Psikologi Anak

Pertemuan 8Social context of Development

Family ProcessesInteractions in the Family System• Reciprocal socialization:

Socialization that is bidirectional with children socializing parents as parents socialize children.– Dyadic (two-person) and

polyadic (more than two people) systems interact and influence each other.

– Promoting marital satisfaction often leads to good parenting.

Family Processes

• Cognition and Emotion in Family Processes– The role of cognition in family socialization comes in many

forms, e.g., parents’ cognitions, beliefs, and values about their parental role; how parents perceive, organize, and understand the children's behaviors and beliefs.

– Children’s social competence is linked to their parents’ emotional lives.

– Parental support and acceptance of children’s emotions is related to children’s ability to manage emotions positively.

Family ProcessesDevelopmental Construction ViewsViews sharing the belief that as individuals grow up, they acquire modes of relating to others. There are two main variations of this view: • The Continuity View

– A developmental view that emphasizes the role of early parent-child relationships in constructing a basic way of relating to people.

• The Discontinuity View– A developmental view that emphasizes change and growth in

relationships over time.

Sociocultural and Historical Changes• Family changes may be due to great upheavals in a nation,

or they may be due more to subtle transitions in ways of life.

Parenting• The Parental Role

– The parental role may be well planned and coordinated with other roles in life, or a startling surprise; either way, prospective parents may have mixed emotions and many misperceptions about having a child.

– Parents manage their children’s lives, with the managerial role changing as the child matures.

• Mothers are more likely than fathers to be managers.• Parents regulate children’s opportunities for social

contact.• Parents monitor children’s activities and friends.

• Adapting Parenting to Developmental Changes in the Child

Parenting

Parenting Styles

ParentingPunishment• corporal punishment, research suggests that it is

associated with:– Higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression by

children.– Lower levels of moral internalization and mental health.– Behavioral problems in middle and late childhood.

• Reasons to avoid corporal punishment:– Children imitate aggressive behavior.– Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance.– Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what

to do.– Punishment can be abusive.

• Reasoning is more favorable

Autonomy and Attachment between Adolescents and Parents

• Good parenting takes time and effort

– Conflict when adolescents push for autonomy; gradual release of control is best

– Gender and culture affect seeking and granting autonomy

– Parent-child attachment remains important

• Parent-adolescent conflicts

Parenting• Child Maltreatment

– Types of Child Maltreatment

• Developmental Consequences of Abuse

Physical abuse

Child neglect

Sexual abuse

Emotionalabuse

Infliction of physical injury

Failure to provide basic needs

Fondling child’s genitals, sodomy, intercourse, incest, exhibitionism, rape, and commercial exploitation

Acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Siblings• Sibling Relationships

– In dealing with peers, coping with difficult teachers, and discussing such taboo subjects as sex, siblings may be more influential than parents in the socialization process.

– Aggression and dominance occur more in same-sex sibling relationships than opposite-sex sibling relationships.

• Birth Order– The oldest sibling is more dominant, competent, and

powerful than younger siblings; they are more antagonistic and more nurturant toward younger siblings than vice versa.

– First-born children are more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, anxious, and self-controlled; they excel in academic and professional endeavors and also have more guilt, anxiety, and difficulty coping with stressful situations.

The Changing Family in a Changing Social World

• Working Parents• Divorce• Stepfamilies• Same-sex parents• Cultural, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Variations

in Families

Peers Children of about the same age or maturity level

Peer relation– Peer Group Functions– Peers: Children of about the same age or maturity

level.– One of the most important functions of the peer

group is to provide a source of information and comparison about the world outside the family.

– Peer interactions also fill socioemotional needs.

Peer Relations• The Developmental Course of Peer Relations in

Childhood– The preference for spending time with same-sex playmates

begins around age 3 and increases in early childhood, with reciprocity becoming important as children enter the elementary school years.

– Increasing amount of time in peer interaction during middle and late childhood and adolescence.

– Gender influences the composition and size of children’s interactions, with girls’ groups being smaller and more intimate.

– Boys are more likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play, competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and dominance seeking, while girls are more likely to engage in collaborative discourse.

Peer RelationsParental Influence • Affects children’s peer relations directly and

indirectly.• Parents coach their children in ways of

relating to peers• Parents manage their children’s lives and

opportunities for interacting with peers.• Parent-child relationships serve as emotional

bases for exploring and enjoying peer relations.

Peer Relations

Social Cognition and Emotion – Social Knowledge

• The social cognitive perspective views children who are maladjusted as lacking social cognitive skills to interact effectively with others

– Emotion • The ability to regulate emotion is linked to successful

peer relations.

Peer Relations

• Peer Statuses– Popular children are frequently nominated as a best

friend and are rarely disliked by their peers.– Average children receive an average number of positive

and negative nominations from peers. – Neglected children are infrequently nominated as a best

friend but are not disliked by their peers.– Rejected children are infrequently nominated as a best

friend and are actively disliked by their peers.– Controversial children are frequently nominated both as

someone’s best friend and as being disliked.

Peer Relations

• Bullying– Significant numbers of students are victimized by bullies.– Bullies are more likely to have low grades and to smoke

and drink alcohol.– Victims of bullies are more lonely, have difficulty making

friends, and have a higher incidence of headaches, sleeping problems, abdominal pain, fatigue, and depression.

– Bully victims are the most troubled, displaying high levels of conduct, school, and relationship problems.

Friendship

• Six functions of friendship– Companionship– Stimulation– Physical support– Ego support– Social comparison– Intimacy/affection

• intimacy in friendship — self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts

Childhood• Children use friends as

cognitive and social resources

• Not all friends and friendships are equal– Supportive friendships

advantageous – Coercive, conflict-ridden

friendships not

• Friends generally similar — age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors

Adolescence• Need for intimacy

intensifies• Quality of friendship

more strongly linked to feelings of well-being

• Important sources of support

• Mixed-age friendships• Friends are active

partners in building a sense of identity

Childhood

• Functions of play– Health

– Affiliation with peers

– Cognitive development

– Exploration

– Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts• Play therapy

Parten’s Classic Study of Play

Onlooker

Parallel

Solitary

UnoccupiedChild not engaging in play as commonly understood; might stand in one spot

Associative

Cooperative

Child watches other children play

Child plays separately from others, but in manner that mimics their play

Play that involves social interaction with little or no organizationPlay that involves social interaction in group with sense of organized activity

Child plays alone, independently of others

Types of Play

Pretense/Symbolic

Social

Practice

SensorimotorInfants derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes

Games

Repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned

Activities engaged in for pleasure; include rules

Occurs when child transforms physical environment into symbol

Involves social interactions with peers

Culture• Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other

products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation– Ethnocentrism — tendency to favor one’s own

group over other groups

• Global interdependence is inescapable reality– All are citizens of the world– Better understanding effective interactions

Individualism and Collectivism

• Individualism — giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self

• Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships