Professional Skills and Core Leadership Competencies · Web viewNote key phrases or use word associations to remember the speaker’s content. 5. Use paraphrasing or clarifying questions

Communication in the Workplace


_____________________________________________________________________________Professional Skills and Core Leadership Competencies 1


Pre-Module Materials............................................................................................4Learning Objectives:..............................................................................................4Assignment............................................................................................................4Communication.....................................................................................................5Interpersonal Communication................................................................................5

Elements of Communication......................................................................................................5The Communication Process.....................................................................................................5Effective Communication...........................................................................................................6Tips for Improving Communication............................................................................................7

Listening..............................................................................................................10How Do You Listen?................................................................................................................10Active Listening........................................................................................................................ 10Tip: Practice Active Listening...................................................................................................10

Activity:................................................................................................................11Interpersonal Communication Awareness...............................................................................11Matching the Message.............................................................................................................12Communication Habits.............................................................................................................14Listening Self-Assessment......................................................................................................15

Virtual Communication........................................................................................16E-mail...................................................................................................................................... 16Text Messaging.......................................................................................................................17Instant Message (IM)...............................................................................................................17

Leadership...........................................................................................................18Leading in Today’s Organizations.......................................................................18

Responsibilities of Today’s Leaders........................................................................................18Leadership Roles..................................................................................................................... 19Characteristics of a Good Leader............................................................................................20

Performance Coaching Skills..............................................................................21Fundamentals of Coaching......................................................................................................21Promoting a Learning Environment.........................................................................................21Performance Management......................................................................................................22Establishing Trust with Associates or Employees....................................................................23Coaching Diverse Associates or Employees...........................................................................24Four Major Styles of Interacting...............................................................................................24

Personal Influence...............................................................................................26Three Types of Influence.........................................................................................................26

Effective Interpersonal Influence..................................................................................28Understanding How You Think............................................................................29

Ladder of Inference.................................................................................................................. 29Creating an Environment of Leadership..................................................................................31Tips: Using the Ladder of Inference to Create an Environment of Leadership........................31Inquiry vs. Advocacy................................................................................................................32Tips for Balancing Inquiry and Advocacy.................................................................................33

Activity.................................................................................................................34Ladder of Inference.................................................................................................................. 34Your Inner Leader.................................................................................................................... 35

Case Study..........................................................................................................37What Did I Do Wrong?.............................................................................................................37

Interpersonal Style..............................................................................................39Understanding Interpersonal Styles....................................................................39

Common Interpersonal Styles Profile Categories....................................................................39_____________________________________________________________________________Professional Skills and Core Leadership Competencies 2


The Case for Self-Knowledge..............................................................................40Benefits of Increased Self-Knowledge.....................................................................................40The Johari Window.................................................................................................................. 41Ways to Increase Self-Knowledge...........................................................................................43Self-Reflection......................................................................................................................... 44

What Is Psychological Type?..............................................................................45What Are Preferences?.......................................................................................45

Using Type Inventories to Determine Preferences..................................................................45Activity Self-knowledge............................................................................................47Resolving Workplace Conflicts and Negotiating Successfully.............................48What is Conflict?.................................................................................................48

Content Conflicts.....................................................................................................................48Process Conflicts.....................................................................................................................48Interpersonal Conflicts.............................................................................................................48Theories of Conflict..................................................................................................................48Methods of Resolving Conflict.................................................................................................49Should Team Conflict Always be Avoided?.............................................................................49Approaches to Conflict Resolution...........................................................................................50

Case Study..........................................................................................................50Mixed Signals..........................................................................................................................50

Negotiation..........................................................................................................52Basic Concepts of Negotiation.................................................................................................52Terms You Should Know.........................................................................................................52

Activity.................................................................................................................53What are the four categories of objectives in negotiating?......................................................53Facilitating an Agreement........................................................................................................54

Supplemental Materials.......................................................................................56Job Aids...............................................................................................................56

What are Job Aids?.................................................................................................................56Job Aid - Tips to Reduce Fear of Public Speaking...................................................................58Job Aid: Preparing an Oral Presentation................................................................................59Speech Construction...............................................................................................................61Job Aids................................................................................................................................... 62Components of a Plan of Action..............................................................................................66Recommended Readings and Resources...............................................................................67For More Information...............................................................................................................68Summary and Transition..........................................................................................................68Glossary.................................................................................................................................. 69



Pre-Module Materials

Learning Objectives:

Work actively in multi-disciplinary teams to complete projects, as demonstrated by meeting the instructor’s criteria for successful completion of those projects.

Demonstrate effective skills for interpersonal communication in the workplace through in-class group meetings, transcripts of online dialogs, and evaluations of self and peers.

Exhibit professionalism by demonstrating respect for business culture and manners in class, presentations, and discourse.

Assignment

Team Project Presentation #1 Communication in the Workplace: Resolving Interpersonal Conflicts The goal of the case is to present a scenario of how to resolve conflict with individuals or groups in a typical workplace setting who are not meeting performance expectations. Assume in the scenario that you are the leader of a work team that is experiencing interpersonal conflicts and not performing to the organization’s expectations. Your job is to resolve conflicts, build positive working relationships, as well as meet performance expectations. The presentation should include a performance coaching session that includes communicating negative feedback, but in a positive way.

The intent is to have your team conduct a role-play in front of the class that would demonstrate some potential areas of conflict and present acceptable ways of dealing with performance issues and conducting performance coaching sessions. The case scenario is to include appropriate research into conflict resolution strategies and how to conduct performance coaching and counseling sessions in a workplace setting.

Deliverables: 10 minute (maximum) role play or skit describing a workplace conflict situation between parties with different interpersonal styles and demonstrating how a leader should conduct a performance coaching session. Three page (maximum) summary team research paper outlining approaches for resolving workplace conflict and conducting effective performance coaching sessions.



Communication

Interpersonal Communication

What is communication?Communication is the sharing of ideas, opinions, or information between at least two people by verbal or nonverbal means. Communication is a process of creating shared meanings to bring people and ideas together (Hoover, 2002).

What is effective communication?Effective communication occurs when the receiver accurately interprets the sender's information. Employees depend on the ability of managers to transfer necessary information to them and must have the skills to communicate accurately with one another as well.

Elements of Communication

In order to better understand the communication process, it is helpful to break it down into its various components. While the person sending the message and the intended receiver make up the core of communication, there are a variety of other elements to consider.

Activity: What are the elements of communication?

1.

2.

3.

4.

The Communication ProcessThe process of communication can be broken down into three steps:

Know Your Audience – Will you be speaking to a superior, a peer, or someone you are leading? Does the person you will be communicating with differ from you in terms of culture, background or education? Knowing your audience will help you craft your message to fit the receiver’s specific needs.

Select a Channel(s) – You must choose a channel that best fits the circumstances. Important information should be sent along a speedy channel (e.g. telephone, e-mail or fax), whereas information that isn’t critical can be sent via slower means (e.g. letters, memos or reports).

Allow for Feedback – You should give the receiver the opportunity to make comments or ask questions about your message. This not only lets the receiver clarify any points that were confusing, it gives you the opportunity to see whether or not your message was properly understood. While listening, be open-minded and objective.



Effective CommunicationIn order for effective communication to occur, the right people must receive your message; they must receive it in a timely manner, and they must accurately interpret the information you are sending. If the information is sent to the wrong person, is received late, or is misunderstood, then your message will not be effective. Anything that keeps your message from being clearly understood or received is known as interference.

Environmental – This type of interference comes from distractions in the environment, such as loud noises, interruptions, visual distractions, etc.

Personal – Personal factors may interfere with communication, such as feeling ill or tired, being emotionally distraught, feeling defensive or stressed, etc.

Verbal – If the language used is unfamiliar to the receiver or perceived as being condescending, this can cause a barrier to communication.

Nonverbal – This type of interference occurs when your body language does not match your spoken words. People usually view nonverbal cues as a true reflection of the speaker’s feelings. Intellectual – Differences in levels of education, experience and training can interfere with effective communication.How to Effectively Communicate with Associates

Get to know your associates or employees – If you can establish a relationship with your associates or employees, they will not only feel more at ease with you, they will be much more likely to respect what you have to say. Build rapport with your associates, asking about their day and how they are doing rather than just talking business all the time.Send clear messages – Be clear and concise regarding what you expect of your associates. If they do not understand what you want, this will create and air of confusion and mistakes are likely to be made.Use active listening skills – Pay attention to what your associates have to say. When someone comes to you with a concern, avoid doing things that make you appear uninterested such as shuffling through papers or avoiding eye contact. Give the person time to complete what he or she has to say before asking any questions for clarification.Use the technique of paraphrasing – Once an associate has finished discussing an issue with you, paraphrase the person’s thoughts to ensure that you have understood the message clearly. The same technique can be used when you are trying to communicate a point to an employee. Asking the person to paraphrase what you have said can let you know that he or she is clear about what to do.Remain objective – It is your job as a leader to consider all points of view and remain professional. While you do not want to seem cold, it is important to not become emotional because this can cloud your



judgment.

T i p s

Tips for Improving Communication

If possible, select an environment devoid of distractions when delivering a message.

Consider who you will be communicating with, and use your knowledge of that person or group to help you decide on the content of your message.

If you are in a different location than the person you need to reach, make sure that you both have access to the same channels of communication. Sending an e-mail won’t do much good if the other person can’t get to a computer.

Watch your body language during face-to-face interactions. Avoid crossing your arms or clenching your fists, and try to appear relaxed.

Do not use a tone of voice that could be perceived as hostile. Be open-minded and considerate regarding the viewpoints of

others. When communicating with a single individual, ask that person

to paraphrase what you have just said to ensure that your message was clearly received.



Humor

Using humor in speeches is a long-standing tradition. You can probably remember many times when you heard a speaker open a presentation with a joke. Most likely, you smiled at the jokes, settled in to listen to the messages and cannot remember any of the jokes that were told. However, if you can, it is probable that the joke offended you in some way. Why?

When you hear humor successfully integrated into a presentation, it can enhance your reception to the speaker and message. You are relaxed by amusement and open to listening. Hence, the successful use of humor lies in eliciting a smile from the audience with a joke that is unlikely to offend.

Humor used wisely may:

Establish commonality.

Increase trust.

Reduce anxiety.

Provide relief.

Pace the delivery of complicated information.

Effects of Failed Humor

Caution

When humor misses its mark, it can forge a terribly memorable link between you, your message, and personal offense.

Using humor is risky because what we may and may not find humorous is extremely personal. Our sense of what is funny reflects our culture, values, life experience, fears, and imagination. Remember that when you tell a joke, no two people hear it exactly the same way.

Consider the childhood joke below, told by a young boy, and heard very differently by three adults: Jane, Charlie, and Natasha.

Knock, knock.Who’s there?Ivan.Ivan who?Ivant to suck your blood (delivered with vampire body language).

Jane has two 6-year-old sons. This joke makes her groan with fond recognition. She tousles the child’s hair.

Charlie smiles at the child, but as a vegetarian he finds the joke a little uncomfortable and he finds a reason to move away from



the child.

Natasha, a recent immigrant from the Ukraine, feels hurt by what she perceives to be a joke at her expense. She patiently explains to the child that it is rude to make fun of her accented English.

If humor is so risky, why use it? Because when you can make someone smile or laugh, you make a powerful connection.



ListeningHow Do You Listen?When you focus only on yourself, you often forget to listen, and as a result, the chances for successful communication are poor. Listening is the basis of effective communication and entails much more than just hearing sound.

Think about the last time you noticed someone obviously not paying attention when you were trying to communicate. What specific behaviors did the person exhibit that led you to believe that he or she was not attending to you? What impact did the person’s behavior have on you? Perhaps you felt alarm that your important message was not getting through properly, or frustrated that your audience was not “getting it.” You may have been offended by your listener’s inattention or felt an urge to repeat your message.

You can learn more about listening behavior by examining the type of listener you tend to be. Use the following activity to learn more about your listening style.Active Listening

When you listen empathically, you don’t just hear words. You hear thoughts, beliefs and feelings. Empathic listening is highly active and requires hard work. Following the steps below will help you to improve your listening skills.

1. The first step is to decide to listen and concentrate on the speaker.

2. Then, use your imagination and enter the speaker’s situation.Concentrate and try to imagine his or her frame of reference and point of view.

3. Observe the speaker’s vocal inflection, enthusiasm or lack of it, and style of delivery. These are essential components of the message. If you are speaking face-to-face, pay attention to the speaker’s facial expressions and other nonverbal cues for more insight into the message.

4. Listen without interruption. Note key phrases or use word associations to remember the speaker’s content.

5. Use paraphrasing or clarifying questions to confirm that you received the intended message. Check your perceptions of how the speaker is feeling to put the text of the message in emotional context.

6. Finally, provide feedback to the speaker.

T i p s

Tip: Practice Active Listening

Like other skills, listening skills improve with practice. Ask a trusted friend to rate you honestly on the listening self-assessment that you conducted earlier in this unit. Then, the next time someone comes to you with a problem, work on the listening skills that need improvement. Practice empathic listening by attending, paraphrasing, and asking



questions.



Activity

Activity: Interpersonal Communication Awareness

Give an example of how each of the following can influence interpersonal communication:Eye Contact:

Voice Tone or Infections:

Language and Acronyms:

Facial Expressions:

Gestures: and Movement:

Listener Involvement:

Appearance and Dress:

Humor:

Others:



Activity

Matching the Message

The purpose of this activity is to match the message type to its purpose and audience.

Matching Message and Type of Oral CommunicationFor every situation in Column A, choose two matches from Column B.

1. One-on-one conversation____ ____

2. Small group discussion____ ____

3. Public presentation____ ____

4. Media contact____ ____

a. Review internal budgetsb. Publicize Fire Prevention Weekc. Evaluate staff performanced. Educate city-wide animal shelter staffe. Offer condolences to a coworkerf. Announce agency policy changesg. Conduct a Hazard Awareness Fairh. Explore increased



AnswersMatching the MessageThe correct answers are:1. c, e2. a, h3. d, g4. b, fReview the correct answers and compare them to yours.

LearningPoints You probably found most of the correct matches to be obvious. That’s

because our experience in society gives us a sense of appropriateness that allows us to communicate fairly automatically. But can you identify the steps you take in forming communications and implementing them?

Which of these questions did you consciously consider when you chose your matches?

How many people are in the audience? How many times will I have to deliver the message? Does this method use my time efficiently? Is my message going to the correct audience? Is the message going to others in addition to the correct

audience? Will there be a negative impact if this message is delivered to

some people who do not need it? What image do I want to convey with my message (e.g.,

authoritative, competent, informed, or sympathetic)? Am I respecting the emotional sensitivity of the message? Will I be able to track the success of my communication

effort?

Matching messages to their purpose and audiences will help ensure communication success.



Activity

Communication Habits

Fold your arms. Now do it the opposite way. Notice how it felt to fold your arms automatically and then to fold your arms the opposite way. When you tried the opposite way, did it feel strange and uncomfortable?

The experience you just had illustrates how a habit feels. Habits are ingrained and second nature. They can either be good or bad. Your communication habits will either enhance or detract from your effectiveness.

1. Identify some of your good communication habits. An example of a good habit is asking questions to understand a persons’ frame of mind. Write down some of your good habits below.

2. Identify some of your bad communication habits. Some examples include interrupting or thinking about what you’re going to say next (rather than actively listening). Write down some of your bad habits below.

You can substitute good communication behaviors for bad and, with practice, they will become habits.



Activity

Listening Self-Assessment

Read each item and then check the box indicating how frequently you actually use this skill when talking with others. Remember, this is a self-assessment, so be honest!

Usually Do Do Sometimes Should Do More Often

1. I try to make others feel at ease when I am talking with them.2. I try not to think about other things when I am listening to others3. When I listen, I can separate my own ideas and thoughts from the speaker’s.

4.I can listen to others with whom I disagree.

5. I try not to form a rebuttal in my head while others are talking.

6. I observe others’ verbal and nonverbal behaviors7. I let others finish speaking before I begin talking.8. I listen to what others say rather than assume that I know what they are going to say9. As I listen, I figure out how others are feeling10. I ask others to clarify or repeat information when I am unsure what was meant.11. I can remember the important details of what others tell me during conversations.12. I restate information given to me to make sure that I understand it correctly13. If I find I’m losing track of what others are saying, I concentrate harder



Virtual Communication

E-mail EtiquetteE-mail emerged as part of the sophisticated timesharing systems used in research environments. The first instance of e-mail was part of an operating system that was developed for Digital Equipment in the late 1960s (King, Grinter et al. 1997). Today online communication has become essential to business so it has become of increasing importance that employees can write effective e-mails. Some research suggests that employees are better informed about their organizations and more committed to management’s goals because of e-mail (Kraut and Attewell 1997).

In today’s fast-paced society, e-mail has become an increasingly popular form of communication. It offers a quick, convenient way to send messages to single or multiple recipients without the hassle of scheduling face-to-face meetings or the time required to send paper-based correspondence. However, e-mail should not be written hastily. A poorly composed message can make you look bad and muddle the message you are trying to get across. Taking the time to consider what you are writing will help improve the effectiveness of your e-mails. Remember e-mail excludes nonverbal cues available to face-to-face interaction and is incapable of creating tone that may increase the potential for miscommunication (Denziel, 2004).

T i p s

Guidelines for Writing E-mails

Keep it simple Get to the point Consider your recipient Keep it short Be clear about your expectations

Editing Your E-mail

Because of the relative speed and simplicity of writing an e-mail, it is easy to fall into the habit of typing out your message and hitting “send” without giving much thought to what you have written. However, no matter how eloquently your message is composed, if it is riddled with typos and grammatical mistakes, the recipient is likely to be distracted from the information you are trying to convey. Always read through an e-mail at least once before sending it to check for errors in content and grammar.

Edit for grammar Edit for content Edit for readability



Text MessagingSending short text messages to a device such as a cell phone or personal digital assistant or pager. Text messaging is used for messages that are no longer than a few hundred characters. The term is usually applied to messaging that takes place between two or more mobile devices.

Instant Message (IM)Short for instant message, a type of communications service that enables you to create a kind of private chat room with another individual in order to communicate in real time over the Internet, analagous to a telephone conversation but using text-based, not voice-based, communication. Typically, the instant messaging system alerts you whenever somebody on your private list is online. You can then initiate a chat session with that particular individual.



Leadership

Leading in Today’s Organizations

Organization’s today are becoming more and more progressive, promoting continuous improvement of the workplace through change and growth. This differs from the traditional workplace, where change was avoided in favor of steady productivity. As organizations change and grow, leaders will have to rise to the challenge, adapting their style of leadership to fit the modern workplace environment.

Responsibilities of Today’s Leaders

Know your organization Learn about your organization’s history and vision, and keep abreast of its current status, including any upcoming changes and how these changes may affect your employees. Communicate with your employees, letting them know what you have learned.

Be prepared for changeIf you have a firm grasp of your organization’s vision, you will be able to detect discrepancies between your current situation and where the organization would like to be. Anticipate any forthcoming changes, and be prepared to guide your employees through a change effort when the time comes.

Encourage employee participationEncourage your employees to learn new things and contribute ideas for how to improve productivity. If you welcome their suggestions, employees are more likely to feel like part of a team, which can increase their company loyalty.

Promote cooperation Asses the talents and skills of your employees. Once you understand which areas they have strength in, create situations where employees with diverse skills must work together so that their talents can compliment one another.

Offer opportunities for growth Just as an organization should be constantly changing and growing, so should its employees. Recognize that your employees may have more to offer. Provide trainings to help them hone their skills, and present challenges that will encourage employees to push themselves and take on new responsibilities.



Leadership Roles

Leaders are required to fulfill a variety of roles, such as:

Director Taking what you know of your organization’s vision, you must direct your employees to meet goals that help promote the success of the organization.

Motivator It is your job to encourage employees when they are having a difficult time fulfilling their duties. Listen to their concerns, and help them realize that everything they are doing is vital to the organization’s success.

Negotiator When conflict arises, it is your job to listen to all sides of an issue and work with your employees to come to a mutually beneficial resolution.

Coach Show employees how to perform their jobs in the easiest, most efficient way possible, helping them to reach their full potential. Liaison Communicate with upper management regarding employee concerns, or smooth the way so that employees can speak with upper management themselves when the situation warrants it.

Model Sometimes the best way to teach employees is to let your actions speak for you. Lead by example, demonstrating the types of characteristics you want your employees to embody.



Characteristics of a Good Leader

Activity Leadership Acronym

There are many traits associated with good leadership. Arranging them into an acronym can be a useful mnemonic device to help you focus. The following is just one possible example:

Loyalty – You should demonstrate loyalty to both the organization and your employees.

Enthusiasm – Show enthusiasm about your work and your employees are likely to follow.

Appreciation – Encourage your employees by providing positive feedback when it is due.

Decisiveness – Be willing to act, and trust the decisions you make.

Ethics – Strive to be fair and moral, doing what is right, not just what is legal.

Respect – Show respect for your employees and they will do the same for you.

Selflessness – Focus on the needs of your employees and the organization rather than yourself.

Honesty – Admit when you’ve made a mistake, and avoid hiding information from employees.

Innovation – Embrace change, always looking for better ways to achieve your goals.

Power – You must be willing to exercise authority when needed, but always in a positive way.

Can you create your own acronym?



Performance Coaching Skills

Fundamentals of Coaching

What is Coaching?Coaching is a type of immediate on-the-job training where leaders work to help associates or employees maximize their potential via personalized advice. Coaching is an excellent way to help associates or employees increase their productivity and reach their goals. Coaching should be distinguished from counseling. Generally, counseling deals with personal issues. It is also important to note that coaching is not the same as managing. Managers focus on directing or telling employees what to do in order to achieve certain results or reach some sort of milestone on a project. Coaching takes a broader view, focusing on overall development rather than on specific work tasks.

Establishing a Coaching EnvironmentAlthough the time and energy required to coach an associate or employee may seem like a hassle, you should not shy away from this task. Coaching provides an excellent opportunity to shape associates and help them better serve the organization. To do this, you must foster an environment that encourages learning.

Promoting a Learning Environment

Build relationships with your employees – Before you can effectively coach someone, you should spend time with that person in order to better understand his or her problems, needs, goals, and methods of interacting. Not only will this give you the background information you need to formulate a coaching strategy, it will help the employee or associate see you as an accessible and caring leader, someone he or she can trust.

Establish your credibility – As a leader, your employees or associates will constantly be watching you. You can go a long way towards establishing credibility if you lead by example. Show through your daily actions that you are a competent leader, and if you are going to coach associates on certain principles, make sure that you yourself follow them. Remain enthusiastic, and demonstrate that you care about both the success of the company or organization and the people as individuals.



Give your associates or employees a voice – It is a fact of organizational life that you have to perform certain tasks to achieve goals. Rather than dictating every action your employees or associates must take, work together to develop a list of activities that must be completed to reach a defined goal or milestone. Not only will this give your associates a sense of empowerment, they will be less likely to disagree with your expectations if they are involved in creating their list of duties.Provide constructive feedback – An employee or associate may not necessarily be familiar with certain tasks or procedures. Become familiar with an employee or associate’s level of experience before offering suggestions for improvement. If an employee or associate is doing well, it is often helpful to offer encouragement and positive feedback in a public setting; this will help raise the person’s morale, as well as let others know what sort of work you approve of. However, negative feedback should always be given in private; this will prevent embarrassing the individual in front of his or her coworkers.

Performance Management

Performance management is a method used to accomplish this goal. Performance management is an ongoing process of coaching employees and giving them immediate feedback. Performance is an ongoing process focused on continuous improvement, not a single program, but a process to monitor and reinforce desired actions (Barton 1995)

According to Barton (1995) performance management or coaching of employees embodies five steps:1. Focus on what is important2. Measure to determine how much progress is being made3. Feedback4. Reinforce, celebrate achievements as they are unfolding5. Reward to reinforce appropriate performance

Coaching encourages employees to generate their own solutions to performance problems. It emphasizes collaboration, not confrontation, coaching improves workplace effectiveness while avoiding the costly stress generated by disciplinary sessions. Coaching has a bottom-line impact on business (Perry 2000). Coaching employees should be a managerial responsibility. A coaching plan for an employee should be based on several factors (Liebowitz 2003):

Professional experiences of employee Employee’s personality What the employee needs to develop professional to meet the

goals of the organization



Establishing Trust with Associates or Employees

An important part of the coaching relationship is building trust with your associates or employees. If your associates trust you, they will be far more likely to communicate their feelings and concerns, which will in turn help you guide them towards reaching their full potential.

Building Trust

Use the following guidelines to help you establish a trusting relationship with your associates or employees:

Be available – The very first step in building a relationship with your associates or employees is to make yourself accessible. You cannot build trust with someone if you are never there. Have an open door policy, and let your associates or employees know that they should feel free to come to you with their problems and concerns.

Be confidential – Your associates will never feel comfortable talking to you if they don’t believe that their conversations with you are private. Assure them that anything they say to you will not be repeated to their coworkers or other employees in the office.

Be respectful – You do not have to agree with an associate or employee’s viewpoint, but you need to respect his or her beliefs and values. If you demean a person’s belief system or lifestyle, you run the risk of that person becoming defensive and resisting to your coaching efforts. It also follows that if you do not respect your associates, they will not respect you, which will make them less likely to value what you have to say.

Be supportive – Associates or employees are more likely to thrive if they believe you actually care about them as individuals. Try to be empathic and truly understand the situation each of your associates is in, actively listening when they come to you with their concerns. In addition, work to educate your employees, gathering the resources that they each need to develop, to grow and to achieve their goals.

Be reasonable – You can build trust with your associates or employees by demonstrating that you are a fair and reasonable person. Reserve your judgment about a negative situation until you have all of the facts, and provide feedback that is constructive rather than demeaning if the circumstances call for some sort of corrective action.



Coaching Diverse Associates or Employees

Every workforce is composed of unique individuals. People will differ in terms of race, education, beliefs, values, behavior, learning pace and a multitude other factors, which means you will need to adapt your coaching methods to suit each person’s needs. Familiarize yourself with your associates or employees, and note how they react to various situations. There are four major interpersonal styles that you are likely to encounter: Director / Authoritative; Energizer / Persuasive; Harmonizer / Cooperative; and Analyzer / Selective.

Four Major Styles of Interacting

Driver / Authoritative – People with an authoritative personality style are characterized by being direct and assertive. They often have strong opinions on issues, and they tend to make rapid decisions, welcome challenges, and push to achieve results quickly.

Energizer / Persuasive – People with persuasive personalities like to influence others. They usually have good communication and motivational skills, which they will use to convince people to see things their way and shape their environment to match their ideals and goals.

Harmonizer / Cooperative – People with a cooperative personality style like to work with others to achieve a common goal. They are likely to be proponents of team projects and will work in a consistent, methodical manner to complete their tasks. Unexpected change may be troublesome to them because of the strain it causes to working relationships.

Analyzer / Selective – People with selective personalities demand both accuracy and quality when working towards a goal. They are very analytical and prefer to follow established guidelines and procedures when completing a task.

Coaching Specific Interpersonal Types

Coaching Driver / Authoritative Associates – Since authoritative associates or employees tend to be assertive, be specific about your expectations, but give them the opportunity to have some control and make their own decisions. Offer a variety of challenges and compliment them when they make good choices.

Coaching Energizer / Persuasive Associates – Associates or employees with persuasive personalities enjoy the opportunity to work with and direct others. Give them the opportunity to lead team projects or be the liaison between your office and other departments. Allow them to share their ideas, and publicly praise their accomplishments.

Coaching Harmonizer / Cooperative Associates – Cooperative associates or employees enjoy being team players. Give them many opportunities to work together with others to achieve a goal.



Communicate with them in a personal manner, and let them know that you appreciate how hard they work to help people function as a unit.

Coaching Analyzer / Selective Associates – Selective associates or employees are often very meticulous and prefer to follow established guidelines. Provide them with a structured working environment, giving them many details about the tasks they must accomplish. When you praise their accomplishments, make sure you highlight the quality of their work.

Combining Coaching Methods – These coaching guidelines are not hard-and-fast rules. Many people will not fall neatly into one category or another. Get to know your associates or employees, and combine the various suggestions to find the approach that works best for each person.



Personal Influence

When we talk about influencing other people, we generally mean getting them to do something or to think or behave in a certain way.

Three Types of Influence

In the workplace, you have three kinds of influence available to you: position influence, domineering influence, and interpersonal influence.

Position influence

Position influence is derived from your job position or title. You use your authority to meet your objective. This kind of influence usually results in compliance: employees do what you want because you’re their boss. Position influence can be temporary if you are a project head or in charge of a particular assignment.

The best uses of position influence are when there are strict rules and established procedures, when automatic compliance is required, to recognize and strengthen good performance, and to deal with performance or conduct issues.

Domineering influence

Domineering influence is usually based on frustration and involves harsh behavior, threats, and elevated tones. The result is often hostility and passive-aggressive behavior. It can destroy working relationships and therefore should only be used when all else fails.



Interpersonal influence

Unlike position or domineering influence, interpersonal influence has to be developed or earned. It does not come with a job title or emotion. You build interpersonal influence as you demonstrate your own qualities and skills, such as good listening and reacting skills, a sense of humor, and reliability. Interpersonal influence is based on trust, support, and collaboration. It results in commitment to the task or purpose: people decide that they want to work with you to get the job done.Interpersonal influence is best used:

When you have no direct control over others. When “buy-in” is required. When creativity and two-way information sharing is

required. With professionals who expect to be treated with respect

and to work collaboratively. For teambuilding. For responding to change.

Even if you predominantly use one type of influence, you may use all three types with some individuals and groups or in some situations.



Effective Interpersonal Influence

Interpersonal influence is something you develop over time, as you build relationships. It is also something that you develop as you gain knowledge and experience in your job. The more you know about your organization, the better equipped you are to positively influence those you need to.

Effective interpersonal influence involves three core elements: “I”, “You,” and “We.” Each element reflects an attitude. When you adopt this attitude, you tend to act in a way that contributes to effective interpersonal influence.

The “I” element. This element reflects the attitude, “I am a trustworthy ally.” It involves taking actions that demonstrate your personal reliability, competence, and commitment. People learn about you from what you say and how you act. They will determine whether you are trustworthy based on your actions, and they will notice quickly if your actions do not correspond with your words.

Examples of actions that can destroy your credibility include: Criticizing people behind their backs. “Passing the buck.” Repeating confidential information to others.

If people decide you are not trustworthy, a strong barrier will be created to building an influence relationship.

The “You” element. This element reflects the attitude, “You are a valuable resource.” Actions that demonstrate this attitude show the other person that you value a working relationship with him or her. Examples include asking for their opinions and ideas and showing appreciation for their contributions.

The “We” element. This element reflects the attitude, “We can accomplish this together.” The “I” and “We” elements together enable you to build an influence relationship. After you’ve done that, you can use the relationship to work together to solve problems and accomplish your goals (the “We” element).



Understanding How You Think

Have you ever noticed what happens when you really listen to another person without intending to respond? Perhaps not, because most of us listen only rarely. Usually what we hear is received through many filters, including:

Assumptions and biases. Resistances and barriers stemming from a different set of

beliefs. Preoccupation with identifying areas of agreement with

our own beliefs, and the significance of such agreement. Thinking about how we will respond.

Sometimes it’s difficult to differentiate between what a person actually says and how we interpret what they said. In other words, our own beliefs affect what and how we hear.

Ladder of Inference

Dr. William Isaacs, of the Dialogos Institute at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, has described a model that explains our thinking process as we interact with the world. This seven-step process, called the Ladder of Inference, is illustrated on the next page. According to this model, as we move up the ladder our beliefs affect what we infer about what we observe and therefore become part of how we experience our interaction with other people.



All the information in the world.

I take ACTIONS based on my beliefs.

I adopt BELIEFS about the world.

I draw CONCLUSIONS.

I make ASSUMPTIONS based on the meanings I added.

I add MEANINGS (cultural and personal).

I select DATA from what I observe.

An obvious example of this would be only “hearing” that which supports your own argument. But the process is usually much more subtle. Your background influences the meanings you ascribe to what you hear, which in turn lead you to make assumptions. In fact, your beliefs affect which data you select in the first place.

If you take the time to “walk” down the Ladder of Inference, you can learn a great deal about how your own beliefs, assumptions, background, culture, and other influences (i.e., your own personal paradigm) affect how you interpret what others say and how you interact with them. It is also a useful tool for reaching a better understanding of those you lead.



Creating an Environment of LeadershipThe Ladder of Inference is also a useful tool for creating a leadership environment.

T i p s

Tips: Using the Ladder of Inference to Create an Environment of Leadership

As you interact with other people, try walking down the ladder to gain a better understanding of how youand theythink.

Listen carefully to what people actually say. Try not to interpret at first.

Listen for conclusions and beliefsyours and theirs.o Do they jump to conclusions?o What conclusions are you making as you listen?

Listen for directly observable data.o Can you form a picture of what they are saying in

your mind?o Ask yourself: What led them to think as they do?

Suspend your certainties and conclusions.o Do they act as if their conclusions are obvious?o Do you? o Are there other ways of seeing things?

What must be the Ladder of Inference in their minds?



Inquiry vs. Advocacy

What happens when you sit down with another person or a group of people and discuss something (an issue, a plan, a goal, a problem)? A healthy discussion will include first inquiry, then advocacy.

Inquiry. Inquiry involves talking with other people and learning from them. At this stage, you are not judging, arguing, or trying to present your own viewpointjust learning.

During this phase you should strive not only to hear the other person’s words, but to learn about their mental models to understand where they are coming from and what they are really saying.

This is also a time for observing your own thoughts, checking out your Ladder of Inference. Inquiry requires that you suspend assumptions. This does not mean laying them aside, but rather bringing them forward and making them explicit so that you and the others can explore their meaning and impact.

Advocacy. A second aspect of communication, after the inquiry stage, is advocacy. Advocacy involves “selling” an idea or position or directing attention to certain facts you think are relevant. This is when you begin to evaluate ideas, narrow the field, and work toward consensus.

In a team context, inquiry and advocacy are sometimes called dialogue and discussion. During the dialogue phase, everyone should be in an inquiry modesharing facts, ideas and opinions without evaluating or defending them. By the time you move to the discussion phase, everyone should have a common understanding of all the facts and viewpoints. Then comes discussion, when you try to determine what you believe in.

The problem in many teams is that they tend to move too quickly to discussion, without adequate inquiry. This has the effect of stifling creative thinking and undermining trust.

Balancing Inquiry and Advocacy

The keyboth within yourself and in working with a teamis to balance inquiry and advocacy. You need both.

In your efforts to develop self-knowledge, be aware of your intentions behind your inquiry and advocacy, and strive to balance the two. Then work to enable your group to do the same. Here are some suggestions.



T i p s

Tips for Balancing Inquiry and Advocacy

Become aware of the gap between what you intend and what you actually do. (Notice other people’s reactions to you: Are they what you expected? Why or why not?) Make an effort to understand and begin to close this gap.

Let go of the win/lose mindset of controlled discussion. Decide to learn from others.

Make your thinking visible, and ask others to do the same. State your assumptions, explain your reasoning, and give examples.

Avoid defensiveness when your ideas are questioned.

Be aware when you or others are jumping to conclusions.

Gently walk others down the Ladder of Inference and find out what data they are operating from. Use unaggressive language (e.g., “Can you help me understand your thinking here?”).

Listen without resistance. Hear ideas as if for the first time. Respect differences.

Suspend role and status during dialogue; let leadership become a shared responsibility of the whole group.

Try to bring forward people who have not spoken, and prompt them to add their views.

Take risks by participating and being willing to make mistakes. Speak from your own experience.

When advocating, stay open and encourage others to give different views.

If you notice that a discussion is lopsided, let the group know what you’ve observed. Help the group to balance inquiry and advocacy by making your own contributions in a way that creates more balance.



Activity

ActivityLadder of Inference

To walk down your Ladder of Inference, try this:

1. Look at the front page of your daily newspaper, and pick a story.

2. Read the story, then answer this question:At lunch, one of your colleagues asks, “So, what do you think about [the topic of the story you selected]?” How would you respond? (At this point, don’t overanalyze; just respond.)

3. Next, think about how you arrived at your response. Consider these questions:

What made you select that particular story? Did the headline tie in with strong opinions or past experience on your part?

What beliefs or opinions did you already hold, related to this topic, before you read the story?

What kinds of assumptions did you make as you read the story (For example, if people were quoted, did you believe them? Why or why not?)?

How did those assumptions affect the conclusions you drew about the story?

Did your conclusions differ in any way from opinions you already held?



Activity

Your Inner Leader

1. Think about a specific group you are responsible for leading. In the Johari Window below, fill in the following information:

a. Open Area: Things about you that are known both to you and to the group.

b. Hidden Area: Things about you that you know but the group doesn’t know

Try to list at least five things in each area.

Johari Window

Known to Self Unknown to Self

Known to Others

Open Area

Blind Area

Unknown to OthersHidden Area

Unknown Area



2. Identify at least one item in your hidden area that, if brought into the open area (i.e., making it known to the group), could improve your effectiveness as a leader.

3. What would be a good way to make this trait known to the group?

4. What are some strategies you can use to learn about what lies in your Blind Area?

5. Review the personal goals you recorded in the first unit. Add at least one new goal, based on what you have learned in this unit.



Case Study Case StudyWhat Did I Do Wrong?

Read the case study below. Then, analyze the case to determine what went wrong.

You are the assistant emergency planner in a small Midwestern town. As this is your first job out of college, you are excited about being able to help your community in its preparedness efforts.

One of your first responsibilities involved touring a local nursing home and assisting the administrator, Mrs. Jones, with the facility’s evacuation plan. Your call to schedule an appointment with Mrs. Jones went well, and you arrive just a few minutes after your appointment time. Mrs. Jones keeps you waiting for 10 minutes more before seeing you.

After exchanging initial pleasantries, Mrs. Jones, who appears to be in her early sixties, takes you on a tour of the facility and introduces you to the residents that you meet along the way. As Mrs. Jones introduces you, she takes time to chat with the residents, whom she addresses by first name. Following her lead, you chat briefly with the residents, also addressing them by first name. For the remainder of the tour, you notice that Mrs. Jones has little to say, but that doesn’t bother you. It gives you time to think about how the facility can rewrite its evacuation plan.

By the time that you finish your tour, you are very excited because of all the ideas you have for helping with the evacuation plan. When you return to Mrs. Jones’s office, you immediately begin telling Mrs. Jones the improvements you have in mind. Imagine your surprise when the look she gives you stops you in your tracks.



Answers to Case Study

What might you have done to turn Mrs. Jones off?

While there are no definitive answers provided in the case study, some points you might consider are:

You may have gotten off on the wrong foot by being late for the appointment. Some people view punctuality as a sign of respect for their time. The fact that Mrs. Jones kept you waiting for 10 minutes might indicate a last-minute phone call—or it might indicate her irritation with the fact that you were tardy.

There is quite an age difference between Mrs. Jones and you—and an even greater age difference between the residents and you. Referring to the residents by their first names was probably a mistake, which Mrs. Jones took as a sign of disrespect. Her quiet attitude following your discussion with the residents might very well have indicated her annoyance.

You probably also made a mistake by starting on “improvements” immediately upon returning to Mrs. Jones’s office without thanking her for showing you around, complimenting her on the facility, or even acknowledging the strengths of the existing facility plan.



Interpersonal StyleUnderstanding Interpersonal StylesInterpersonal Style is a behavioral model that helps people to better understand themselves and others. The understanding can lead to improved communications and more positive relationships. There is no doubt that how people interact with others is influenced by personality, motives, and values. When looking at interpersonal style, however, the focus is on the behaviors and not the underlying dynamics that predispose people to behave in one way or another.

The behaviors people exhibit in their interactions are not typically random or erratic but rather cluster around some basic dimensions. Looking at behaviors through this dimensional framework helps us recognize differences in people from a base that permits understanding and appreciation.

There are four primary interpersonal styles, and each has its strengths and potential weaknesses. There is no one best style. The following diagram illustrates the framework and cluster categories that are commonly used for profiling interpersonal styles.

Common Interpersonal Styles Profile Categories

Analyzer / Selective Driver / Authoritative

Harmonizer / Cooperative Energizer / Persuasive



The Case for Self-Knowledge

The first step in this process of leadership growth is developing self-knowledge. Self-knowledge is an awareness of our internal feelings, preferences, biases, strengths, and weaknesses.

What are some of the ways that increased self-knowledge can strengthen you as a leader? Take a few moments to jot your ideas in the space below.

Benefits of Increased Self-Knowledge

Self-knowledge is a common trait among great leaders. Effective leaders tend to look inside themselves. They are centered, have an internal locus of control, and exhibit self-understanding and self-confidence. Most leaders find that increased self-knowledge helps them:

• Understand others.

• Understand and manage their reactions to others.

• Appreciate others’ points of view.

• Leverage their strengths.

• Strengthen or compensate for their weaknesses.

• Earn trust.

• Be aware of how they impact others, both positively and negatively.

• Have more self-confidence.



The Johari Window

The Johari Window, shown below, is a model that gives us a visual way to think about self-knowledge.

Johari Window


Known to Others Open Area Blind Area

Unknown to Others Hidden Area Unknown Area

Joe Luft and Harry Ingham

This model delineates four quadrants involved in interpersonal relationships:

The open area is what we both know about me and openly share.

The hidden area is what I hide from you about myself.

The blind area is what you know about mewhat you keep from me, what you observe about me, or think or feel about me, of which I am unaware.

The unknown area is part of me, from my past, about which neither one of us yet knows, at least on a conscious level.



The more we can increase the parts of ourselves that are known to self and others, the greater our potential for building effective relationships, both at home and in the workplace.

The most effective leaders expand their open area, creating a picture that looks more like this:

Johari Window


Known to Others Open Area Blind Area

Unknown to Others

Hidden Area Unknown Area

Benefits. You’ve already considered some of the benefits of increasing the area that you know about yourself. But increasing what others know about you is one of the most important things you can do to build trust with those you lead.

When leaders make their reasoning and thinking apparent to others, they build trust over time. As a result, others are then more willing to give them the benefit of a doubt during those times when the leader can’t share information.

Opening Up. Becoming more open means showing people more of your thinking, more of the things you are wrestling with, more about your objectives, and your likes and dislikes with respect to the “business” of emergency management. It means making yourself more available. (Remember, though, we’re talking about work-related issues, not personal issues.)



Test for yourself to see if this is true: have the leaders you really trusted and respected been more open about themselves than other leaders? Did they let you in on their preferences, biases, strengths, and weaknesses with respect to work issues?

Truebeing more open involves some risk. But the potential payoff is greater trust, understanding, and the benefit of a doubt when it’s needed.

Ways to Increase Self-Knowledge

Whether or not you consider yourself a self-aware person, there are many ways to learn more about yourself and how you lead. Three important methods include:

Self-assessment.

Self-reflection.

Soliciting authentic feedback.

Self-AssessmentWe tend to be an outward-oriented society. That tendency leads us to think that both our problems and their solutions are outside of us. Our culture doesn’t put a high priority on self-assessment.

Significance.The upside of this is that we become good at recognizing and analyzing the world outside ourselves. But the downside is that we tend to overlook the ways in which we ourselves are impacting the world around us. We tend to be less aware of the choices we make, our own responses to situations, and our own resources that can help us succeed.

Our outward orientation can blind us to perhaps our most important and readily available resource: our own talents, preferences, and choices.



Self-Reflection

Self-reflection is another method for increasing self-awareness. Self-reflection is the ability to “hit the pause button” and critically assess yourself or a situation.

Why is self-reflection important to leadership?

Self-reflection helps you ensure that you are taking actions that are sound and not simply running on “auto pilot” but rather are conscious about doing what is most important in any given situation.

Self-reflection can help you learn from your experienceto avoid the trap of simply repeating things that aren’t working.Self-reflection helps you ensure that you are taking actions that are sound and not simply running on “auto pilot” but rather are conscious about doing what is most important in any given situation.

Self-reflection can help you learn from your experienceto avoid the trap of simply repeating things that aren’t working.

Self-reflection allows you to notice your habitual ways of responding so that you have the option of approaching things differently.

Methods. There are many ways to reflect, and some methods may work better for you than others. One approach is just to take a short time-out in which you simply stop and think. Other approaches include:

• Journal writing.

• Note taking.

• Talking to others (“thinking out loud”).

• Speaking into a tape.

• Meditation.

• Drawing pictures.



DefinitionWhat Is Psychological Type?

A psychological type is a personality pattern based on the theory of psychiatrist Carl Jung. Based on his observation of people’s behavior, Jung concluded that people have inherent differences in how they use their minds and where they derive and focus their energy.

Jung identified two mental processes:

Taking in information (or perceiving).

Organizing information and drawing conclusions (or judging).

Jung also identified two different ways that people do each of these mental activities:

People take in information either through their senses or by intuition.

People organize information either by thinking or by feeling.

People also differ in where they derive and focus their energy. They are either externally oriented (extroverts), energized by people and activity; or internally oriented (introverts), energized by ideas and thoughts.

These different ways of organizing and relating to the world obviously can be combined in different ways, thus creating different psychological types. For example, one person could be an extrovert who relies on thinking more than feeling and sensing over intuiting, while another individual could be an introvert who is intuitive and feeling-oriented.

What Are Preferences?

Preferences are the dominant ways that an individual functions. The following brief exercise illustrates what is meant by preferences.

Fold your hands. Note which thumb is on top. Now fold your hands so that the opposite thumb is on top. Did you notice that you naturally fold your hands one way, while the other required a bit more thought and effort? The natural way—the way you do it first, without thinking—is your preference. Notice that you were able to do the task the other way, but that it was not your preferred way.

Using Type Inventories to Determine Preferences

One kind of personality test called a type inventory can help you to determine your preferred or dominant ways of functioning, including your preferred decision-making style. Such tests ask you to answer a series of questions, and, based on your responses, assign you a type that is an aggregate of your preferences.



One such test is the MBTI®. The MBTI® is based on the personality theory of Jung described above. It assesses the test taker’s preferences on four polarities:

Extroversion vs. introversion (where energy is derived and focused)

Sensing vs. intuition (how information is obtained)

Thinking vs. feeling (how decisions are made)

Judging vs. perceiving (how the test taker is oriented toward the external world)

Based on the test taker’s expressed preferences, the MBTI® assigns a type coded by four letters (one letter for each polarity—e.g., E or I for the first scale). Because these four preferences can be combined in various ways, there are a total of 16 psychological types.

It is important to note that there are no right or wrong preferences. Each type has characteristic strengths and weaknesses. The point is to know yourself so you can maximize your strengths, minimize or compensate for your weaknesses, and realize that your preferences affect the way you make decisions.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®

Log onto the MBTI® Web site:

www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp and complete the inventory. Note your type and then continue with this unit.


http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp


Activity

ActivitySelf-knowledgeSelf-knowledge can make me a stronger leader in the following ways:



Resolving Workplace Conflicts and Negotiating SuccessfullyWhat is Conflict?

Team conflict can take many forms. It can occur between two individuals, such as when one person does not agree with the views of another, or it can occur between several individuals, such as when the whole team is upset with one member. Oftentimes, conflicts fall into one of three different categories”

Content Conflicts These conflicts are based on the subject matter of team discussions. If someone has issues with an idea that is brought up during a team meeting, this would be a content conflict. Process Conflicts These conflicts occur when there are disagreements over how a team should accomplish certain tasks. If one team member is used to doing things a certain way and the others are not, this could cause a process conflict. Interpersonal ConflictsThese conflicts are based upon the relationships between team members. If one team member dislikes another team member for some reason, this could cause an interpersonal conflict if the two people are unwilling to put aside their differences for the sake of accomplishing the team’s goals.

Theories of ConflictConflict may be one of the least understood communication concepts. Conflicts can be good or bad and can be productive or destructive (Hoover 2002). Conflict has many overlapping dynamics and processes; conflict is complex (Isenhart and Spangle 2000)

There are a variety of theories to explain the dynamics of conflict. Theories can provide insight about the “whys” and “whats” of conflicts. Hoover (2000) presents eight theories of conflict.

Attribution TheoryPeople assign qualities and causes to people and situations based on what is most relevant to them.

Equity TheoryPeople become distresses, frustrated and angry when they perceive that they are not receiving fair distribution

Field TheoryEach context such as family, community group, work setting serves as a psychological field where antagonistic interest or competing attitudes create safe or hostile climates.

Interactional Theory



Conflict is a process of ongoing negotiation about what is valued, how behaviors are interpreted and the meaning of events.



Methods of Resolving Conflict

CollaborationThis is the most effective way to resolve conflict in teams. When using this method, the goal is to achieve a “win-win” resolution. All possible options are considered, and the team works to achieve consensus on the best way to proceed. However, this method can be rather time-consuming and requires a lot of energy from all members of the team. When dealing with issues that aren’t critical to team success, the effort needed for collaboration may not be worth the results.

Avoidance / Accommodation Some people chose to avoid conflict rather than confronting an issue. This can be seen when people either ignore a problem all together or give in to others with whom they disagree for the sake of resolution. This method is useful when an issue is minor. Avoiding trivial matters can save your team precious time and resources. However, this method should not be used when there is conflict regarding something important.

Controlling / Competing Some people like to control an argument. They see resolution as a chance to “win,” and they become defensive when their ideas are not totally accepted. This method can be useful for minor issues because it tends to lead to a quick resolution, but it should be avoided when confronting important problems because it creates a “win-lose” atmosphere and there is the potential for decisions to be accepted because of the forcefulness of the controller rather than the merit of the ideas.

CompromiseThis method of resolving conflict resembles negotiation. Each side will make concessions, winning on some issues and losing on others. This style is useful when there are irreconcilable differences and complete agreement cannot be reached.

Should Team Conflict Always be Avoided?

The word conflict carries with it a negative connotation. Therefore, it is easy to assume that all conflict is bad and should be avoided at all costs. However, there are times when conflict can be beneficial to the team.

Beneficial conflict So long as team members are open-minded and willing to consider other points of view, conflict over content or processes can actually help the team. Hearing different ideas about how to approach a problem can allow the team to become more innovative and find better solutions.



If a team is completely lacking in conflict, some of the members might be suffering from groupthink. This occurs when people are unwilling to raise opposing viewpoints, sacrificing innovation and productivity for the sake of group harmony. Even though the idea of a team without conflict may sound appealing, groupthink should be avoided because it can lead to teams accepting bad decisions or overlooking important issues

Detrimental conflict – Conflict is detrimental when it hinders progress towards team goals. If people are fighting over personal problems and attacking each other rather than focusing on the issues at hand, it will be difficult to get anything accomplished as a team.

Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Interacting With Your Teammates

Regardless of which method you use to resolve conflict, or how strongly you might disagree with the viewpoint of one of your teammates, you should always strive to treat each other with respect. Listen to what everyone has to say, and attempt to understand the perspective and emotional state of those with opinions that differ from your own. Be wary of the temptation to push for your ideas without considering the merit of other suggestions. Keep in mind that the goal is to do what is best for the team, which may mean having to discard your own ideas.

Case Study Case Study Mixed SignalsRead the following case study and answer the question below. Then turn the page to compare your answer with the suggested response.

Imagine yourself seated across from your supervisor’s desk telling her about a conflict with a coworker. As you relay the details of the incident, she begins to page through a color catalog of protective clothing that is open on the desk. When you ask her opinion, she continues to look downward, but responds, “Personnel issues are my highest priority. I will look into it.”

What are some of the feelings you might experience after this conversation?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________



AnswersAnswer to Case Study

What are some of the feelings you might have after this communication? Examine your answer to see if it includes any of these elements:

ConfusionMistrustDistanceDisrespect

No answer is incorrect.LearningPoints

It is especially troubling when people send mixed messages. Listeners instinctively react with mistrust and caution. When words and actions are not in sync, the nonverbal cues contradict or supersede verbal messages.Conflicting words and nonverbal messages can indicate that the speaker:Is experiencing conflictIs not sincereIs not committed to the message



NegotiationBasic Concepts of Negotiation

Negotiation is a form of communication that channels message through a constructive process whose goals involved both economic and social psychological interest. Negotiations serve as a communication tool for facilitating understanding, considering options, and discussions that lead to mutually satisfying outcomes. Negotiations can be thought of as a Venn diagram where two circles overlap. The negotiator’s job is to bring the circles together and to enlarge the area of overlap (Spangle and Isenhart 2003).

Negotiation, at its heart, is the act of bargaining to get what you want. In order to do this effectively, you need to know what you want, where you are flexible, and what strengths and weaknesses might come into play. The following terms should help you better understand the nuts and bolts of negotiation.

Terms You Should Know

Objectives – These are your general goals for the negotiation, i.e. what you would like to see accomplished. They can be broken down into four categories: Monetary, Growth, Status, and Principle.

Variables – These are your points of flexibility in a negotiation. In order for both parties to be satisfied, it is necessary for each side to be willing to give a little. Optimum variables are those things that you would most like to achieve. Alternate variables are outcomes that are acceptable, but not preferred.

Strengths – These are the factors that you have in your favor (e.g. reputation, supply and demand, etc.). You can also define your strengths in terms of the other party’s weaknesses.

Weaknesses – These are areas of constraint that limit your options (e.g. a tight budget). Weaknesses can also be defined in terms of the other party’s strengths (e.g. if the other party is the only supplier of something you need).



Activity

ActivityWhat are the four categories of objectives in negotiating?

1.

2.

3.

4.

Establishing Your RequirementsOnce you understand the basics of negotiation, it shouldn’t be difficult to establish your requirements. First, determine your objectives and see what categories they fall in to. Prioritize which objectives are most important, decide which variables you are willing to accept, and prepare to offer sound explanations for why your objectives are reasonable. It is also a good idea to familiarize yourself with both the strengths and weaknesses of your organization. You can use your strengths to help you negotiate, and you should be ready to counter the other party when they attack your weaknesses.

Researching the Other PartyBefore stepping into a negotiation, it is essential that you research the other party, gathering as much information as you can before you have to meet. For example, you may want to look into the history of a company or its present financial status. Information like this will help you determine what it is the company hopes to gain from the negotiations, which will in turn help you shape your negotiation tactics. If possible, you should also seek out information about the individual(s) you will be meeting with. A negotiator’s style, reputation, experience and educational background are all valuable pieces of information that will help you prepare to negotiate with that person.

Estimating the Other Party’s Requirements

While most of this will be hypothetical, it is still a useful exercise to try to estimate what the other party hopes to achieve from the negotiation. Try to put yourself in their shoes. Imagine that you are the other party, and set down a list of objectives you would like to see met. Prioritize these objectives, and then decide on potential optimum and alternate variables. Finally, set down a list of strengths and weaknesses. Analyzing the other party’s possible requirements the same way you would your own will help you when the time comes to actually negotiate. It will give you a better grasp of the type of concessions the other party might make and help ensure that an agreement that satisfies everyone will be reached.



Potential Information Sources

Internet - Especially when dealing with a well-established company or organization, the internet can be a valuable source of information. Press releases, product information, and the availability services should be easy to find on either the organization’s website or websites about the organization.

Magazines – Magazines are a good source of information for purchasing products. Not only can you find information about the product’s of the other party, you can look up the prices of similar products offered by the company’s competitors.

Direct communication – Although it may not be the most reliable source of information, you should still communicate with the other party and try to glean as much information as possible from them before the negotiation.

Word of mouth – If you know of people who have negotiated with the other party before, they may be able to offer useful information and insights that aren’t available from other sources.

Competitors and Vendors – An organization’s competitors and vendors may have information about its negotiation style and tactics that could be useful to you. You can also use information about the competition to your advantage during negotiations to show that you have other options.

T i p s

Facilitating an Agreement

Know what concessions you are willing to make before entering into a negotiation. It is likely that both parties will have to give up part or all of some objectives in order for the negotiation to be successful. You should know how much you can concede before a deal becomes unsatisfactory.Prepare an agenda for the meeting. If too much time is spent on one objective, you are likely to burn out before you cover everything you wish to discuss. It is better to move ahead and come back to a certain point after everything else has been settled.Compare your objectives, variables and concessions to those of the other party. This will help you uncover obstacles to negotiation and give you a starting place for working out an agreement that is beneficial to both sides.Prepare all formal documents ahead of time so that you will be ready to sign a contract immediately once an agreement has been made.



Think ahead. Although ideally a negotiation will end with a mutually beneficial agreement, you should have alternative plans ready in the event that the negotiations are unsuccessful. Especially when you are under time constraints, having a back-up plan is essential.

Logistical Issues to Consider

Where will the negotiations be held? Will they be at your company, the other party’s company, or at a neutral, off-site location? If both sides are reluctant to go to the other party’s location, a neutral site is probably for the best.

When will you hold the negotiations? Make sure you give yourself enough time to adequately prepare when setting a date for the negotiations. Also, try to pick a time of day when both parties will be refreshed and alert. At the very end of the day, people are likely to be tired from a full day’s work, and if either party has had to travel a long way, immediately after he or she arrives is not the best time to begin negotiations.

Will you need any special equipment? If your negotiations rely upon any special equipment, such as a projector, computer or VCR, make sure that the equipment is not only available, but that it is in properly functioning order. Having to deal with technical difficulties is not the best way to start off a negotiation.

What will the room set up be like? Try to pick a room with comfortable, yet professional, décor and lighting that is not overly bright. Also, select a room that best suits the number of people who will be present. A large room with lots of seating will seem daunting if there are only two of you, and a small room will feel cramped if there are many people on each negotiating team.



Supplemental MaterialsJob Aids

What are Job Aids?According to (Rossett and Gauiter-Downes 1991): A job aid:

is a repository for information, processes, or perspectives; is external to the individual; supports work and activity; directs, guides, and enlightens performance.

Note that job aids remain outside the individual, in their work environment, in the form of books, cards and software. Information that you memorize is not a job aid.

What does is a job aid? Here are some examples: You want to set the clock on your VCR because you're tired of

the blinking 12:00, so you turn to the VCR manual. Your spouse complains that he/she is sick of the usual, so you

decide to breakout the cookbook and create something special.

You want to perform a task in Microsoft Word, but you lost the documentation. You turn to the on-line help provided from within the program.

You lost the number of the handsome man with the enchanting last name. Consequently, the phone book becomes an important resource.

As you can see, these examples all support performance and allow the user to accomplish something. Instead of learning the VCR, the recipes, or one phone book by heart, you use a job aid What about those clever job aid wannabes though? Romance novels, for example are not job aids because they do not support performance. Well, not usually. Hammers and hair dryers are other good examples of non-job aids. Though they do support work and performance, but they are not repositories for information or processes. They are tools; this is what distinguishes a job aid from a tool. For additional information on job aid: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/540WWW/home.html


http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/540WWW/home.html


Example of a Job Aid from the WBT Business Etiquette

Job aid purpose: Use this job aid to help you properly introduce people.

Business introductions are based on rank

The person of higher rank always receives the person of lower rank. In other words, the person of lower rank is presented to the person of higher rank. Then, the introduction can be finished by introducing the person of higher rank to the person of lower rank. Gender and age do not affect this guideline.

Example: Adam Jackson, New Employee and Mary Meyers, Vice President of Marketing

''Ms. Meyers, may I introduce Adam Jackson. He came to us from ABC Corporation. Adam, meet Mary Meyers, our vice president of marketing.''

Be sure you always use each person's full name and provide information about each individual so that when the introduction is complete, the new acquaintances will have something with which to begin a conversation.

Use titles as appropriate in introductions

If an individual is your superior, address him or her as ''Mr.'' or ''Ms.'' If someone is the same rank as you, it is appropriate to use his or her first name. Professional titles, such as ''Dr.,'' should also be used during introductions.

Additional guidelines for making proper introductionsIntroduce anyone to a client.Introduce a younger individual to an older individual.Introduce a party or convention attendee to a guest of honor.Introduce a layperson to an official.

Introducing yourselfFeel free, as a guest, to introduce yourself to other guests.Leave off all titles.



Job Aid - Tips to Reduce Fear of Public Speaking

Preparation

Know your audience.

Preview the venue, if possible.

Do your research and know your facts.

Consider the emotional issues of your message.

Anticipate the questions you may be asked and prepare answers.

Practice

Present the speech aloud, to yourself, until it is completely familiar.

Read the speech in front of a mirror and ensure that your body language aids your message.

Seize all opportunities to speak aloud so that you become more comfortable (e.g., ask questions in meetings, join Toastmasters or another public-speaking group, speak to small friendly groups, present slides to your family, or teach a course).

Acceptance

Accept your nervousness as normal.

Accept that you may misspeak during your presentation and plan to correct yourself immediately and smoothly.



Job Aid: Preparing an Oral Presentation

Plan a Presentation

Determine the occasion and the goal of the presentation.

Learn about the audience so that you can tailor your message accordingly: Age range Gender ratio Size of the group Common interests Hot issues

Investigate the logistics: Room size Available equipment Number of other speakers

Be succinct. Plan to speak briefly and clearly. After the dedication of Gettysburg National Cemetery, the main speaker for the day, Edward Everett, compared his long speech to President Lincoln’s brief words, the “Gettysburg Address.” Mr. Everett wrote, “I should be glad, if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you came in two minutes.”

Develop a Presentation

Decide the type of speech that is appropriate: Informational Motivational A combination of both types

Determine the audience’s special needs: Cultural Language Physical characteristics

Outline the presentation Introduce the topic. Clarify your opinion. Identify key messages. Establish a logical sequence.



Identify the information or research required to support key points from: Colleagues Libraries Files

Develop a Delivery Strategy

How do you wish to appear?

What tone is appropriate for the subject matter and audience?

How can you use body language effectively?

Should you anticipate speech anxiety?

How long should you speak?Practice

Practice repeatedly until you are completely familiar with the content. Rehearse the opening of your speech until you have it memorized. (This strategy will help you to relax.)

Become comfortable with the pronunciation and enunciation of your material.

Present your speech in front of a mirror with a watch to check your pacing and ensure that your message fits the allotted time.

Ask an observer to provide feedback to refine your posture, eye contact, and gestures. Stand upright and relaxed. Make eye contact with people in various parts of the

room. Try to gesture an average of twice in each sentence. Turn your torso to face various parts of the audience. Use volume, pitch, and emphasis to maximize your

message.

If possible, videotape your practice session. Otherwise, tape-record yourself.

Use pauses for impact before you begin and during speech transitions.



Speech Construction

T i p s

Effective speeches feature an introduction, discussion, and conclusion. Each part offers unique opportunities to build toward your communication goal. Use the following job aid when writing your next oral presentation.

Job Aid: Writing Your Speech

Introduction

The beginning of the speech establishes your relationship with the audience and lets them know what to expect. This is the time and place in which you would:

Introduce yourself and establish credibility.

Express a single, topic sentence that captures the essence of your message.

Get your audience’s attention through: Relevant humor. Provocative statements. Startling facts. Rhetorical questions.

Make your personal stance clear.

Discussion

This section should illustrate or prove your viewpoint. Here you should:

Present your main points. Use statistics. Provide details. Draw analogies.

Stir emotion in the audience. Personalize your message through anecdotes or

examples. Let your enthusiasm and sincerity show. Use vivid language.



Job Aids

What are Job Aids?According to (Rossett and Gauiter-Downes 1991): A job aid:

is a repository for information, processes, or perspectives; is external to the individual; supports work and activity; directs, guides, and enlightens performance.

Note that job aids remain outside the individual, in their work environment, in the form of books, cards and software. Information that you memorize is not a job aid.

What does is a job aid? Here are some examples: You want to set the clock on your VCR because you're tired of

the blinking 12:00, so you turn to the VCR manual. Your spouse complains that he/she is sick of the usual, so you

decide to breakout the cookbook and create something special.

You want to perform a task in Microsoft Word, but you lost the documentation. You turn to the on-line help provided from within the program.

You lost the number of the handsome man with the enchanting last name. Consequently, the phone book becomes an important resource.

As you can see, these examples all support performance and allow the user to accomplish something. Instead of learning the VCR, the recipes, or one phone book by heart, you use a job aid What about those clever job aid wannabes though? Romance novels, for example are not job aids because they do not support performance. Well, not usually. Hammers and hair dryers are other good examples of non-job aids. Though they do support work and performance, but they are not repositories for information or processes. They are tools; this is what distinguishes a job aid from a tool. For additional information on job aid: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/540WWW/home.html


http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/540WWW/home.html


Conclusion

The end of a speech should be as carefully orchestrated as the other sections. Do not end a speech abruptly. Follow these steps:

Tell the audience that you are about to bring your remarks to a close.

Summarize your main points briefly.

Make a parting statement that is memorable.

Delivering Your Speech

When delivering your speech, be sure to keep the following tips in mind:

Use proper grammar.

Transition smoothly between points.

Watch your nonverbals—use appropriate voice inflection and tone and body language.

Use the appropriate voice volume for the room’s size and acoustics. If using a microphone, stand close enough for pickup, but not so close that your “p’s” pop.

Consider using visual aids if possible as attention-getters and attention-holders and to reinforce the content of your speech.



Conclusion

The end of a speech should be as carefully orchestrated as the other sections. Do not end a speech abruptly. Follow these steps:

Tell the audience that you are about to bring your remarks to a close.

Summarize your main points briefly.

Make a parting statement that is memorable.

Delivering Your Speech

When delivering your speech, be sure to keep the following tips in mind:

Use proper grammar.

Transition smoothly between points.

Watch your nonverbals—use appropriate voice inflection and tone and body language.

Use the appropriate voice volume for the room’s size and acoustics. If using a microphone, stand close enough for pickup, but not so close that your “p’s” pop.

Consider using visual aids if possible as attention-getters and attention-holders and to reinforce the content of your speech.



Job Aid: Self-Reflection Techniques

Journal Writing

Journal writing is one technique for self-reflection. Approached in the right way, it can be a process of discovery rather than mere reporting. Productive journal writing takes very little time and can be of great benefit. It can be a powerful tool for reflection, self-discovery, problem solving, learning, and integration. Here’s how it works:

1. Think about a situation at work with which you are currently struggling or feeling unsettled. (This technique is also good for situations in your personal life.)

2. Write down a set of questions you want to reflect on concerning the situation. Put each question on a separate page, to allow lots of room to write. For starters, try these questions:

a. What about this situation is uncomfortable or difficult for me?b. What did I learn about myself and/or the situation?c. What are all of the possible steps I can think of to take, based on

what I’ve just learned?

As you become familiar with this technique, you can vary the questions to accommodate your own needs for personal growth.

3. Decide on a time limit (for example, 3 minutes per question). If possible, set a timer so you don’t have to watch the time.

4. Begin writing. Write about the first question continuously for the allotted time. Write whatever comes to your mind. Don’t worry about grammar or punctuation. Just do not stop writing until the time is up.

5. Respond in the same manner, writing continuously, to each question.

Try this technique every day for a week before you decide whether this approach is a good one for you.



Components of a Plan of Action

Plan of ActionProject:

Goal:

Objective:

Strategy:

Actions Steps:

Person Responsible:

Resources Needed:

Timeline:



Recommended Readings and Resources

Barton, P. A. (1995). "Performance management: Effective programs drive productivity, quality and customer satisfaction." ACA News 38(1): 1.

Denziel, G. (2004). "E-mail Use and Communication Perceptions of University of Vermont Extension Employees." Journal of Extension 42(3).

Glavin, T. (2004). "E-mail Madness." Training 41(4): 16.

Hoover, J. D. (2002). Effective Small Group and Team Communication. Orlando, FL, Harcourt College Publishers.

Isenhart, M. W. and M. Spangle (2000). Collaborative Approaches to Resolving Conflict. Thousands Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, Inc.

King, J. L., R. E. Grinter, et al. (1997). The rise and fall of netville: A saga of cyberspace construction boomtown in the Great Divide. The Culture of the Internet. S. Kiesler. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associated: 5-7.

Kraut, R. E. and P. Attewell (1997). Media use in a global corporation: Electronic mail and organizational knowledge. Culture of the Internet. S. Kiesler. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 323-342.

Liebowitz, B. (2003). "Coaching Managers." Healthcare Financial Management 57(4): 108-112.

Perry, P. M. (2000). "Coaching Employees to Generate Solutions." 35 3(84-88).

Rossett, A. and J. Gauiter-Downes (1991). A Handbook of Job Aids. San Diego, Pfeiffer & Company.

Samovar, L. A., L. D. Henman, et al. (1996). Small Group Process. Small Group Communication. R. S. Cathcart, L. S. Samavor and L. D. Henman. Dubuque, IA, Brown & Benchmark: 8.

Spangle, M. L. and M. W. Isenhart (2003). Negotiation Communication for Diverse Settings. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.

Webopedia. (2004, July 27, 2004). Retrieved July 26, 2005, from http://www.webopedia.com


http://www.webopedia.com/


ReferenceLibrary

For More Information

FEMA EMI Independent Study Course IS242: Effective Communication

Leadership in organizations: www.managementhelp.org

Leading vs. managing: SBA Women’s Business Center, www.onlinewbc.org

Leadership styles and attitudes: www.ee.ed.ac.uk

Traits of managers and leaders, leadership trends: www.itstime.com

Mental models, Ladder of Inference: www.learning-org.com

Inquiry and advocacy: http://diversity.uoregon.edu/articles_front/nagae2.html

Summary &Transition

Summary and Transition

In this unit you learned about the importance effective communication in the workplace. You learned how your communication skills impact almost every aspect in the workplace.

You learned that communication encompasses everything from how you write (grammar skills) to how you communicate with an ever increasing diverse workforce to how you negotiate with other and how you resolve conflicts

To help understand how to effectively communicate with others you were asked to conduct a self-analysis to see how you think and how this impacts your communication skills.

Well -developed communication skills are key to becoming an effective leader. In Module 2, organization change will be examined and the importance of a good leader to guide organizations through the uncertainty of change.



Glossary

Arbitration – when disputants need a third party to hear their dispute and make the decision for them. The decision can be binding or nonbinding (Isenhart and Spangle 2000).Interpersonal Styles

Communication – process of creating a shared meaning in order to bring people and ideas together (Hoover, 2002)

Conflict – a real or apparent incompatibility of parties’ needs or interests (Isenhart and Spangle 2000).

Effective communication - communication occurs when the receiver accurately interprets the sender's information (National Education Training Group, Inc., 2001)

Electronic commerce - e-commerce, business that is conducted over the Internet using any of the applications that rely on the Internet, such as e-mail, instant messaging, shopping carts, Web services, UDDI, FTP, and EDI, among others. Electronic commerce can be between two businesses transmitting funds, goods, services and/or data or between a business and a customer.

Electronic mail – e-mail, the transmission of messages over communications networks. The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk.(2004)

Facilitation – is a process through which a person helps others complete their work and improves they way they work together (Isenhart and Spangle 2000).

Mediation - – a process in which a third party – who is impartial, has no stake in the outcome, and has no power to impose a decision- guides disputants through a non-adversarial discussion process that as its goal the settling of disputes (Isenhart and Spangle 2000).

Negotiation – a process when two or more people engage in problem-solving discussion designed to promote shared understanding, resolve differences, or engage in tradeoffs that will be mutually beneficial (Spangle and Isenhart 2003).

Performance management – ongoing process of coaching employees and giving them immediate feedback.

Team communication – communication in a particular setting among a limited number of people for the purpose of achieving a common objective primarily directed toward the resolution of a common problem (Samovar, Henman et al. 1996)




Documents

Professional Skills and Core Leadership Competencies · Web viewNote key phrases or use word associations to remember the speaker’s content. 5. Use paraphrasing or clarifying questions