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P R T E S O L - G R A M! JUNE 2010
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PRTESOL-GRAMA publication of the Puerto Rico Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages
My First Experience at the TESOL Conven8on: Boston 2010Viginia BurnetHigh School Teacher, Colegio Adiannes I am very grateful to PRTESOL for giving me the opportunity to aCend the TESOL ConvenDon in Boston, MA, from March 24-‐27, 2010 by granDng me the PRTESOL Travel Grant for 2010. The experience was very enriching and overwhelming: hundreds of a wide variety of sessions, so many people to meet, colleagues to network with, and many opportuniDes to grow professionally. It has taken a couple of weeks to have it all sink in. I’ve kept busy wriDng to all the presenters of sessions I couldn’t aCend, contacDng colleagues I met from different parts of the world and re-‐reading the handouts and notes I took.
The plenaries were excellent. In the opening plenary, Howard Gardner presented a very important topic that needs to be (conDnues on page 6)
Table of Contents
TEACHING TIPS: Keeping the conversa8on on course
Prof. Carmelo Abona, Editor............2
Teacher of the Year 2010 Sarah Brown Wessling.....................5
Beginnings of English in Puerto Rico Prof. Daniel Mercado.......................6
English Dungeons and Dragons: Tabletop Role Playing Games in the
ESL Classroom Prof. Johansen Quijano-‐Cruz...........9
Posi8on Statement on Teaching English as a Foreign or Addi8onal
Language to Young Learners ........10Vocabulary Instruc8on in ESL
Teaching and LearningEvelyn Nieves ................................14
An Academic Trip to Ireland Ilsa López-‐Vallés ......................17
Why are second language learners failing to achieve na8ve-‐like
competence?Dr. Jennifer Alicea CasDllo.............20
The PRTESOL Delegation with the Mexican Delegation at the TESOL Convention in Boston. Two PRTESOL members, Virginia Burnet and Vivian Mayol, received the Travel Grant to attend. Ms. Burnet shares her experience below, and Ms. Mayol on page 6.
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! While teachers are enjoying a well-deserved summer break, PRTESOL members are excited about this yearʼs upcoming events.! First, PRTESOL is already putting fin i sh ing t ouches on t he reg iona l conferences. Western and Metro Chapters have held successful conferences already. Donʼt miss the remaining conferences for Eastern/Caguas, Southern, and Northern chapters.! Second, something new in this issue of PRTESOL-Gram is the Teaching Tips column. There are lots of wonderful ideas our readers use effectively to teach key concepts, improve skills, or just to make their classes fun. I welcome your ideas for future issues. Just send your best ideas via email to [email protected]. ! Third, a brief reminder that the next event is the Easter/Caguas chaptersʼ conference titled Teaching: A Scholarly Act, August 28, 2010 University of Puerto Rico at Humacao. ! Now is a great time to start planning to attend the 37th Annual Convention and Exhibit at the Gran Melia Golf Resort Puerto Rico. Take advantage of the special early bird offers on the next page.! An innovation for future issues will be the Student Writers page. We want to recognize the talent of the students by publishing brief essays, poems, or stories. We would love to receive your studentʼs work for consideration. ! This issue of PRTESOL-Gram has some excellent articles on vital topics: vocabulary, a position statement from TESOL, the Teacher of the year acceptance speech. Please share the issue with your colleagues and encourage them to become members of PRTESOL and receive their own copy.
Editor’s
CornerTESOLGRAM is a periodical service to English language educators and administrators published by
Puerto Rico TESOL, P. O. Box 366828,
San Juan, PR 00936 -6828.
Newsletter Staff Editor: Carmelo Arbona
Circulation: 1,000.
Copyright Notice Articles may be reproduced for classroom use. Quotations up to twenty-five (25) words are permitted if credit to the author a n d t h e T E S O L G R A M a r e included. In other situations, written permission is required.
Dr. Gladys Pérez,President
Carmelo Arbona, Editor
P R T E S O L - G R A M! JUNE 2010
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37th Annual Conventional and ExhibitNovember 12-13, 2010
at the GRAN MELIA GOLF RESORT PUERTO RICO
Take advantage now of this special offer
EARLY BIRD REGISTRATION UNTIL SEPTEMBER 17, 2010All those who take advantage of this Early Bird registration
for the convention and the hotel will participate in a raffle for a FREE night at the hotel during the convention.
Early Bird Convention Registration form and the Hotel registration form are available at puertoricotesol.org
Use the following web address to access the online hotel registration page https://resweb.passkey.com/Resweb.do?
mode=welcome_ei_new&eventID=2550674&utm_source=247292&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=3104429
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TEACHING TIPS: Keeping the conversa8on on course
Prof. Carmelo Abona, Editor
Suppose your students are working in small groups, learning teams, cooperaDve learning groups, or jigsaw groups. How do you get them to conDnue using English while working together? A common problem in conversaDonal English courses or exercises is when students use their L1 while doing their group work. Here’s an idea I’ve used successfully.
Poker chips – I bring to the class some of those cheap plasDc poker chips you can easily get at any toy or department store. When I explain the acDvity, I also explain that each student will receive three or four poker chips. While they work on their conversaDon or task, they must speak in English at all Dmes. If any uses Spanish, he or she loses a poker chip to the classmate. This creates a compeDDve incenDve for the students to make a greater effort to use the English they know and to avoid using their L1.
An English summer camp had swimming acDviDes, but to stay in the water, campers had to use English. If a student used his or her L1, a penalty of one minute out of the pool was given.
Students will make a focused effort to conDnue using English to avoid losing any chips.
AlternaDves: Instead of poker chips, you can use play money, colored index cards, or you can design your own ConversaDon Currency. At one school I had some “Shakespeare dollars” printed.
Give the chips value. If a student doesn’t lose any chips, he or she gets some bonus points for the acDvity performed.
"A PARENT'S NOTE TO A TEACHER"by Anonymous
I'm the voice of a grateful parentwhose child was in your class...
the one who needed help to find his wayYou've been a special blessingas you helped my child succeed
and I'm thankful for the part you had to playYou gave him so much more
than just the lessons in the booksyou gave him wings...so he could learn to fly
You ignited a flame within his soula passion to learn and grow...
to never give up and always be willing to tryYour encouragement inspired himand your kindness was so real
but the thing that thrills my heart the most is this...By building his self-‐confidenceyou changed his life this year
he believes in himself...and a brighter future is his!
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Teacher of the Year 2010
Sarah Brown Wessling
Sarah Brown Wessling, a high school English teacher at Johnston High School in Johnston, Iowa, accepts the 2010 NaDonal Teacher of the Year Award from President Barack Obama during a ceremony in the Rose Garden of the White House, April 29, 2010. April 29, 2010. (Official White House Photo by Pete Souza)
Earlier today, I was honored join President Obama, Secretary Duncan, and Dr. Biden in the Rose Garden of the White House to accept the NaDonal Teach of the Year award.
I couldn’t be more overwhelmed and humbled by this honor. I was joined by the most remarkable assemblages of teachers -‐ the 2010 State Teachers of the Year -‐ I have known. Each is gined and passionate about the work he or she does; yet, together we are galvanized in our shared vision of what teaching and learning can be. My family, my administrators, some of my own teachers and former students, along with many representaDves from the State of Iowa were also in aCendance. In front of us all is the collecDve responsibility to create hope and opportunity for every child in this country.
I think there is a misconcepDon about this honor, that its purpose is to differenDate one teacher from another. Rather, this honor is about our similariDes, about what unites us. It’s the deliberateness I share with Daniel, the design I share with Kate, the aCenDon to students I share with Melissa, the pursuit of ideas I share with Ed – all of these teachers here and from
home. It is about the purpose I share with each educator standing here today.
If you were to come into my classroom, the first thing you would noDce is that my desk is in the back corner, despite the building design to make it otherwise. This placement is but an outward sign of an implicit philosophy, that teaching must be learner-‐centered.
“The desk in the back of the room” displaces hierarchies, creates an environment where a teacher becomes a lead learner, and evolves into a web of interdependence where the classroom walls become boundless. When we embrace this open-‐model of learning, the consumers of our curriculum will become designers of their own learning.
It is in these moments of learning that I fondly think of my students. I am here because my students couldn’t be. When we listen to them, their message is clear: Labria would say she deserves worthy learning experiences; Robert would want to be seen as an individual, not as a number or the score on an exam; Meredith would clamor for innovaDve curriculum; Jasmina would say she deserves passionate teachers. They all would say we need 21st century teachers, not just adults teaching in the 21st century.
Our dream for our students is the same dream we have for our own children, to be recognized for their strengths, to learn from their weaknesses and to be seen as a person of infinite potenDal.
We are facing tough Dmes in educaDon when it may be difficult to find what to hold onto, but each learner is a story. I see the world in stories and I believe it is these stories that will sustain and teach us. They will challenge and someDmes confuse us. But in the same way that I believe in the transformaDve power of language to unite us, I am certain that the stories of our students will sustain us. The 2010 Teachers of the Year are here because our students couldn’t be, because their stories compel us to be here, because we couldn’t be anywhere else.
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(from cover) addressed in the school curriculum: t h e e t h i c a l m i n d . H e p r e s e n t e d the project he is doing with his students and colleagues called The Good Work Project, aimed at idenDfying insDtuDons and individuals that exemplify good work. In the James E. AlaDs plenary, TESOL veterans, Andy CurDs, Kathleen Bailey and David Nunan took us through an hour and a half of world and TESOL history in an amusing and interesDng way. The PresidenDal Plenary, given by the out going TESOL President, Mark Algren, was a convincing explanaDon of why it is so important for professional associaDons such as TESOL to exist and grow: the importance of advocacy issues as well as the need to share experience with others and have professional standards.
I signed up to volunteer at one of the various acDviDes that took place during the ConvenDon. I chose to work at the Electronic Village, which gave me the chance to meet people interested in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) from all over the world. The Electronic Village is like a small conference within the conference, conDnuously offering workshops, seminars, etc. related to CALL, as well as providing Dme slots called Ask the Experts, where parDcipants could drop in to ask any quesDons related to CALL.
As to other sessions, there were so many to choose from that I decided to concentrate on a specific area so as to make the most of my Dme, so I chose to mainly aCend sessions related to videos and research. I aCended sessions on how to create videos and on how to effecDvely use a variety of videos in the classroom, such as museum videos, news videos, or short videos on YouTube. I also had the opportunity to aCend a Pre-‐ConvenDon InsDtute sponsored by the TESOL Research CommiCee. An overview of different types of research methods was presented at this event.
Even though there were other presentaDons I was unable to aCend, I was sDll able to get their handouts by emailing those presenter and many of them have sent me their presentaDons by e-‐mail. O the rs have po s ted t hem on : hCp : / /www.slideshare.net/event/tesols-‐44th-‐annual-‐convenDon-‐exhibit. There are also videos of some of the convenDon aCendees talking about their expe r i ence a t t he convenDon : hCp : / /
www.youtube.com/tesolinc. Carla Rodriquez and myself were interviewed for these videos.
I also had the opportunity to parDcipate in cultural acDviDes like a walk to important landmarks related to the USA Independence on the Boston Freedom Trail organized by the TESOL hospitality commiCee. We were a group of about 25, from all over the US, Puerto Rico, Japan, Canada and Singapore. It was a five hour walk but it was great. We followed the red brick trail that goes through the city taking to historical landmarks.
The enDre event was a wonderful and unique personal and professional experience that I hope other teachers of Puerto Rico also have this opportunity. Next year the TESOL convenDon will be New Orleans on March 17-‐19, 2011. I urge you to aCend an internaDonal TESOL ConvenDon because it will be an experience you will not regret. I encourage you to apply for the PRTESOL Travel Grant so you can aCend.
TESOL CONVENTION
March 23 to 27, 2010Vivian Mayol Kauffmann, MA TESL
University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras
The first day, March 24th, was RegistraDon day at the Boston ConvenDon Center and Pre-‐ConvenDon InsDtutes. If you had pre-‐registered, you could aCend a free InsDtute called “Research: People, PracDces and Promises” which I aCended. There was also a Poster Session of the Graduate Student Forum which had many interesDng programs and research by graduate students.
Another thing that impressed me was the amount of countries represented by speakers from all over the world! For example, the speakers at the InsDtute on Research were: Simon Borg from the United Kingdom, Anne Burns from Australia, Michael K. Legutke from Germany, and David Olsher from San Francisco, USA. Their workshop consisted of the definiDon of research, the purpose for doing research, the process, the
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difference between qualitaDve and quanDtaDve research, and specific techniques on how to collect and analyze data.
The Opening Plenary by Howard Gardner, Harvard Professor author, and creater of the famous theory of mulDple intelligences. His presentaDon was Dtled: “Five Minds for the Future”. He indicated that in this world of global communicaDon in the 21st century, people need special skills that will allow them to get along with people of many different backgrounds, cultures and aspiraDons. Howard Gardner calls these the “five minds”, which are necessary for the future. Three of these minds are mostly intellectual: the disciplined mind, the synthesizing mind and the crea8ng mind, while the other two are in the social sphere of the personality: the respecWul mind and the ethical mind. Howard Gardner stated that “Indeed, it is possible that the culDvaDon of the respecvul and ethical mind will determine whether human beings survive as a species.” (p. 11) For more informaDon, read his book called Good work: When excellence and ethics meet. Gardner, H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Damon, W. (2001). New York: Basic Books.
There were so many good presentaDons that it was very difficult to choose which ones to aCend. One of the ones I aCended was an excellent session by Jim Cummins Dtled “InspiraDonal Pedagogy for ELL” and a very relevant presentaDon: “Culturally Relevant Texts and Reading Assessment for English Language Learners” by Ann Ebe of Hunter College, NY . In this last session the author studied how previous experiences and knowledge affect how the reader comprehends the text. In a small sample of third grade students, Dr. Ebe asked them to read two books and evaluated their performance in several skills. She found that students were more engaged and performed beCer when asked quesDons about the book Kwan the Ar8st because the main character was an immigrant who came to the U.S. on an airplane, it was more culturally relevant. The other story, The Wind and the Sun, was less
interesDng and less related to the students’ experiences.
Even though I had made a schedule beforehand of the presentaDons I wanted to aCend, the experience was so overwhelming that I someDmes missed good presentaDons and couldn’t go to the exhibiDon area as much I would have liked. I met many interesDng people and networked with other educators. I am eager to go to another TESOL convenDon in the near future.
PRTESOL thanks for offering me the opportunity to aCend this excellent convenDon!
(Note: Prof Mayol and Prof Burnet were recipients of the PRTESOL 2009 Travel Grants.)
If you aCended the Summer InsDtute on Proposal
WriDng or any of the regional chapter
confereences, send in your comments and share
your experiences with the PRTESOL membership.
S e n d a o n e -‐ p a g e c o m m e n t t o
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The Beginnings of English in Puerto RicoProf. Daniel MercadoSchool of Social and Human Sciences, Universidad Del Este
How did the teaching of the English language begin in the public schools of Puerto Rico? Why and when did the teaching of the English language begin and how does it affect the teaching of English today? This issue consists of several perspecDves beginning with the historical background of English as a second language in Puerto Rico and the important events that occurred within this historical period. This arDcle begins with a problem statement, brief history of Puerto Rico following with the historical background of English in Puerto Rico, the occupaDon and beginning of English schools.
In accordance with Pousada, 1993 many people think that relaDons between the U.S. and Puerto Rico began in 1898; however, there had been a long history of cross-‐influence. The earliest contacts go back to the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries and the struggle to colonize North America, in which English-‐speaking colonists were concentrated in the northern areas, while Spanish-‐speaking colonists took over the southern lands. During the 17th century, in parDcular, North American contrabandists prowled the waters of the Caribbean and had unofficial dealings with the island of Puerto Rico. During the French RevoluDon of 1789, soon aner the establishment of the United States as an independent naDon, the Spanish government found its AnDllean ports to be under aCack by French corsairs. In order to obtain necessary goods, it was forced to open Cuban harbors to neutral ships. Many of these were from the U.S. while Puerto Rico was not officially included in the arrangement; Spanish diplomats in the U.S. took advantage of the opening and began to grant permits to U.S. merchants to export food and ammuniDons to Puerto Rico (Santana, 1972). The iniDal contact of languages between English and Spanish in Puerto Rico serves as a moDvaDon factor to research the problem how these controversial issues affect the teaching of English at the present Dme.
In 1796, Spain was involved in a war with England, which severely interrupted trade in the Caribbean and eventually led to several aCacks on Puerto Rico in 1797. The resulDng lack of basic provisions led the Spanish crown to decree an opening of trade with neutral naDons in the AtlanDc. Of all the neutral naDons, of course, the one that was most able to take advantage of the situaDon was the United States. Consequently, acDve trading between the U.S. and Puerto Rico ensued, and from that moment on, the U.S. became an increasingly important element in the Puerto Rican economy (Pousada, 1993). These economic Des also brought cultural links. American consuls and their families could be found in every port on the island. Wealthy American merchants purchased haciendas and formed small English-‐speaking enclaves in the countryside.
Small groups of Puerto Rican agricultural workers and cigar makers emigrated to Florida and the southern states to work during this period. Presumably, all encountered English and Spanish were influenced by the language. Thus, we see that the iniDal contact between English and Spanish did not occur with the invasion of U.S. troops in 1898, but rather had its roots nearly a hundred years earlier. It appears that it is in this era when Puerto Rico starts to be influenced by the United States directly and indirectly with the language and culture. Once the U.S. took over Puerto Rico in 1898 under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, then the contact between the two languages abruptly intensified.
ReferencesPousada, A. (1993). The singularly strange story of the English language in Puerto Rico Milenio. 3, 33-‐60 University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras. Retrieved on January 17, 2007, from
hCp://home.earthlink.net/~apousada/index.html.
Santana, Arturo F. (1972). Puerto Rico y los Estados Unidos en el Periodo Revolucionario de Europa y América (1789-‐1825). San Juan, PR: InsDtuto de Cultura Puertorriqueña.
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English Dungeons and Dragons: Tabletop Role Playing Games in the ESL Classroom Prof. Johansen Quijano-‐Cruz, University of Texas at Arlington
Tabletop Role Playing Games
Puerto Rican ESL and EFL students onen find it hard to use language spontaneously. They are onen nervous or fear ridicule from their peers. This specially happens when they are asked to express their thoughts on complex topics, like poliDcs or life. Although they are more willing to use the target language when talking of a topic that they find familiar, they sDll do so with a bit of reluctance. Because of this, teachers have to find acDviDes that make students use the language spontaneously and that are fun. Tabletop role playing games are one such acDvity.
Tabletop Role Playing Games (RPGs) are games in which a Game Master (GM) uses a Game Master’s Manual, or guidebook, to set the rules of a world in which an adventure will take place. The adventure, onen made up by the GM, is usually set in a ficDonal world, although a real se|ng can be used. This adventure, however, is not only the work of the GM, but a collaboraDve narraDve between the GM and the players. As the players declare what their characters do or say the GM tells the player the outcome of their acDons, as well as urges them on the quest by using Non Playable Characters (NPCs) which give the players hints on where to go and what to do next.
Following is an example of interacDon between a player and the GM (from John H. Kim’s Homepage).
Player: I carefully walk up to the window and look inside. What do I see? GM: [checks notes] You see a dusty room with a table in the center, which has a wooden box on it. The walls are bare, but there's a door to the inside.
Player: Alright, I'm taking my knife and scratching a mark on this window, so the others can idenDfy it later.
GM: OK -‐ done. [scribbles this on his notes]
Players also have to keep track of their inventory, what they have done in their adventures, where they have gone, who they have talked to, and most importantly, what the next step is. This is done by means of wriDng the informaDon on a player’s sheet, which also contains the informaDon and scores of the character.
Because of the way they are composed, tabletop RPGs force the player, or student, to communicate (speak and listen), write, and read. The integraDon of these four language skills into a single acDvity makes it an ideal tool for second language instrucDon.
This game also allows for task-‐based learning and teamwork. The students are learning the language by pracDcing it in a game that forces them to use it. Teamwork comes from the different characters and their various abiliDes. A ‘fighter’ character, for example, can have a high strength score and a low wisdom score, while a ‘wizard’ character should have higher intelligence and wisdom scores than most of the other character types. Where some characters fall short, other characters shine. This forces the students (players) to work together and help each other, allowing for teamwork within the game.
My first Dungeon
I started playing Tabletop RPGs when I was 16. A friend invited me to a session of Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), saying that I would love the game and that it would be fun. My idea of D&D before I played it consisted of a bunch of boring people si|ng around a table telling boring stories and throwing dice. My idea of the game was somewhat accurate; however, the game was anything but boring.
The GM was a naDve English speaker, and the players, although from different ethniciDes, were bilingual of varying degrees; therefore, the language used for the storytelling in the game was English. Before I began to play I had to make a character by rolling dice and adding points to aCributes such as strength and wisdom. Aner choosing a race and a class (knight, wizard, paladin, etc) for my character, I was off on an adventure of epic proporDons. By the end of my first session, my friends and I had saved a village, slain a giant wolf, and met the Nynaeve, Queen of the Fey, who sent us on a quest to retrieve her Mirror of Time from the evil necromancer Galam. Our adventures lasted for only a month, as the GM had to
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move to a different city, but these adventures were an incredible learning experience, an experience that I would later pass on to my ESL students.
The ESL Classroom as a Dungeon
In September 6th, 2005, I began working as an ESL teacher in a small local post-‐secondary insDtuDon. I was faced with two main problems: (1) lack of good ESL textbooks and (2) students who did not know how to communicate in English. Some students had never even heard the language. I began making lessons and materials for basic ESL lessons, focusing on the communicaDve aspects of language (speaking and listening) but also integraDng basic reading and wriDng. Aner the students felt confident using the language, I suggested that we play a game to see how well they could communicate without using prescribed conversaDons. The game was D&D.
There are a lot of versions of D&D. I chose the one I was the most familiar with, the first ediDon, based on the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia (1991). I began the first session by introducing the students to what tabletop RPGs are, and explaining how the game is played. Aner giving the students an overview of the races, character classes, the fantasy world in which the story was going to take place, and the mechanics of the game, I gave each of the students photocopies of the races and character classes available to choose from, and gave them as a homework assignment the task of choosing a race and class for the character they would be making on the next class. During the second class, I guided the students through a character-‐making tutorial. I brought my dice to the classroom and handed them out to the students. I would tell them how to make the rolls for their Hit Points (HP), Magic Points (MP), and aCributes (Strength, Intelligence, Wisdom, Dexterity, Charisma, and Agility) and they would make the rolls and jot down the resulDng scores on their character sheets.
Although D&D is tradiDonally played in small groups (no more than 10 players and a GM), the plotlines and rules can be modified to have large groups and mass-‐combat. This is what I was forced to do, as some of my groups were made up of 25 students. The students (players) started out as soldiers in Gullstaff’s army. They were preparing for the coming invasion from Titania’s realm. During this preparaDon period, the students had a chance to interact orally with each other, trading items, and making strategies. When the conversaDon would die down, I would introduce NPCs to moDvate the students to talk. Aner five minutes, the students decided that they had prepared a strategy. Some of them felt encouraged when I introduced a commanding character and he took in their advice. During the baCle, the students put into pracDce the lessons I had given them regarding game mechanics, which include using the text, or photocopies, for reference on rules and pracDcing basic math when using the dice. Aner the baCle, through the use of the GM’s authority over the narraDve, I made the group split up into five smaller groups. I told them that aner the skirmish, small groups found themselves lost and scaCered around the landscape, and wanted to return home. I assigned which groups students would belong to, taking care to separate the most fluent students and the least fluent students into different groups. I would follow the adventures of each group, dedicaDng 5 to 10 minutes to one group, then switching to the others. This allowed the students who were parDcipaDng to interact with each other and those who were not to listen to the other teams’ adventures to know what was waiDng for them. The 5 to 10 minute turns for each group ensured that each group would parDcipate at least three Dmes per class. The game concluded when, aner three sessions, all of the groups returned triumphantly to Gullstaff’s castle and were awarded several medals.
Evalua8ng Student Performance in the Campaign
I considered many factors when evaluaDng the students during this acDvity. First, I took into consideraDon their oral competence. 50% of the grade depended on how onen, how well, and how willingly the student would interact with other students. Students that would quickly suggest courses of acDon or lead the group got higher scores than students who would sit back and speak only when forced to. 15% of the grade was based on the students’ character sheets. If they took proper inventory of their belongings, had well-‐wriCen descripDons of the adventure, and kept track of who they met and what they did, they got a full score. Missing elements would lead to a lower score. The final 35% of the grade consisted of a post-‐acDvity wriDng exercise in which the students had to write what their characters did during the game, and their thoughts on the acDvity. The majority of the students enjoyed the acDvity.
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Possible Concerns
Some teachers may be hesitant to use tabletop RPGs like D&D in their classroom because of several misconcepDons and mistaken generalizaDons. Some might be quick to label D&D as an evil game because it teaches children about ‘the occult’. However, tabletop RPGs are games based on imaginaDon and rules, not on ‘the occult’. Although I used D&D (a tabletop RPG which has wizards and druids as characters) in my classroom, there are plenty of tabletop RPGs that do not involve any supernatural elements. In Modern D20, for example, the se|ng is the early 21st century, and the players choose a human who has developed certain characterisDcs (strength, intelligence, agility, etc) to a higher extent than other humans. In this game, the players onen have to stop a rich maniac from developing a super weapon and sowing anarchy around the world.
Another common misconcepDon is that all tabletop RPG players are anD-‐social people who keep to themselves, read a lot, and have a big imaginaDon. This misconcepDon is popular mostly due to the short film Fear of Girls (2005) wriCen by Ryan Wood, which shows two D&D players who are anD-‐social and introverted, and because of The Dead Ale Wives’ comedy rouDne making fun of a group of D&D players. However, all of the tabletop RPG players I have met are average, sociable people with big imaginaDons.
In the end, being exposed to a tabletop RPG is not going to make anyone ‘burn in hell’, as Wood’s film mockingly suggests, or make anyone less sociable. Tabletop RPGs are a means of entertainment. If ESL teachers can find a way to incorporate these games, and others, into their curriculum, then the ESL classroom will become a place where learning is fun, instead of the dungeon that some students think the tradiDonal classroom is.
References
Kim, J.H. (2007, 04). The Encyclopedia of Tabletop Role Playing Games. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from John H. Kim’s Homepage: hCp://www.darkshire.net/jhkim/rpg/encyclopedia/
Kim, J.H. (2007, 04). What is a Role Playing Game. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from John
H. Kim’s Homepage: hCp://www.darkshire.net/jhkim/rpg/whaDs/
The D20 System. (2007). Retrieved July 11, 2007, from The Wizards of the Coast
Official Web Site: hCp://www.wizards.com/default.asp?x=d20/welcome
Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of language teaching and learning. New York, N.Y.: Longman.
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles. New York, N.Y.: Longman.
TSR. (1991). Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia. Lake Geneva, W.I.: TSR.
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1925 Ballenger Ave., Suite 550, Alexandria, Virginia 22314 USATel +1-‐703-‐836-‐0774 ● 888-‐547-‐3369 USA ● Fax +1-‐703-‐836-‐7864 ● E-‐mail [email protected] ● Web hCp://www.tesol.org
Posi8on Statement on Teaching English as a Foreignor Addi8onal Language to Young Learners
Policy changes mandaDng the earlier introducDon of English in foreign language se|ngs are increasingly being implemented worldwide. Although research has suggested that age may have an effect as to the way a language is learned, age alone does not determine success in learning a foreign language. As various sociocultural contexts, government policies, and historical language pracDces will all impact the success or failure of a language instrucDonal program, there is no single best way to implement an English as a foreign or addiDonal language (EFL/EAL) program for young learners. Rather, effecDve EFL/EAL teaching for young learners starts with a clear understanding of the following factors and how they relate to one another.
Program planning, content, and learner goals: Those involved in teaching EFL/EAL to young learners should have a clear understanding of the program’s objec8ves and goals, as well as the extent and structure of the program. What students should know and be able to do should be clearly outlined and established along with how that is to be measured. Where academic-‐level proficiency is desired, there should be long-‐term strategies for con8nued support and ar8cula8on between educa8onal levels. The program should have a learner-‐centered approach, and materials should be selected in accordance with the age of the children, the length of the program, its objec8ves, and the learning environment. Teachers, trainers, and teacher associa8ons should all be partners in program development, and planners should be flexible in regards to methodology.
Effec8ve teachers: As stated in TESOL’s Posi8on Statement on Teacher Quality in the Field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (June 2003), naDve speaker proficiency in the target language alone is not a sufficient qualifica8on for such teaching posi8ons; the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) is a professional discipline that requires specialized training. Therefore, qualified ESL and EFL educators not only should demonstrate wriYen and oral proficiency in the English language (regardless of na8ve language), but also should demonstrate teaching competency. Teachers should have training in teaching EFL/EAL, as well as in the ways young students learn. Effec8ve EFL/EAL teachers should themselves be successful and experienced language learners. Just as important are teachers’ personal a\tudes toward con8nued educa8on and learning and their willingness to model language learning for the students with whom they work. Where applicable, EFL/EAL educators should receive the necessary degree, licensing, valida8on, or cer8fica8on as determined by their ins8tu8on, country, or region from qualified EFL/EAL teacher educators.
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Programma8c and ins8tu8onal support: Depending upon the program model and methodology employed, insDtuDons need to be able to provide the type and level of resources necessary to support the program. Support materials should be designed for both teachers and students with the appropriate cultural context of the country in mind. The culture of the EFL/EAL young learner should be regarded as a valued and respected resource that informs decisions regarding approaches, techniques, acDviDes, learning styles, curriculum design, and materials whether the young learner is in his/her naDve cultural se|ng or in a mixed-‐culture se|ng in a classroom in a country where English is spoken as a naDve language. InsDtuDons should provide resources for young learners to be able to portray their cultural values within English-‐speaking contexts, whenever possible, with the sole purpose of strengthening their own cultural idenDty at the same Dme as they are exposed to EFL/EAL learning experiences. AddiDonally, resource materials should be provided in sufficient quanDDes so that teachers can do their work well and producDvely. Community and home support for the program should be encouraged, as well as conDnued professional development for teachers, as it is an essenDal part of effecDve teaching. What is most important to understand about these factors is that they need to be defined for and understood within the local educaDonal and cultural context. In addiDon, while the three factors are related, there is not necessarily a direct correlaDon among them. Just as there is no one way to teach a language, there is no one program or model for all educaDonal contexts. Finding the right balance among these three factors is a key part of delivering an effecDve program.
ResourcesBlock, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). Globaliza8on and language teaching. London: Routledge.Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching languages to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R., & Kubanek, A. (2006). The main pedagogical principles underlying the teaching of language to very young learners. European Commission.
Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Holliday, A. (2005). Oxford applied linguis8cs: The struggle to teach English as an interna8onal language.
McCloskey, M. L., Orr, J., & Dolitsky, M. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching English as a foreign language in primary school. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Approved by the Board of Directors October 2003Revised October 2009
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Vocabulary Instruction in ESL Teaching and LearningEvelyn Nieves – Department of Education, Puerto Rico [email protected]
AbstractThe following article talks about the importance of learning new vocabulary for the language acquisition process. It talks about the various methods available for use when engaging students in vocabulary instruction, as well as the different types of vocabulary. The article then proceeds to talk about different activities teachers could use to teach vocabulary. Finally, the article presents the most common findings in vocabulary instruction research, and presents the implications of these findings for language teachers.
Introduction – The Importance of Vocabulary InstructionThe importance of vocabulary in reading achievement has been recognized for more than half a century. In 1925, the National Society for Studies in Education (NSSE) Yearbook (Whipple, 1925) noted that “growth in reading power means, therefore, continuous enriching and enlarging of the reading vocabulary and increasing clarity of discrimination in appreciation of word values.” (Davis, 1942, p. 76) Since then, vocabulary instruction has remained an extremely important part of reading instruction.
It is believed that as a learner begins to read, reading vocabulary encountered in texts is ‘mapped’ onto the oral vocabulary the learner brings to the task. The reader learns to translate the (relatively) unfamiliar words in print into speech, with the expectation that the speech forms will be easier to comprehend. This is, in essence, a process of decoding text into speech and comprehending the spoken word. The wider
a student’s vocabulaty, the easier this process will be.
Benefits in understanding text by applying letter-sound correspondences to printed material come about only if the target word is in the learner’s oral vocabulary. When the word is not in the learner’s oral vocabulary, it will not be understood when it occurs in print. This means that students should first contextualize new words in meaningful situations and understand them from an oral perspective before attempting to learn the written word. Vocabulary occupies an important middle ground in learning to read. Oral vocabulary is a key to learning to make the transition from oral to written forms.
Methods for Vocabulary InstructionThere are five main methods of teaching vocabulary:
1. Explicit Instruction – When using this method, students are given definitions or other attributes of words to be learned.
2. Implicit Instruction – When engaged with this method, students are exposed to words or given opportunities to do a great deal of reading in order to be able to acquire meaning on their own.
3. Multimedia Methods – When using this method, vocabulary is taught by going beyond text to include forms of media other than the text, such as graphic representations, hypertext, video games, movies, or American Sign Language.
4. Capacity Methods – In this method practice is emphasized to increase reading capacity and vocabulary size through making reading automatic.
5. Association Methods – When using this method learners are encouraged to draw connections between what they know and words they encounter that they do not know. Here, words are not given as
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decontextualized individual entities, but as a part of a meaningful text.
The Four Types of VocabularyAlthough people often speak of vocabulary as if it were a single thing, it is not. Human beings acquire four types of vocabulary.
• Listening Vocabulary (the largest) is made up of the words an individual can hear and understand. All other types of vocabulary are subsets of the listening vocabulary.
• Speaking Vocabulary is comprised of words individuals can use speaking.
• Reading Vocabulary includes the words that individuals can identify and understand when reading.
• Writing Vocabulary (the smallest) includes words individuals use in writing.
Furthermore, vocabulary is composed of different types of words.
• Sight words are words that induce the immediate recognition of a word.
• Key vocabulary includes words that have meaning that come from the students’ own experiences.
• Discovery words are known as a result of studies in a certain content area.
Teaching VocabularyAccording to Smith (1987), most children acquire a vocabulary of over 10,000 words during the first five years. Furthermore, most children will learn between 2,000 and 3,600 words per year; however, through vocabulary instruction, teachers can help increase these numbers. Children who are exposed to advanced vocabulary through conversations or class learn words needed later on to help decode, recognize, and comprehend a number of readings they will
be engaged with during their lives. For these reasons, it is important to teach vocabulary.
Realistically, ESL teachers will probably be able to teach thoroughly only a few new words (15 to 20) per week, so they need to choose the words carefully. Teachers should focus their energies on high utility words and words that are important to the meaning of the selections that will be discussed in class. It is important that teachers select words to emphasize that you consider important to comprehending each assigned passage. Furthermore, teachers should create several sentences loaded with context using these target words. Also, teachers should discuss the new words using excerpts from the text they will be assigned in which the target words appear.
In order to offer effective vocabulary instruction, teachers could use one of several strategies. Below are some of the more efficient vocabulary instruction strategies.
Word BankThe word bank consists of a small box kept in the classroom. Every time students discover a new word, they write the word on one side of a card and the definition on the other. This activity is used to help students collect and review sight words or personal dictionaries.
Specific Word InstructionSpecific Word Instruction consists of showing the students the new word, the definition, and the practical uses of the word. Practical uses of the word include showing pictures of the word (in case of it being a noun) an action (in case of a verb) or the word within the context of a sentence. This strategy can deepen students’ knowledge of words meaning and in turn, help them understand what they are hearing or reading.
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Making WordsMaking words is an excellent word learning strategy that helps children improve their phonetic understanding of words through words invented or “temporary spellings” while also increasing their repertoire of vocabulary words they can recognize in print.(Reutzel & Cooter, 2003)
Vocabulary ClusterWhen using this strategy teachers help students to read a passage, gather context clues, and then predict the meaning of a new word.
Semantic MapsStudents engaged with this activity sketch out or map what is stored in their brain about a topic. This strategy is similar to brainstorming. Students will gather clues about the meaning of the word from the ideas derived on their map.
Results of Vocabulary Instruction ResearchAccording to research, there are age and ability effects learning gains that occur from vocabulary instruction. These findings point to the importance of selecting age and ability appropriate methods.
1. Computer vocabulary instruction shows positive learning gains over traditional methods.
2. Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in comprehension.
3. Vocabulary can be learned incidentally in the context of storybook reading or from listening to the reading of others.
4. Repeated exposure to vocabulary items is important for learning gains. The best gains were made in instruction that extended beyond single class periods and involved multiple exposures in authentic contexts beyond the classroom.
5. Pre-instruction of vocabulary words prior to reading can facilitate both: vocabulary acquisition and comprehension.
6. The restructuring of the text materials or procedures facil i tates vocabulary acquisition and comprehension, for example, substituting easy for hard words.
The findings above, besides giving teachers information on how to adapt their vocabulary lessons based on research, have several implications for vocabulary instruction at a practical level. These implications are:
1. There is a need for direct instruction of vocabulary items required for a specific text.
2. Repetition and multiple exposure to vocabulary items are important. Students should be given items that will be likely to appear in many contexts.
3. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary l ea rn ing . Vocabu la ry words should be those that the learner will find useful in many contexts. When vocabulary items are derived from content learning materials, the learner will be better equipped to deal with specific reading matter in content areas.
4. Vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. It is important to be certain that students fully understand what is asked of them in the context of reading, rather than focusing only on the words to be learned. Restructuring seems to be most effective for low-achieving or at-risk students.
5. Vocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement in learning tasks.
6. Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary.
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7. Vocabulary can also be acquired through incidentallearning. Much of a student’s vocabulary will have to be learned in the course of doing things other than explicit vocabulary learning. Repetition, richness of context, and motivation may also add to the efficacy of incidental learning of vocabulary.
8. Dependence on a single vocabulary instruction method will not result in optimal learning. A variety of methods were used effectively with emphasis on multimedia aspects of learning, richness of context in which words are to be learned, and the number of exposures to words that learners receive.
ConclusionTo conclude, vocabulary development is a process that goes on throughout life and can be enhanced in the classroom through enticing learning experiences. Furthermore, vocabulary is one of the most important areas within comprehension and should not be neglected. Also, vocabulary helps people engage with texts of all kinds, not only in the classroom, but in everyday life as well. There are a variety of methods by which readers acquire vocabulary through explicit instruction and improve their comprehension of what they read. As teachers, we should be aware of the importance of vocabulary and of the many methods available for the teaching of vocabulary. That way, we will motivate students and strive for linguistic excellence in our students.
ReferencesReutzel, D.R. and Cooter, R.B. (2004). Teaching Children to Read. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River; New Jersey. Pages 121-152National Reading Panel. Retrieve on November 15, 2007 from, http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/upload/report_pdf.pdf
An Academic Trip to Ireland
By Ilsa López-Vallés UPR-Rio Piedras Student P.h.D. CandidateAs part of the requirements of the graduate course INGL 6447: Studies in Drama given at the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras, students traveled to Ireland under the guidance of professors Chris Olsen and Reinhard Sander during the month of October 2009. A total of ten graduate and undergraduate students enjoyed visiting several major cities, among which were Dublin, Galway, Limerick and Athlone.
Statue of the starving Dubliners during the potato famine (1845-52)
Photo taken by Ilsa López-Vallés
Upon their arrival in the country, the group was assigned an Irish guide who led them on an interesting sightseeing promenade in Dublin, the
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capital city. His friendly and outgoing personality delighted everyone. He had a knack for entertaining his audience aboard the coach with hilarious Irish jokes and popular songs like “Molly Malone.” Its lyrics tell the legend of a loose girl who sold more than ‘cockles and mussels.’ A statue of Molly selling her goods in a cart, also known as “The Tart with the Cart,” was erected on College Street in Dublin. The class was in stitches throughout the entire first day’s excursion, singing and humming the catchy tune. On a more serious note, a stroll down the walkway of the Custom House Quay led to the historical monuments commemorating the Great Potato Famine of 1845-52 that provoked a massive emigration of Irish men, women, and children in desperate attempts to escape starvation. More than a million died, and many more fled Dublin and headed to the United States, Great Britain, Australia, or other countries.
After a well-deserved break, the group visited the Jameson distillery in the capital to taste the famous Jameson revitalizing whiskey. During the evenings, while cruising around the illuminated city, fully clad in winter clothes, the Caribbean students were mesmerized and dazzled by the wintry season as they filled their lungs with icy cold, gratifying air. Subsequent to the stay in the capital, the class was taken to Blarney Castle near Cork. One of its attractions included the kissing of Blarney Stone, a two-hundred year-old legend that claims that those who kiss it will be granted the gift of eloquence. Several brave students and professors climbed up the tower to smooch the stone. On the way to the town of Limerick, the driver’s witty tales and accounts of unusual traditions amused the tourists. The group learned
they had barely missed the Match-making Festival of Lisdoonvarna held during the month of September, in which hundreds of single people converge in hopes of meeting a prospective spouse. Following visits to historical sites, museums, cathedrals, and shopping malls in Galway and Athlone, students were ready to return to the capital. A call to duty led them to the multi-floor library of Trinity College to conduct research for their final twenty-page essay. The budding scholars were impressed with the well-organized archives and found numerous literary treasures with which to pursue their topics. When lunch and dinner bells tolled, students craved Irish cuisine favorites such as scrumptious shepherd’s pie, well-seasoned tender lamb stew, crispy fish–n–chips and pint-size glasses of refreshing beer at a nearby pub. The group had been forewarned about currency differences and the devaluation of US dollars vis á vis the Euro, so they were thrifty with their expenditures. Since the focus of the course was drama, the group attended live stage performances. The stimulating and challenging plays included Michael West’s Freefall, Gina Moxley’s The Crumb Trail, Pat McCabe’s The Dead School, and Daphne du Maurier’s The Birds, which was also made into a motion picture bearing the same title by Alfred Hitchcock. All plays dealt with dysfunctional familial relationships and the erosion of Irish values. More than a dozen Irish plays had been assigned and discussed in class prior to visiting the country. These included works by playwrights J. M. Synge, Samuel Beckett, George Bernard Shaw, W. B. Yeats, Martin McDonagh, Anne Devlin, Brendan Behan and Sean O’Casey. Notably, despite the cultural differences,
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Puerto Rican students could identify with the community of Irish Catholic followers. Some even attended Mass on Sunday. The travelers felt at home in Ireland. Some professed their wish to relocate and adopt Ireland as their home. Others expressed their desire to study at Trinity College. Most agreed that a return to Ireland lay ahead for them. The group received a hospitable and cordial welcome to the Anglophone country by the affable Irish people who were eager to socialize with the tourists. Those students who got lost in the city could easily ask any passerby for directions, and they would be directed safely to the hotel. Most importantly, the camaraderie that developed within the group created a friendly and peaceful atmosphere. Despite the age differences of the travelers, their daily interaction was respectful and harmonious. Meetings at the lobby to discuss each other’s experiences, midnight chats, the exchange of photos, and group shopping at O’Connell Street, were some of the activities shared on leisure days. Thanks to the well-organized itinerary and supervision of Professors Olsen and Sander, the group was able to develop strong bonds and have continued to keep in contact through the group’s Facebook page, where most of the snapshots have been posted. Traveling to Ireland was a unique, culturally-enriching and bracing experience.
Statue of Molly Malone College StreetPhoto taken by Ilsa López
Lyrics of “Molly Malone”written by James Yorkston In Dublin's Fair CityWhere the girls are so prettyI first set my eyes on sweet Molly MaloneAs she wheel'd her wheel barrowThrough streets broad and narrowC r y i n g c o c k l e s a n d m u s s e l s a l i v e , a l i v e o! ChorusAlive, alive o!, alive, alive o!Crying cockles and mussels alive, alive o!
She was a fishmongerBut sure 'twas no wonderFor so were her father and mother beforeAnd they each wheel'd their barrowThrough streets broad and narrowCrying cockles and mussels alive, alive o!
Chorus
She died of a feverAnd no one could save herAnd that was the end of sweet Molly MaloneBut her ghost wheels her barrowThrough streets broad and narrow
Crying cockles and mussels alive, alive o!
Author’s Bio: Ilsa López is a professor at the University of Puerto Rico, Carolina Campus. She has published SL and short story texts, and holds a Master’s Degree in 19th century literature. She is currently working on a Ph.D. in English at the University of Puerto Rico.
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Why are second language learners failing to achieve na8ve-‐like competence?
Dr. Jennifer Alicea CasDlloUniversity of Puerto Rico
Ponce Campus
Many English teachers are always asking themselves and talking to each other about the problem that their students have to learn the language correctly. In many conferences, symposia, and workshops, this is the main topic. Researchers are constantly looking for an explanaDon to the following quesDon: why are second language learners failing to achieve naDve-‐like competence. In this paper some of those possible reasons will be discuss.
Acquisi8on vs. LearningThere are different explanaDons for the
failure of English as Foreign Language students to achieve naDve-‐like competence in a second language. One of the main reasons is the difference between the concepts acquisiDon and learning. According to Krashen (1985) there is a big discrepancy between the two. When a person a c qu i r e s a l a n gu a ge , h e / s h e d o e s i t subconsciously. This is the result of parDcipaDng in natural communicaDon. But when there is language learning, the process is conscious. This is storage, just as it happens with acquisiDon, in the len hemisphere of the brain but not necessarily in the language areas.
Fossiliza8onAnother possible cause for the failure of
EFL students to reach naDve-‐like competence in L2 is what Selinker (1972) idenDfied as fossilizaDon. Everybody, unless they have a brain damage, is capable of learning a first language. The situaDon is different in the case of learning a second or foreign language. According to Clahsen, Meisel, and Pienenmann (1983), the creators of the MulDdimensional Model and Processing OperaDons, learners go through a lot of stages in their learning a second language. When the L2 learner accomplishes certain amount of stages or
reaches a certain level of competency, he/she stays there without showing any more progress. In other words, language fossilizes aner a period of Dme.
Cogni8ve and Affec8ve FactorsThere is also the idea of moDvaDon been
one of the most important factors related to the learning of a second language. A person learning his/her naDve language does not need moDvaDon to learn it because it occurs naturally. Just as stated by Chomsky (1959), children are born with specific knowledge of the nature of the language. A child does not need moDvaDon to speak his/her naDve tongue. Nevertheless, this does not occur when a person tries to learn a second language. Different researchers had proven that a|tudes and moDvaDon are extremely important in learning a second language but irrelevant in learning a first. Some of these authors are Giles and Byrne (1982) and Gardner and Lambert (1972). They stated that moDvaDon is the primary determinant of L2 proficiency.
Skehan (1989) acknowledged a set of variables with influence language learning. The author divided the factors in three independent variables: teaching, learner, and context. The factors related to the learner can be cogniDve and affecDve. AffecDve factors include their a|tudes and the moDvaDon towards learning. If the L2 learner is highly moDvated, learning will occur without a lot of complicaDons. Krashen (1985) promoted the importance of moDvaDon in his AffecDve Filter Hypothesis. He explained that learners with high moDvaDon and self-‐confidence have high filters and as a result received liCle input. Ajay (2009) explains that many naDves have an innate and unexplained fear of the English language, which makes them shy of handling the language. Karra (2007) agrees with this idea. She said that encouragement is a necessary factor so that an adult can pracDce producing different sounds exactly like a child does, without fear that he could make a mistake. This same situaDon occurs in many Puerto Rican classrooms of ESL.
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People are afraid of speaking the language. This fear does not let them acquire naDve-‐like competence.
InputInput is another concept highly related
with a possible explanaDon for L2 students not to be able to speak with naDve-‐like competence. Ellis (1985) describes input as the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a naDve speaker or by another L2 learner. In other words input is the language to which the learner is exposed to and has access to. When learning a first language, the learner receives input from everybody at all Dmes. On the contrary, when studying a second or foreign language, input is received through different manners. These channels are for example: books, radio, TV, internet, and formal instrucDon. In other words, the nature of input is going to vary according to the way of exposure and the medium uDlized for its transmission.
Time allo[edAlso, it is important to menDon that the
Dme alloCed to learn an L2 can be an important key in achieving or not naDve-‐like competence. The Dme used to learn the L2 will vary according to the situaDon of each learner, the amount of class hours (50 minutes daily, 60 minutes daily, or the whole school-‐day if the student is parDcipaDng in an immersion program), and of course, the opportuniDes to pracDce. Behaviorists emphasized this idea by staDng that the whole process of second language learner could be easily controlled by presenDng the L2 in the right doses to the learner. On the contrary, a person is learning his/her mother tongue from the moment he/she is born (some say a human being starts learning the L1 even before he/she is born). This L1 learner is exposed to language every second of the day. Usually by the age of six or seven the basic skills are already mastered. That is a lot of Dme compared to the minutes an L2 learner might have in the formal instrucDon. According to ShoeboCom (2007) on the
Frankfurt InternaDonal School’s website “everyone learns their first language because they have the best teachers and the best circumstances, the most Dme and the least pressure and the greatest moDvaDon. Learners of a second language have certain cogniDve advantages but none of the others, so it is not surprising how few go on to be as proficient in their second language as in their first.”
Age and the Cri8cal PeriodHere the factor of age is also important
when trying to know why people learning a second language can not be naDve-‐like competent. GiCerman (1999) concluded that there is certainly a criDcal period for phonological ski l ls in second language acquisiDon. So if the L2 student has already certain age, he/she will not be naDve-‐like. Munro, et al. (1996) also support the noDon that there is a criDcal period for accent in second language acquisiDon. Long (1990) who studied the dependence of second language learning on age of acquisiDon, starDng aner age six appears to make it impossible for many learners to achieve naDve-‐like competence in phonology. This researcher aCributes this lack of capacity to achieve naDve-‐like competence in phonology to the loss of brain plasDcity which happens with maturaDon.
Other expert that emphasizes on the important of the criDcal period to achieve naDve-‐like competence is Hagège (1996). This French linguist sustains that the criDcal age is eleven years. According to Hagège, up to that age the child can receive foreign sounds and the mouth can arDculate them by imitaDon. At the age of 11 foreign sounds start being filtered. As he explained the child is no longer sensiDve to sounds that do not exist in his naDve language. Harley (1995) suggested that the criDcal period ends at puberty.
Individual Objec8ves and Learning Environment Another important element to consider
when discussing the possible reason for a L2
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learner to struggle with competence in the foreign language is the objecDves this learner may have. When learning the L1, the person learns it because he/she needs the language to saDsfy his/her needs. An example of this is when the baby learns how to say dad, mom, milk, or water. On the other hand, the objecDves for learning a second language vary from person to person. When you ask in Puerto Rico, for example, why are you studying English? You will find various reasons that can go from “because it is a very important language” to “because it is a requisite to graduate from school”. The need to communicate is of great importance for language acquisiDon; it is a big incenDve to the learner (Karra, 2007). If the learner feels that there is no need to a second language, it will be very difficult for this person to be trained in it.
Ellis (1985) also described what an opDmal learning environment should be like. These are some of the characterisDcs: high quanDty of input directed to the learner, learner perceives the need to communicate in the L2, and the opportuniDes to pracDce (listening and oral pracDce). If these characterisDcs are not present in the L2 classroom, learners are going to be far away from achieving a naDve-‐like competence. If the second language learners are in a classroom in which the L2 teacher explains everything in their L1 or translates everything in order for them to understand, students are not going to be naDve-‐like competent. In the same line of thought MarcoCe and Morere (1990) showed that environmental deprivaDon leads to atypical brain organizaDon as regards language funcDons.
In this same line of thought Skehan (1989) appears again. This author puts the teacher as one of the main influences on language learning. The way the teacher teaches a second language can make the difference between success fu l L2 s tudent s and unsuccessful L2 students. The methodology, the strategies, the resources, and even the teacher’s competence in the L2 will affect posiDvely or negaDvely in what students may or nor achieve.
Students generally imitate the L2 teacher in pronunciaDon and oral producDon. If the L2 teacher makes a lot of mistakes (this is not accent related) pronouncing or when wriDng, students will repeat the same mistakes and will take for granted that “the teacher knows what he/she is saying or wriDng” simply because he/she is the teacher.
In terms of the role of formal instrucDon in the learning of a second language is important to point out that some authors say that it helps to achieve success. Other authors express that this success is not a primary result of formal instrucDon alone but of the combinaDon of other factors such as moDvaDon, intelligence, age, and learning styles. Karra (2007) argues that achieving naDve-‐like competence differs among individuals because of the loss of neuroplasDcity, as one of many factors. Karra (2007) also menDoned other important factors when learning an L2. These are moDvaDon/need for communicaDon, repeDDon, encouragement, and relaDon between the naDve and the second language (shared features).
Sociolinguis8cs ModelsOne of the SociolinguisDc Models of
Second Language Learning is the NaDvisaDon Model. With this model Andersen (1979) explains two important concepts: naDvisaDon and denaDvisaDon. The first consists of assimilaDon. Here the learner makes input conform to his/her own view of what the L2 s y s t em i s . T h e l aC e r i s r e l a t e d t o accommodaDon. This is when the learner modifies his/her internal structure to match input by using different inference strategies. This model states clearly that learners do not reach naDve-‐like competence in the same way as a first-‐language learner because of social and psychological distances.
Schumann (1978) is another that author that presents a possible explanaDon of why second language learners may not achieve
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naDve-‐like competence. This is explained t h rough t he A c cu l t u raDon Mode l ( a SociolinguisDc Model of Second Language Learning). AcculturaDon is the process of adapDng to a new culture. There is a variety of psychological factors that are related to acculturaDon and that are affecDve in nature. These are language shock, culture shock, moDvaDon, and ego boundaries. L1 speakers do not have to deal with all of these psychological elements.
ConclusionIn conclusion, there are many possible
reasons to explain why English as Second Language Learners might not achieve naDve-‐like competence. It is up to each teacher to examine his/her ESL students and their own possible reasons for failing. Definitely, more research needs to be done to reach a final answer for this crucial quesDon.
References
Ajay, J. (2009) .DifficulDes and challenges in teaching English as the second language. Retrieve on May 3rd, 2010 from: hCp://englishspeakingclub.org/?tag=fear-‐and-‐respect. Andersen, R. (1979): "Expanding Schumann's PidginisaDon Hypothesis". Language Learning, 29,105-‐19.Chomsky, N. (1959): "Review of Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner". Language, 35, 26-‐58.Clahsen, H., Meisel, J. and Pienemann, M. (1983): "The Acquisi8on of German Word-‐ Order: A Test Case for Cogni8ve Approaches to L2 Development" In R. Andersen (ed.) Second Languages: A cross-‐linguisDc perspecDve. Mass.: Newbury House.
Ellis, R. (1985): Understanding Second Language Acquisi8on. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gardner, R. and Lambert, W. (1972): A\tudes and Mo8va8on in Second Language Learning. Mass.: Newbury House.
Giles, H. & J. Byrne. (1982): "An Intergroup Approach to Second Language AcquisiDon". Journal of Mul8cultural and Mul8lingual Development, 3, 17-‐40.GiCerman, M. R. (1999). The criDcal period: some thoughts on Grimshaw et al. (1998). Brain and Language, 66, 377-‐381.Hagège, C. (1996). L’enfant aux deux langues. (English version). Paris, France: EdiDons Odile Jacob.Harley, T. (1995). The Psychology of Language: From data to theory. Coventry, UK: Psychology Press.Karra, M. (2007). Is there a 'criDcal age' for language acquisiDon? Retrieved on May 3rd , 2010 from: hCp://www.proz.com/translaDon-‐arDcles/arDcles/1260/1/Is-‐there-‐a-‐'criDcal-‐age'-‐for-‐language-‐acquisiDon%3F-‐
Long, M. (1990). MaturaDonal Constraints on Language Development. Studies in second language acquisi8on, 12, 251-‐285.MarcoCe, A. and Morere, D. (1990). Speech LateralizaDon in Deaf PopulaDons: Evidence for a developmental criDcal period. Brain and Language, 39, 134-‐152. Munro, M., Flege, J., and Mackay, I. (1996). The Effects of Age of Second Language Learning on the ProducDon of English Vowels. Applied Psycholinguis8cs, 17, 313-‐334.Krashen, S. (1985): The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implica8ons. London: Longman.Schumann, J. (1978): "The AcculturaDon Model for Second Language AcquisiDon" in Gingras (ed.) 1978.Selinker, L. (1972): "Interlanguage". Interna8onal Review of Applied Linguis8cs, 10, 209-‐231.ShoeboCom,P. (2007). Frequently asked quesDons about language learning. Retrieved on May, 2010 from: hCp://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/faq2.htmSkehan, P. (1989): Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. London: Arnold.
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