONS

_________ is the study of the pronunciation of

speech sounds.

A) Articulatory Phonetics

B) Acoustic Phonetics

C) Parallel Transmission

D) Phonemic Restoration


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REVIEW QUESTIONS

The processing capacity of an individual is the

total amount of __________ that theydevote to the accomplishment of a task.

A) Physical development

B) Cognitive processes

C) Working memory

D)Sensory Store


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REVIEW QUESTIONS

The processing capacity of an individual is the

total amount of __________ that theydevote to the accomplishment of a task.

A) Physical development

B) Cognitive processes

C) Working memory

D)Sensory Store


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Who is the psychologist who claimed that

children's thinking processes arequalititatively different from those of adults?

A) Sperling

B) Erikson

C) Piaget

D) Fantz

REVIEW QUESTIONS


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Who is the psychologist who claimed that

children's thinking processes arequalititatively different from those of adults?

A) Sperling

B) Erikson

C) Piaget

D) Fantz

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Psych 145 Report