Prof. Samuel G. Paikowsky - uml.edu

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Prof. Samuel G. Paikowsky

Lecture 2 - SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND SOIL PARAMETERS

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Geotechnical Engineering Research LaboratoryUniversity of Massachusetts Lowell

USA

14.528 Drilled Deep FoundationsSpring 2014

Prof. Samuel G. Paikowsky

Lecture 2 – Part I - Basic Review Soil Origin and Deposition

N.E. Geology

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Geotechnical Engineering Research LaboratoryUniversity of Massachusetts Lowell

USA

14.528 Drilled Deep FoundationsSpring 2014

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14.528 Drilled Deep Foundations – Samuel Paikowsky 3 of 180

Soil Origin and Deposition (Basic Review)

N.E. Geology (Basic Review)

Subsurface Exploration

In-Situ Testing

Design Parameters

Lecture Subjects


Civil Engineers in the GeotechnicalEngineering discipline are interested in theengineering properties of soils and rocks.These in turn are dependent on the origin of thematerial and the processes it was subjected to.

The following notes shortly summarize therelevant information for the understanding ofsoil origin and deposition with and geologicalprocesses, most relevant to the NE area.

Overview

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Basic Definition

SOIL Material comprised of particles that are a result of weathering of rocks and decay of vegetation.

ROCK Any hard solid matter derived from the earth. Rocks are broadly classified into 3 basic groups: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic.


SummaryROCKS (cont’d.)

DeepOcean

ContinentalShelf

Ocean Basin

GeologicCycle

RockTypes

Land

Featuresof Surface

Volcano &Earthquakes

Convection

PlateTecontonics

Make upof the crust

Zones & Crust

DifferentiationEarth Formation

Planets & Earthclose and away

from the sun

Solar System

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Structure of the Earth

The Geologic (Rock) Cycle

Igneous Rocks

Surface Processes

Sedimentary Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks

Rock Weathering

Soil and Soils Formation

Erosion

Glaciers and Glaciology

Soil Origin and Deposition


Kehew (1995): “Although many ideas havebeen proposed to explain the origin of the solarsystem, this question is still a matter of debate.A possible hypothesis begins with a large diffusemass of gas and dust slowly rotating in space.For some reason, this solar nebula began tocontract, due to gravitational forces, and toincrease its rotational velocity. At some point, aconcentration of matter formed at the center ofthe nebula. Compression of matter raised itstemperature to the point at which nuclear fusionwas initiated. Thus, the Sun, a body composedof 99% hydrogen and helium, was born.

The Origin and Structure of the Earth

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The matter rotating around the newly formed Sun gradually cooled and condensed into the nine planets. The final composition of the planets was controlled by their initial position in the nebula with respect to the Sun. Because the temperature was highest in the vicinity of the Sun and decreased with distance away from the Sun, the terrestrial planets were formed of material with relatively high boiling points. Thus Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are dense bodies of iron and silicate rocks. In fact, four elements—iron, oxygen, silicon, and magnesium—make up about 90% of these planets. Volatile elements like water, methane, and ammonia were carried away from the inner part of the nebula to the cooler regions of the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.




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The early Earth (top) was probably ahomogeneous mixture, with nocontinents or oceans. In theprocess of differentiation, iron sankto the center and light materialfloated upward to form a crust(middle). As a result, the Earth is azoned planet (bottom), with a denseiron core, a surficial crust of lightrock, and, between them, a residualmantle.

The origin and structureof the Earth

Press/Siever “Earth” 1974


After the initial condensation of the earth, its internal structure consisted of a homogenous accumulation of rock material. A gradual heating of the earth took place caused by compression of the newly condensed matter and also by the energy released by the decay of radioactive particles (disseminated throughout the earth). When the melting point of iron was exceeded in some parts of the earth, the dense molten iron then began to migrate toward the center of the earth. A molten iron core developed with the end result being a density-stratified planet. The dense core was overlain by a mantle composed of iron and magnesium silicate rocks. The lightest materials accumulated in a very thin layer near the surface to form the crust. As a result, no rocks older than 4.0 billion years remain at the earth’s surface. The period of time between the formation of the earth at about 4.7 billion years and 4.0 billion years may be accounted for by this zonation or differentiation of the earth.

History of the Earth and Solar System

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The origin and structure of the Earth

Internal structure

of the earth

Relative abundance by weight of elements in the whole Earth and in the Earth’s crust. Differentiation has resulted in a light crust depleted in iron and enriched in oxygen, silicon, aluminum, calcium, potassium, and sodium.


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After differentiation the earth consisted of a molten core, which is onlypartially molten now, and a cool exterior. Heat therefore flows from the coreto the surface. This flow of heat is extremely important because it indirectlyor directly causes many of the processes that occur in the earth’s crust.



According to the theory, the earth is composed of an upper, rigid layer, the lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere is broken into about 12 major plates, which slowly move laterally over the earth’s surface (see Figure).

Plate Tectonics


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Plate Tectonics



Movement of these plates may be driven by the flow of material in alayer that directly underlies the lithosphere called the asthenosphere(see Figure). Rock in the asthenosphere is soft and plastic because itis near its melting point. The rising material (just below its meltingpoint) spreads out laterally at the base of the lithosphere, carrying therigid lithospheric plates along its path. Volcanoes erupt to form newlithosphere in the cracks formed as the plates split apart. The platesmove until they reach a zone of downward flow in the asthenosphere.Here, the lithospheric plates are dragged down into the asthenosphereand may become partially melted. The movement and interaction of thelithosphere has probably been continuous since the differentiation ofthe earth. The interaction of plates can explain the location of manygeologic phenomena, including the distribution of volcanoes,earthquakes, and most mountain ranges.

Plate Tectonics


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Figure 1-6 The geologic cycle. Rocks in the earth’s crust follow a cycle that includes deposition of sediments, formation of sedimentary rocks, conversion to igneous or metamorphic rocks, and erosion to form sediments.



Rock Any hard solid matter derived from the earth. Rocks are broadly classified into 3 basic groups:

Igneous

Metamorphic

Sedimentary


(Skehan, 2003) (courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Igneous Rocks - Rocks formed by solidification of hot mobile rock material (magma) including those formed and cooled at great depth. Igneous rocks comprise the bulk of the earth’s crust. In a general way, the igneous rocks are classified by the degree to which they have crystallized and by the kind of minerals of which they are comprised.

Magma is generated by local heating and melting of rocks within the earth’s crust, mostly at depths between 10 and around 100 km. Most compositions of rock melt at temperatures of 800-1200°C. When the magma cools, it solidifies by crystallizing into a mosaic of minerals, to form an igneous rock.

Pyroclastic Rocks (meaning fire fragmental) are formed of material, collectively known as tephra, thrown into the air from an explosive volcano. Most tephra is cooled in flight, and lands to form various types of ash, tuff and agglomerate.

Igneous Rocks


These form where magma is extruded onto the earth’s surface to create a volcano.

Volcanic Eruptions may be violent and explosive if a viscous magma has a high gas pressure, or may be quiet and effusive if the magma is very fluid.

Lava is both molten rock on the surface, and also the solid rock formed when it cools.

Very fluid basaltic lavas may flow easily to form nearly horizontal sheets. Slightly more viscous lavas, either basalt or andesite, may build up conical composite volcanoes where the lava is interbedded with ash and debris, which are thickest close to the volcanic vent.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Plutons and landforms associated with igneous activity(Physical Geology, 5th ed. Leet, Judson, and Kauffman (1978))

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These are formed when magma solidifies below the surface of the earth. They may later be exposed at the surface when the cover rocks are eroded away.

Batholiths are large blob-shaped intrusions, roughly equidimentional and commonly 5-50 km in diameter. Most are of granite.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Dykes are smaller sheet intrusions formed where magma has flowed into a fissure. Mostly 1-50 m wide; may extend for many kilometres; generally of dolerite.

Sills are sheet intrusions parallel to the bedding of the country rocks into which the magma was intruded.


Igneous Rocks Classification

OCCURRENCE FORM COOLING GRAIN SIZEextrusions lavas fast fine <0.1mmsmall intrusions dykes medium medium 0.1-2mmlarge intrusions batholiths slow coarse >2mm

--- --- BasaltPorphyry --- DoleriteGranite Diorite Gabbro

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Flowchart Summary of Igneous Rock

Solidification of Magma

Igneous

Extrusive Rocks(onto the earth’s surface)

Intrusive Rocks(beneath the earth’s surface)

Volcanic eruption fast cooling

Dykesmed. cooling

Sillsmed. cooling

Batholithsslow cooling

Flow on surface Violent and explosive eruption

Basalt

Pyro-clastic Rocksvery fast cooling

Tuff Scoria Obsidian

Granite


Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks are rocks composed of mechanical, chemical, or organic sediments. They are formed through the agency of water, wind, glacial ice, or organisms and are deposited at the surface of the earth at ordinary temperatures. The materials from which they are made must originally have come from the disintegration and decomposition of older rocks, chiefly igneous. The distinguishing feature of many sedimentary rocks is their arrangement in parallel layers. Along with this are certain so-called initial or original structures such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, mud cracks, fossils, and raindrop impressions.

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Sedimentary Rocks

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic Rocks (fragmental rocks) - formed from other rocks

1. Coarse grained (Rudaceous)Conglomerate - rounded fragments > 2mmBreccia - angular fragments

2. Medium grained (Arenaceous)Sandstone and allied rocks <0.06 - 2mm

3. Fine grained (Argillaceous)Siltstone - quartz particles < 0.06mmClay and allied rocks


Sedimentary Rocks

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Non-Clastic Rocks - formed by precipitation from solutions

1. Carbonates, consisting mainly of calcite Limestone and allied rocks

2. Non-carbonates Flint and chert - nodular or banded silica Coal and lignite - lithified peat and plant material Ironstone - any iron-rich sedimentary rock; sand, clay

or oolite texture Salt and gypsum - monomineralic rocks deposited by

evaporation of water

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Sedimentary Rock Types

http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/sedimentary_rock.html


(Adapted from Wikipedia, 2010)

St. Lawrence Valley

Adirondacks

PhysiographicRegions of the Northeastern

U.S.

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Flowchart Summary of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic RocksForm from fragments of

other rocks.

Non Clastic RocksForm by precipitation

from solution

Coarse Grained> 2mm

Medium Grained0.06-2mm

Fine Grained< 0.06

ConglomerateBreccia

Sandstone SiltstoneClaystone

Carbonates Non-Carbonate

Limestone Dolomite

Flint Ironstone Salt Gypsum

Metamorphic Rocks

Limestone↓

Marble

Basalt↓

Greenstone

Claystone↓

Slate, Schist, Gneiss (depeding on type and level

of metamorphosis)


Metamorphic Rocks

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Regional Metamorphic Rocks – Shale ProtolithLineation, Schistosity, Foliation

http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/17.html


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Slate

GneissSchist

Phyllite

http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/17.html

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Massachusetts Topographic Relief

(geology.com, 2012)

36Van Diver, 1987

Tectonic History of Eastern North

America

Hypothetical sequence of events leading to

Taconian and Acadian mountain-building

followed by opening of the modern Atlantic

basin, beginning about 200 million years ago.

(Van Diver, 1987) (courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec

Consultants)

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Chronology of MA Geologic

EventsGlacial Advance/Retreat

Failed Rift Basins

Alleghanian Orogeny

Acadian Orogeny

Taconic Orogeny

Grenville Uplift

(Skehan, 2003)


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General MA Bedrock Geology

(From OSMG website, 2010)

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MA Geologic Terranes (predominent rock formations)

(Skehan, 2003)


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Eastern MA Geologic Terranes

(Skehan, 2003)

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Cambridge Argillite (Little Brewster Island) Boston

Civil Engineering Practice, Journal of the Boston Society of CivilEngineers Section/ASCE, Volumes 26&27, 2011/2012

A metamorphic rock,

intermediate between shale and slate, that

does not possess true

slaty cleavage.


Roxbury Conglomerate (Pudding Stone) – Eastern MA - sedimentary

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(E.B. Keck, 1999)(courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec

Consultants)

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Roxbury Conglomerate (Pudding Stone) – close view


Cape Ann Granite – Eastern MAIgneous

(capeannmuseum.com, 2010)(courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Nashoba Formation – Central MAmetamorphic – Gneis

(Walsh, 2001)(courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)


Marble/Limestone – Western MASedimentary/Metamorphic

http://clui.org/ludb/site/lee-marble-quarry (courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Mesozoic Sandstone, CT River Valley

(E.B. Keck, 1999) (courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)


Engineering Properties of Boston Geologic Units

Unit Description Sat. Unit Weight (kg/m3)

AtterbergLimits (%)

UndrainedShear Strength(kg/m2)

Allowable Bearing Pressure (kg/m2)

OutwashDeposits

M - f sand with gravel

1760-2160

--------------- -------------- 19500-48800

Marine Clay

Stiff, siltyclay

1840-2000

40-55 (LL) 15-30 (Pl)

3900-9760 14650-39000

Marine Clay

Soft - v soft silty clay

1810-1890

40-55 (LL) 15-30 (Pl)

1950-3900 4880-9760

Glacial Till Dense silt & clay with sand, gravel

2000-2240

15-30 (LL)10-20 (Pl)

9760-39000

39000-98000

Bedrock Cambridge Argillite

-------------- -------------- -------------- 78000-1950000

Bedrock RoxburyConglom.

------------- ------------- ------------- 1950000-9750000

(Johnson, 1989)(courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Geologic Cross-Section –MetroWest Tunnel Project

(http://www.auca.org/month/project1298.html)

Dedham Zone

Boston Basin Zone

Meta SedZone

Meta Volcanic

Zone

Milford Zone

Bloody Bluff Fault

South-borough

FaultTunnel


Geologic Risk Factor Engineering(Hager and Carnevale, undated. http://www.hagergeoscience.com/pdf_files/borehole_logging.pdf)

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Rock Weathering – The Decomposition of Rocks

Weathering: Chemical and mechanical processes acting at or near the surface of the earth to bring about the disintegration, decomposition, and comminution of rocks.

Types of Weathering:

Mechanical Weathering: Often referred to as disintegration, is the process by which rock is broken into progressively smaller pieces by energy developed through the following physical forces while retaining the chemical composition of the material:

Thermal Expansion - Exposure of rock to extreme temperatures only affects the external fringes of the rock due to the low thermal conductivity of the rock (i.e., differential expansion/contraction of the rock with depth) causes spalling of the outer portions of the rock.



Types of Weathering:Mechanical Weathering (cont’d.):

Unloading - Expansion of large segments of a rock body when the confining stresses are reduced by erosion of overburden (rock bursts in mines and other deep excavations).

Frost Action and Crystallization - The most important force in mechanical weathering is the result of the enormous forces generated by the crystallization of water within voids and cracks in a rock body - ice riving (9% volume increase when water freezes in a closed system).

Hydraulic Riving – The exposure of rock mass to wave action generates enormous pressure as the water is forced into a crack system.

Fragmentation – The mechanical breakdown of a rock mass as a result of direct impact of two bodies (rockfall, wind driven particles, bedload in a river, etc.).

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Chemical Weathering: Referred to as decomposition, involves a change in the composition of the material weathered. The rate of chemical weathering increases as the particle size decreases due to the increased surface area exposed to the weathering environment. Thus chemical weathering works in conjunction with mechanical weathering.

Chemical weathering of rocks produces a byproduct that can have a entirely different chemical composition and crystalline structure.

Mechanisms of Chemical Weathering

Oxidation and Reduction - occurs in iron, magnesium, and sulfur rich rocks - caused by an expansion of the material during oxidation or reduction




Chemical Weathering (cont’d.):

Solution - Solution of calcite by carbonic acid (weak) formed by solution of carbon dioxide in rain or ground water.

Equations of Solution Weathering

CO2 (g) + H2O(1) = H2CO3(aq)

Ca CO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3(aq)

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Chemical Weathering (cont’d.):

Hydrolysis - Is a reaction between acidic solutions and many of the silicate minerals such as feldspars. This weathering mechanism is responsible for the formation of all clay materials on the Earth’s surface (kaolinite, montrmorillonite, illite, etc.).

Clay Particles - Particles composed of a clay minerals (0.002mm size).

Clay Size Particles - Particles classified on their size (do not necessarily contain clay minerals) usually between 0.002 mm and 0.005mm size.

Hydration - Absorption of water into a crystal lattice structure (formation of gypsum from the hydration of anhydrite.


Rock Weathering

The rock cycle, showing the three major classes of

rocks, how they form, and how they

interrelate in relation to the creation of

sediments.

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Figure 1-5 Generalized sequence of events making up the geologic history of the rock exposure shown in Figure 1-4. (a) Deposition of the rocks of sequence A. (b) Deformation and uplift. (c) Erosion of the rocks of sequence A. (d) Deposition of the rocks of sequence B forming an unconformity between sequences A and B. (e) uplift and erosion of both rock sequences as a unit.



Rock Weathering

FIGURE 4.12Relative rapidity of chemical weathering of the common igneous rock-forming minerals. The rate of weathering is most rapid at the bottom and decreases toward the top. Note that this table is in the same order as Bowen’s reaction series (right). The discrepancy in the rate of chemical weathering between, for instance, olivine and quartz is explained by the fact that in the zone of weathering olivine is father from its environment of formation than is quartz. It therefore reacts more rapidly than quartz does to its new environment and thus weathers more rapidly.

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Soils and Soil Formation

1) Soil: Formed by the chemical and mechanical weathering of rocks. Usually divided into the following 2 categories:

a) Transported Soils: The products of rock weathering which are then transported from the parent rock to another location by physical processes

Transporting Agents: Alluvial or fluvial - transported and deposited by running water Glacial - transported and deposited by glacial processes Aeolian - transported and deposited by wind

b) Residual Soils: Soils that are formed in place by predominantly chemical weathering processes.



2) Major Soil Types:

a) Residual Soils Composition dependent on parent

rock Very common in humid climates Typical soil profile (downward from

ground surface): Clayey upper layer silty-clay layer silty-sandy layer partially weathered bedrock sound bedrock

Depth of portion of the soil profile is location dependent

Is the result of primarily chemical weathering

Extensive U.S. deposits: Northwest, Southeast, and Ohio Valley

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2) Major Soil Types (cont’d.):

b) Alluvial DepositsDeposits formed by river processes with particle sizes varying from clay-size particles to large cobbles and boulders dependent on stream energy (higher energy larger particle size)

Deposits divided into 2 major categories (Fig. 2.1 , p. 66)

i. Braided Stream DepositsGravel to silt size particlesUniform grain size within respective lensesIndicative of high energy environments (mountain streams)




i. Braided Stream Deposits

Juneau, Alaska

Denali Park, Alaska

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Soils and Soil Formation2) Major Soil Types (cont’d.):

b) Alluvial Depositsii. Meander Belt Deposits

Point bar deposits on inside of meandersFlood plain deposits - silt and clay-size particlesNatural levees formed along sides of stream during floods



2) Major Soil Types (cont’d.):b) Alluvial Deposits

ii. Meander Belt Deposits

(onlinegeography.wikispaces.com/W-4, 2012)

(www.mbgnet.net/fresh/lakes/oxbow.htm, 2012)

Oxbow Lakes

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2) Major Soil Types (cont’d.):b) Alluvial Deposits

ii. Meander Belt Deposits

(claremontgeography12.blogspot.com/2011/03/yaya-oxbow-lake.html, 2012)

(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxbow_lake, 2012)

Oxbow Lakes




c) Glacial Soil DepositsVery important in the New England region (refer to separate topic)

d) Aeolian Soil Deposits Soil particle size decreases with distance from source rock Soil particle size at a given location are fairly uniform DR = 50-65% on windward slope of dune DR = 0-15% on leeward slope of dune Loess deposits consist of uniform deposits of silt and silt-size particles

classified as a collapsing soil, thus special engineering is required for geotechnical work in/on these deposits (common in the Mississippi and Missouri River Valleys)

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e) Organic Soil Found in low lying areas where the GWT is near or above the ground

surface Formed from the decomposition of aquatic plants (swamp fauna) Common in coastal marshes and glaciated regions (peat) with muck

(geologically older than peat) is nearly fully decomposed organic matter and is substantially denser than peat.

Usually a highly compressible material - not suitable for building on/with due to large settlements of soil under applied loads


Floodplains and Alluvium

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Floodplains and Alluvium


Erosion

Erosion: Is the process of removal and transportation of surficalmaterials produced by weathering by one or more of the following forces:

1) Water or Fluvial Erosion Rain Drop Erosion Overland Flow (Sheet Erosion) Rill Erosion

Stream Erosion River Erosion Responsible for the largest volume of sediment removed from the

land surface

2) Wind Erosion Similar to water erosion except that particle size moved is smaller (0.1

- 0.15 mm diameter) Dry sediments are more susceptible to this erosion method Example: Great Dustbowl of the 1930’s Vegetation reduces the susceptibility to wind erosion

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Erosion

Erosion (cont’d.):

3) Gravity or Mass Wasting Downward movement of material under the influence of gravity Rapid Movement - Landslides, rock falls, and mud flows Slow Movement - Solifluction (tundra regions), and soil creep

4) Glacial: Removal and transportation of sediments by continental and valley

glaciers

5) Wave Action: Occurs along lake and ocean coastlines from wave action and

longshore currents


Glaciers and Glaciology

Glacier: A mass of ice that has been formed by the recrystallization of snow (metamorphism due to pressure of snow column) that flows under the influence of gravity (Snow Firn Glacial Ice)

1) Types of Glaciers

a) Alpine or Mountain Glaciers: Often referred to as ‘valley glaciers”

b) Piedmont Glaciers: Glacier formed from two or more alpine glacierscoalesce to form an apron of moving ice on the plain below

c) Ice Sheets: Broad mound-shaped ice masses that spread radially outward from the thickest point under their own weight.

Continental Ice Sheets are found on the continents of Greenland (up to 3,000 m thick) and Antarctica (up to 4,000 m thick in places)

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Glaciers and GlaciologyGlacier (cont’d.):

2) Types of Glacial Deposits

a) Moraines (material pushed by glaciers)End Moraines (unsorted and hummocky with ridges), deposited at end of glacierLateral Moraines (unsorted) deposited at sides (laterals of glacier)

b) Glacial DriftTills Basal or Lodgment Till (dense, unsorted, clay rich) deposited beneath ice Ablation Till (less consolidated, less fines) material in and on glacier “let down”

from melting ice

Ice-Contact Deposits (large variety) Kames (sorted to unsorted) material deposited between ice-sheet and valley

wall deltaic in nature Eskers (stratified with well rounded cobbles) sinuous or meandering ridge of

sand and gravel


Glaciers and GlaciologyGlacier (cont’d.):

2) Types of Glacial Deposits (cont’d.)

c) Outwash Plains: Alluvium from meltwater not in close proximity to glaciers. Coarser and less sorted near source.

d) Lacustrine Deposits: Fine grained lake bottom deposits. Commonly silts and clays, sometimes varved

e) Glacial Marine Seds: Clay rich marine deposits from wasting ice sheet near ocean front

3) Glacial Landforms

a) Outwash Plains: Broad sheets of confluent alluvial fans emerged from glacial meltwater at terminus of glacier

b) Drumlins: Streamlined ice-molded form made of tillc) Kettle Holes: Basin of non-deposition due to remnant ice block buried

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Glacial Deposits


Glacial Deposits

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New England- 300 MYA

79


Full Glacial Extent During Pleistocene

80,000 to 13,000 Years ago

Strahler, 1966, Geologist’s View of Cape Cod

(courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Glacial Advance in New England

• Strahler, 1966, Geologist’s View of Cape Cod



Glacial Ice Sheets

Modern example- Western Chugach Mountains, Alaska


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Glacial Retreat – Maine



Glacial Ice Sheets Reduced to Valley Glaciers

84


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Post Glacial Valley

Alaska

85

New England

NH

(courtesy of Mr. David Adilmanof Geosyntec Consultants)


Types of Glacial Deposits/ Landforms

MORAINES (material pushed by glaciers)END MORAINES - (unsorted and hummocky with ridges) deposited at end of glacier. LATERAL MORAINES - (unsorted) Deposited at sides (laterals of glacier)

ICE-CONTRACT DEPOSITS (large variety)TILLS - Basal or Lodgment Till (dense, unsorted, clay rich) deposited beneath ice

Ablation Till (less consolidated) material in and on glacier “let down” from melting iceKAMES - (sorted to unsorted)deposited between ice-sheet and valley wall deltaic in natureESKERS - (stratified, with well rounded cobbles) sinuous or meandering ridge of sand and gravel

STRATIFIED DRIFT (alluvial material deposited from melting glaciers)OUTWASH PLAINS - Alluvium form meltwater not in close proximity to glaciers. Coarser and less

sorted near source. LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS - Fine grained lake bottom deposits. Commonly silts and clays, sometimes

varved.GLACIAL MARINE SEDS - Clay rich marine deposits from wasting ice sheets near ocean front.

GLACIAL LANDFORMSDRUMLINS - Streamlined ice-molded forms made of tillKETTLE HOLES - Basin of non-deposition due to remnant ice block buried


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Schematic of Glacial Landforms/Deposits

Stabilized ice front

Ice front retreated

http://www.polartrec.com/expeditions/drumlin-formation-in-iceland/journals/2013-06-14



End Moraines and Outwash Plains

Illinois Terminal moraine



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Lateral Moraines- Everyone’s Favorite

89

Ice- covered with rock debris (becomes ablation till)

Lateral Moraine

Gokyo, Nepal



End Moraine Nepal


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Ice Contact Deposits- Till

Till Deposits

Basal Till

Ablation Till

Ablation Till

Bedrock



Drumlins You May Know

92


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Depositional Model for Glacial Deposits



Proximal Stratified Drift (Deltaic) Deposits

94

Alaska

Nepal

Alaska


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Kame Terrace, Nepal



Pro-Glacial Lake Deposits

Massachusetts(Skehan, 2001)

New Hampshire –VermontVan Diver, 1987

Lacustrine varves, Glacial Lake

Hitchcock(Stone and others, 1998) (courtesy of Mr. David Adilman of Geosyntec Consultants)

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Outwash Deposits

http://www.capecodbeachchair.com/beachguide/index.cfm?page=3&BeachId=64



Kettle Pond Formation

Glacial Erratics



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Southern New England Glacial Map



New England Cross-Sections

Connecticut

Massachusetts


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Boston Glacial Cross-Section

Massachusetts



Surficial Geologic Maps

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MassGIS


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Glaciers and Their Actions


Glaciers

Ice Field, Western Chugach Mountain

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Ice Field Alaska

SGP – June 2012


Ice Field Alaska

SGP – June 2012

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Holgate Glacier, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska

This tidewater glacier is a popular stop for tourboats. It is one of

several outlet glaciers from the Harding Icefield. Can you find the second boat in the image? (look to the left of the first boat).


Icebergs, Bear Glacier, Alaska

The margin of Bear Glacier discharges into a lake. Because of the low profile of the glacier, it breaks apart (calves) along the crevasses and

makes icebergs. Debris carried in the medial moraine on the left side of the image decorates some of the icebergs. Color differences in the water

are due to different sediment concentrations

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Margin of the Greenland Ice Sheet

This portion of the ice sheet ends in the sea. The thin diagonal lines on the ice in the center of the image are surface meltwater streams. Photo by

Sandy Shipley.


St. Elias Mountains

Mt. Ranier Glacier

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Terminus of Miles Glacier


Barnard Glacier Alaska

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Casement Glacier, AKSt. Elias Mountain


College Fjord Glaciers, AK

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14.528 Drilled Deep Foundations – Samuel Paikowsky 115 of 180SGP – June 2012


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Juneau Icefield

The Juneau Icefield is a ice field located just north of Juneau, Alaska and continues north through the border with British Columbia and is the fifth-largest ice field in the Western Hemisphere, extending through an area of 1,500 sqmiles in the Coast Range ranging 87 mi north to south and 47 miles east to west. The icefield is the source of many glaciers including the Mendenhall Glacier and the TakuGlacier. The icefield is home to over 40 large valley glaciers and 100 smaller ones. Of the icefield's 19 notable glaciers, the Taku Glacier is the only one presently advancing. From 1946-2009, the terminus of the Mendenhall Glacier has retreated over 700 meters (0.43 mi).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juneau_Icefield


Juneau

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Mendenhall Glacier Juneau, Alaska (fed by the Juneau ice field)

SGP – June 2012


Mendenhall GlacierJuneau, Alaska (Winter)

SGP – June 2012

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Mendenhall GlacierJuneau, Alaska

SGP – June 2012


Crevasses

Longitudinal Crevasses in the Eastern Twin Glacier

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Crevasses

Crevasses in Lewellyn Glacier

Crevasses Enlarged by Melting


Ice Fall

Ice Crystalfrom the Terminus of

Mendenhall Glacier

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Grand Pacific Glaciers, St. Elias Mountains


Bedrock

Polished & Scratched Bedrock from Matanuska

Valley

Polished Bedrock and Erratic from

Yosemite

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Rock Flour Color Streams


Moraines

Lateral and Medial Moraines,

Juneau Ice Field

Surficial Moraines

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Tasman Glacier, New Zealand

Note the former lateral moraines on the left side. A major avalanche fell off Mt. Cook in 1991.


Moraines

Terminal Moraine with Kettle

Moraine

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Moraines

Extensive Moraine, Piedmont Glacier

Folded Medial Moraines


Moraines

Moraines at Terminus of Mendenhall Glacier

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Close Up of Permafrost Glacier Retreat – Denali Park AK

SGP – June 2012


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Malaspinia Glacier


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Case History – Sakonnet River

Bridge Replacement Project

• Route 24 between Portsmouth and Tiverton, RI

• 2,265 ft (690m) long Replacement Bridge South of Existing Bridge

• Two Designs: Steel and Concrete Alternatives

• AASHTO-Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) with Recommendations from NCHRP Report 507 (Paikowsky et al., 2004)

Location and Project Overview


Case History – Sakonnet River Bridge Replacement Project

Location and Project Overview

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Major Stratigraphic Units:

Glaciofluvial (silty sand w/ gravel, cobbles, occasional boulders < 2.5 ft)

Blue: Glaciolacustrine (fine sandy silt or silt)

Bedrock to 400 ft depth in the river

River Piers Land PiersLand Piers

400 ft


Subsurface Conditions


Case History – Sakonnet River BridgeReplacement ProjectSubsurface – Load Test Location

GLACIOFLUVIALdense coarse to

fine sand

GLACIOLACUSTRINE

GLACIOFLUVIALv. dense sandy silt &silty fine to med. sand

dense silt

v. dense fine sand

dense to v. dense silt

v. dense sand silttrace gravel

dense to v. densesilt (laminated)

dense tov. dense silt

GLACIOFLUVIAL

GLACIOLACUSTRINE

BEDROCK

GLACIAL TILL0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

N SPT (Blows/ft)

270

260

250

240

230

220

210

200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Pe

ne

tra

tion

(ft)

BORING NO.HA-4

HA-5

HA-6

HA-9

average

Figure 1. SPT data from borings in the vicinity of test piles 72-II and 72-III

MPS/SGP

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An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streamsflowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.[1] Estuaries are often associated with high rates of biological diversity.Estuaries are typically the tidal mouths of rivers (aestus is Latin for tide), and they are often characterized by sedimentation or siltcarried in from terrestrial runoff and, frequently, from offshore. They are made up of brackish water. Estuaries are often given names like bay, sound, fjord, etc. The terms are not mutually exclusive.

Estuary of Klamath River

Subsurface – Load Test Location


Subsurface – Load Test Location

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Load Test Program Phase II – Depth 187&235ft (57.0 & 71.7m)

El. -232.9

El. 4

El. -28.2

El. -79.1

El. -143.5

El. -183.5

4 bpi

400,000 ft-lbs3.5 bpi

250,000 ft-lbs

72-in Dia. Open Pipe Pile 72-in Dia. Annulus

Pipe Pile72-in. Pipe

Piles


Phases I& II – Driving Effort

GLACIOFLUVIALdense coarse to

fine sand

GLACIOLACUSTRINE

GLACIOFLUVIALv. dense sandy silt &silty fine to med. sand

dense silt

v. dense fine sand

dense to v. dense silt

v. dense sand silttrace gravel

dense to v. densesilt (laminated)

dense tov. dense silt

GLACIOFLUVIAL

GLACIOLACUSTRINE

BEDROCK

GLACIAL TILL0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

Energy (kip-ft/ft)

0 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800 2,100

Total Energy (kip-ft x1000)

270

260

250

240

230

220

210

200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

Pe

ne

tra

tion

(ft)

72-I Energy/ft

72-II Energy/ft

72-III Energy/ft

72-I Total Energy

72-II Total Energy

72-III Total Energy

Comparison between driving data for open-ended piles

(72-I and 72-III) and annulus fitted pile (72-II) using

IHC/H&A and PDA measurements.

Phase I both piles

Phase II Annulus pile

Phase II open pile

Documents

Prof. Samuel G. Paikowsky - uml.edu