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PRODUCTION AND COMPREHENSION OF UNACCUSATIVES IN APHASIA To appear in Aphasiology Special Issue, Proceedings of the 38th Clinical Aphasiology Conference.
Tara McAllister1,2, Asaf Bachrach2, Gloria Waters1, Jennifer Michaud3, David Caplan
3
1
Boston University, Sargent College, Department of Communication Disorders 635 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215
2
77 Massachusetts Avenue, Building 32-D808, Cambridge, MA 02139 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Linguistics and Philosophy
3
175 Cambridge Street, Suite 175, Boston, MA 02114 Massachusetts General Hospital, Neuropsychology Laboratory
Working Title: Production and Comprehension of Unaccusatives in Aphasia
Corresponding Author:
Tara McAllister
320 Memorial Drive, #317A, Cambridge, MA 02139
Phone (617) 970-2444
Fax (617) 730-0288
2
Structured Abstract
Background: Recent studies have reported impairments in the production of sentences containing
unaccusative verbs (e.g., The ball bounced down the street) in agrammatic patients. In these
sentences, the subject is the theme of the verb, resulting in a non-standard order of thematic roles
(often called non-canonical thematic role order).
Aims: We tested the hypothesis that aphasic patients would be affected by these features of
unaccusatives in both production and comprehension, and that they would show similar deficits
in sentences with unaccusative verbs and passive sentences, which also have non-canonical
thematic role order.
Methods & Procedures: Single-word naming, sentence production, and sentence-picture
matching tasks were administered to a group of 9 aphasic participants and 12 age- and education-
matched control participants.
Outcomes & Results: The aphasic patients performed less well than the controls, and there were
effects of the presence of movement in both groups, and an interaction between group and
sentence type in the sentence production task.
Conclusions: These findings support the view that non-canonical thematic role order makes
action naming, sentence production and sentence comprehension more difficult and that aphasic
patients are more affected by the demands of these tasks than controls.
3
Introduction
One factor that has consistently been found to play a role in sentence processing in
aphasia is the occurrence of arguments in canonical versus derived order. A canonical sentence
in a particular language is defined as having that language’s “most typical main-clause surface
word order for subject (S), object (O), and main verb (V)” (Menn, 2000). Below, 1(a-b) shows a
simple transitive active sentence and a subject relative clause construction, two examples of
constructions with canonical word order. The non-canonical counterparts of these constructions,
namely a passive sentence and an object relative clause construction, are shown in 1(c-d). There
is general agreement that the non-canonical constructions tend to be significantly impaired
relative to their canonical counterparts in comprehension in aphasia (cf. e.g. Caramazza & Zurif,
1976; Ansell & Flowers, 1982; Grodzinsky, 1986; Zurif & Swinney, 1994).
1. a. The dog chased the cat. b. The dog that chased the cat was black. c. The cat was chased by the dog. d. The cat that the dog chased was black.
Several questions about aphasic performance on sentences with non-canonical word order
remain unanswered. One is whether performance is affected on all sentences with non-canonical
word order, or only subsets of these sentences. A second issue is whether poor performance on
sentences with non-canonical word order affects both production and comprehension. The
present study examined the performance of aphasic patients on a sentence type with non-
canonical word order that has received relatively little attention in both production and
comprehension tasks, and provides data relevant to these questions.
4
The Unaccusative Construction
The unaccusative construction, which involves a non-canonical word order, has the
potential to extend our understanding of the role of canonicity in comprehension and production
in aphasia. The sentences in (2) illustrate the structural difference between an unaccusative verb,
freeze, and an unergative verb, cough. In 2(a), the river is the theme of froze; in 2(b), the boy is
the agent of coughed.
2. a. Unaccusative: The river
froze.
b. Unergative: The boy
In versions of generative grammar, the division of intransitive verbs into unaccusatives
and unergatives has been related to a difference in the site of origin of the subject NP (Perlmutter,
1978). The unaccusative subject is thought to be initially inserted in verb-internal object position,
where it is assigned the theme theta role, and must subsequently raise to subject position to
receive structural case. (Following the generative tradition, we will refer to this process as
“movement,” to the subject of an unaccusative as a “moved constituent,” and to the relation
between the overt subject and the postulated initial position of the subject in the position of
object as a “movement chain.”) Evidence for this analysis comes, for instance, from the fact the
unaccusative can be followed directly by a resultative clause (The river froze solid), whereas an
unergative verb must have a reflexive object in order to support a resultative (The boy coughed
himself hoarse). The “trace” of the surface subject in its original object position in the
unaccusative serves the same function as the reflexive in the unergative, allowing the resultative
expression to be connected to an entity in the sentence.
coughed.
As noted, passives also have non-canonical thematic role order. In generative grammar,
passives share the property of having a subject that originates in an underlying object position.
5
Given these similarities between unaccusative and passive constructions, we can test whether
aphasic patients’ sentence production and comprehension might be similar for different types of
sentences with non-canonical thematic role order. In agrammatic aphasia, parallel performance
on these constructions is predicted by the Trace Deletion Hypothesis (Grodzinsky, 2000), which
maintains that agrammatic patients have a disorder affecting the comprehension of sentences
with moved constituents. The non-canonicity of thematic role order in unaccusatives and
passives might lead to similar performances in aphasic patients in general.
A number of studies have found that unaccusatives can be impaired in the output of
speakers with aphasia. Thompson (2003) found that agrammatic aphasic participants were
significantly more accurate in a picture-naming task when targets were unergative rather than
unaccusative verbs, where both classes were matched for frequency. Lee and Thompson (2004)
presented agrammatic aphasic participants with pictures labeled with the bare form of an
unergative or unaccusative verb and asked them to describe each picture using the verb provided.
With a scoring system based on word order and completeness of argument structure, it was
determined that the aphasic participants produced correct sentences at a significantly higher rate
for unergative than for unaccusative verbs. Similarly, Bastiaanse and van Zonneveld (2005)
looked at the use of unaccusative verbs in pictorial contexts that suggested either a transitive or
an unaccusative reading of the verb. For instance, a patient might be presented with the verb
ring and see a picture of a bell ringing for the intransitive sentence target The bell is ringing, or a
picture of a man ringing a bell for a transitive target such as He/The man is ringing the bell. It
was found that agrammatic aphasic participants produced unaccusative verbs more accurately in
the transitive frame, which uses canonical word order and does not, according to generative
grammar models, involve a chain of movement. In the studies cited above, impairments in
6
unaccusative production have been interpreted as the consequence of a specific deficit disrupting
the chain of movement in the unaccusative construction. It has been suggested that this is similar
to the finding that agrammatic aphasics often have difficulties in comprehension of sentences
with such chains (Bastiaanse, Koekkoek & van Zonneveld, 2003). However, other researchers
postulate that agrammatic patients’ difficulty constructing such chains is limited to
comprehension, and that they suffer from other disturbances in sentence production (cf. the
“tree-pruning hypothesis” proposed by Friedmann & Grodzinsky, 1997). To determine the
degree to which these constructions pattern together within and across tasks, there is a need for
further study of patients’ ability both to produce and to comprehend sentences with unaccusative
as well as passive verbs. In addition, studies of a wide range of patients are needed to determine
whether any deficit in unaccusative structures is limited to one type of aphasia, as it has been
established that difficulty comprehending non-canonical sentences is not exclusive to patients
who exhibit agrammatism in production (cf. e.g. Martin & Blossom-Stach, 1986; Lukatela,
Shankweiler, & Crain, 1995; Berndt, Haendiges, Mitchum, & Sandson, 1997; Berndt, Mitchum,
& Wayland, 1997).
Methods
Participants
Nine individuals (five males) with aphasia secondary to stroke were recruited from the
Aphasia Community Group of Boston, from aphasia therapy groups at Sargent College of Health
and Rehabilitation Sciences of Boston University, and from a pool of individuals who had
previously taken part in aphasia studies at Sargent College and Massachusetts General Hospital.
Patient characteristics are shown in Table 1. All patients had a diagnosis of aphasia as
determined by one or more standardized assessment instruments administered by a certified
7
speech-language pathologist; the assessment tools that were used varied across clinicians. The
patient group had an average age of 62 years (range = 37 to 93 years, SD = 18.3 years) and an
average of 15.7 years of education (range = 12 to 19 years, SD = 2.5 years). Because the present
study made no a priori assumptions about the role of syndrome classification or lesion location in
aphasia outcomes, the only criteria for inclusion in the aphasic participant group were a
confirmed diagnosis of aphasia and native knowledge of English. Participants were not included
or excluded on the basis of aphasic syndrome, lesion location, or severity. As Table 1 reveals, the
patients recruited in this manner happened to be characterized predominantly by relatively mild
aphasia of the fluent type.
TABLE 1 HERE
The control group consisted of twelve age- and education-matched individuals (five
males) with no history of stroke or cognitive/linguistic impairment. Control participants were
recruited from a pool of previous participants in studies conducted by the Language Science
Research Laboratory at Sargent College. All control participants scored within the average range
of performance on the Boston Naming Test (Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 2001) and/or the
Mini Mental State Examination (Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh 1975). This group had an average
age of 72.4 years (range = 55 to 82 years; SD = 8.8 years) and an average of 16.6 years of
education (range = 12 to 20 years, SD = 2.2 years). Comparison by unpaired Student's t-test
revealed no significant difference between control and patient groups with respect to age (p
= .15) or years of education (p = .38).
Materials
Picture stimuli were created by an artist in consultation with the experimenters. Members
of the lab were recruited to review each pairing of a stimulus picture and its intended target word
8
or sentence; they were asked to rate the goodness of fit for each pair and to provide any
suggestions for modifications. Revisions were made until there was a consensus among the
authors that each picture was appropriate to elicit the desired word or sentence in the production
task, or corresponded to the intended spoken sentence in the comprehension task.
Word and sentence stimuli were recorded by a male native speaker of English using
careful, clear speech with even rate and intonation across all items. All sound stimuli were
digitized with a 44.1 kHz audio sample rate and 16 bit audio sample size and were saved as
WAV files.
Picture and sound stimuli were entered into the Boston University Language Lab’s
BullRunner Beta experiment presentation program. The experiment was run on a Dell Inspiron
700m laptop operating Windows XP professional. Auditory stimuli were presented in soundfield
at each patient’s preferred listening volume.
Experimental Tasks
Three experimental tasks were devised based on tasks that have previously been used to
study the production and comprehension of unaccusative and/or passive verbs. Other possible
tasks, such as sentence completion or cued picture description, were not selected because the
results could not be compared to those of previous studies.
Experiment 1: Picture Naming. The first task assessed single-word naming of unaccusative and
unergative verb targets. Following the methodology described in Thompson (2003), participants
were presented with pictures and asked to name the action depicted. Target verbs were either
unergative (e.g., crawl) or unaccusative (e.g., bounce). Ten unergative and eleven unaccusative
verb targets were used (see Appendix A for the complete set). Sample pictures from the
production tasks are presented in Figure 1(A). Verbs were drawn from published lists of
9
unaccusative and unergative verbs (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995; Froud, 1998; Thompson,
2003), with corroborating judgments from two trained linguists. Lexical frequencies for each
verb were obtained from an online corpus (Balota et al., 2002), and t-tests revealed no significant
difference in lexical frequency across the unaccusative and unergative verb sets. An unaccusative
verb such as bounce can be used either intransitively or transitively (e.g., The ball bounced
versus He bounced the ball). Both transitive and intransitive picture conditions were presented in
an effort to encourage participants to produce intransitive forms in response to the pictures
intended to elicit them. Only the intransitive picture condition is reported here.
FIGURE 1(A) ABOUT HERE
Experiment 2: Sentence Production. The second task used the same pictures in a sentence
production task. In this task, the bare stem of the target verb was printed above the picture and
was simultaneously presented in the auditory modality via digitized sound file. Participants were
instructed to use any form of the target verb in a sentence describing the picture.
Experiment 3: Sentence-Picture Matching. A two-picture choice task with unaccusative
transitive/intransitive and active/passive pairs was created. Twenty-one unaccusative picture
pairs and twenty active/passive picture pairs were generated (Fig 1B, 1C). A sample
unaccusative intransitive/transitive picture pair is shown in Figure 1(B). In the picture pairs
generated in connection with unaccusative stimuli, one picture represented the subject NP as the
theme of the verb. This picture was the intended target in the intransitive ([+movement])
condition, as seen in 3(a). A second image depicted the subject NP as the agent of the verb. This
image was the target in the transitive condition, as seen in 3(b). The two pictures in each pair
were visually balanced so that any person or object appearing in one picture was present in the
corresponding picture, whether or not it played a role in the action depicted.
10
3. a. The boy is choking. [+ Movement] b. The boy is choking the girl. [- Movement]
FIGURE 1(B) ABOUT HERE
A sample active/passive pair is depicted in Figure 1(C). Each pair of pictures was presented
twice, accompanied once by a passive sentence ([+ movement]) and once by an active sentence
([- movement]), as seen in (4). A complete list of sentence stimuli is presented in Appendix B.
4. a. The girl was poked by the teacher. [+ Movement] b. The girl poked the teacher. [- Movement]
FIGURE 1(C) ABOUT HERE
Procedure
All participants completed the full experimental battery detailed above, comprising
measures of single-word naming, sentence production, and sentence-picture matching. Because
many stimuli occurred twice in different conditions, stimulus pairs were separated into two
blocks that were presented in separate testing sessions about one week apart. An exception to
this divided presentation was the single-word naming task, which was administered in its entirety
before any other subtests were introduced. Patients were tested in their homes or at the
Language Science Research Laboratory at Sargent College. All control participants were tested
at the Language Science Research Laboratory at Sargent College. All sessions were recorded,
either on videotape (for laboratory sessions) or on audiotape.
Scoring of Responses
In the naming task, all responses were recorded in writing, and the recording of the
session was reviewed to clarify any ambiguous responses. A score of 1 was assigned if the
participant responded with the target verb or an acceptable substitution, and 0 was assigned
11
otherwise. A response was considered an acceptable substitution if it belonged to the same verb
class (unaccusative or unergative) as the target and was judged semantically appropriate.
Examples of scoring are presented in Appendix C.
In the sentence-production task, responses were transcribed on-line, and the recorded
session was consulted in the case of unclear responses. A score of 1 was assigned to a response
that included all obligatory arguments of the target verb in an appropriate order. Examples of
sentence scoring are presented in Appendix D.
In the sentence-picture matching task, scoring was computerized. Responses were scored
as 1 or 0, and reaction time data were also collected. Reaction times were recorded from the
offset of the auditory sentence stimulus.
Results
Production Tasks
Table 2 reports mean accuracy on the picture-naming, sentence production, and sentence-
picture matching tasks, as well as mean RT for sentence-picture matching.
Table 2 here
Naming accuracy data were entered into a 2 x 2 ANOVA with the factors of group
(control, patient) and verb type (unaccusative, unergative). There was a significant main effect
of group (F (1,19) = 11.93, p < .01), with controls responding with greater accuracy than
participants with aphasia. The ANOVA also revealed a significant main effect of verb type (F
(1,19) = 8.53, p < .01). Unergative targets were named with significantly higher accuracy than
unaccusative targets. The interaction of group with verb type was not significant.
Sentence production accuracy data were also entered into an ANOVA with the factors of
group (control, patient) and verb type (unaccusative, unergative). There was a main effect of
12
verb type (F (1,19) = 13.49, p < .001), with unergative sentences produced with greater accuracy
than unaccusative sentences. There was an interaction of group and verb type (F (1, 19) = 9.64,
p < .01). This reflected the fact that unaccusative verb targets were produced with lower
accuracy than unergative verb targets only in the patient group, as well as the fact that
unaccusative verb targets were produced with lower accuracy in the patient group than in the
control group.
Pearson product moment correlation (r) was calculated to determine whether the ability
to produce unaccusative versus unergative verbs in action naming correlated with the ability to
produce sentences containing unaccusative versus unergative verbs. For each participant, the
value [percent correct unaccusative naming - percent correct unergative naming] was correlated
with the value [percent correct unaccusative sentence production - percent correct unergative
sentence production]. The resulting correlation was not significant for the entire group of
participants (r = .29), for the patients alone (r = .07), or for the normal participants alone (r
= .38).
Comprehension Task
For the sentence-picture matching task, accuracy data were analyzed using a 2 x 2 x 2
ANOVA with the factors of group (patient, control), verb type (transitive/intransitive
unaccusative; active/passive) and movement ([+movement], i.e. passives and intransitive
unaccusatives; [- movement], i.e. actives and transitive unaccusatives). There was no significant
main effect of group with respect to comprehension accuracy. In addition, there was no
significant interaction between group and movement or between group and verb type. There was
a significant effect of movement (F(1, 19) = 13.64, p < .01), and Tukey post-hoc comparisons
revealed that sentences without argument movement (actives and transitive unaccusatives) were
13
comprehended at a higher rate than sentences with movement (passives and intransitive
unaccusatives). There was also a significant main effect of verb type (F(1, 19) = 6.66, p < .05),
with active/passive verbs associated with greater accuracy than transitive/intransitive
unaccusatives. Finally, the ANOVA showed a significant interaction of verb type and movement
(F(1, 19) = 12.56, p < .01). Tukey comparisons revealed that the difference in accuracy between
transitive/intransitive unaccusative and active/passive verb types was significant for movement
constructions but not for sentences without movement. That is, accuracy was lower for
intransitive unaccusatives than for passives, but accuracy did not differ for transitive
unaccusatives and actives.
Analysis of reaction times revealed a significant main effect of group (F(1, 19) = 5.58, p
< .05), with controls responding significantly faster than patients. There was no significant
interaction of group with movement or verb type. There was a significant effect of movement
(F(1, 19) = 35.49, p < .0001), with movement constructions associated with longer response
latencies than non-movement constructions. There was no significant main effect of verb type,
but the interaction of verb type and movement was significant (F(1, 19) = 15.76, p < .001). Post-
hoc analysis revealed that the effect of movement on reaction time was significant for
transitive/intransitive unaccusative stimuli but not for active/passive verbs.
Comprehension data were also examined to determine whether the difference in accuracy
between movement and non-movement constructions correlated significantly across
unaccusative and non-unaccusative verb types. The difference in accuracy between active and
passive sentences for each participant ([active – passive]) was found to correlate strongly with
the difference in accuracy between transitive and intransitive unaccusatives ([transitive
unaccusative - intransitive unaccusative]) (r = .75, p = .001). Thus, participants with a larger
14
active-passive gap also tended to show a large difference between transitive and intransitive
unaccusatives. This effect reached significance in the patient group (r = .79, p = .01), and just
failed to be significant in the control group (r = .55, p = .06).
Relation between Production and Comprehension
The relation between comprehension of sentences with moved constituents and the ability
to name verbs with argument structures related to constituent movement was explored by
correlating the effect of movement in comprehension ([+ movement] - [- movement]) with the
difference in naming unaccusative and unergative verbs in the picture-naming task. The resulting
correlation was at the level of a trend for the entire group of participants (r = .38, p = .08) and
was not significant for either the patients alone (r = .48) or for the normal participants alone (r
= .05).
In addition, the relation between comprehension of sentences with moved constituents
and the ability to produce sentences with constituent movement (i.e., sentences with non-
canonical word order) was explored by correlating the effect of movement in comprehension
with the difference in producing sentences with unaccusative and unergative verbs. The resulting
correlation was not significant for the entire group of participants (r = -.01), for the patients alone
(r = -.26), or for the normal participants alone (r = -.15).
Discussion
This investigation tested the hypothesis that participants with aphasia would exhibit
decreased performance on unaccusative constructions relative to constructions with a canonical
order of thematic roles. It was predicted that these effects would extend across unaccusative
production and comprehension. We begin our discussion with the results of the production tasks.
In both production tasks, unergative verbs were produced with significantly higher accuracy than
15
unaccusatives. This difference is expected in sentence production because of the increased
complexity of producing the non-canonical thematic role order in the unaccusative sentences.
The difference between producing unaccusatives and unergatives in picture-naming is predicted
by the Argument Structure Complexity Hypothesis, or ASCH (Thompson, 2003), which holds
that the argument structure properties of a verb, including the need for argument movement, have
an effect at the level of single-word naming.
The findings of this study suggest an alternative account of the effect of unaccusativity.
Thompson considered the effect of unaccusativity in aphasia to be a reflection of a specific
deficit in the representation of movement that occurs in agrammatic aphasic patients. The present
results differ from Thompson’s in suggesting an unaccusative-unergative difference in control
participants as well as in individuals with aphasia. This suggests that the lower naming accuracy
for verbs with more complex argument structure does not reflect a deficit specific to one type of
aphasia. Rather, it may be a general effect of processing complexity in lexical retrieval, affecting
aphasic patients of various types as well as normal individuals.
Why the effect of argument structure appeared in the normal individuals tested here and
not in those tested by Thompson requires further study. The difference across the studies may
reflect variability among individuals in the strength of the effect of argument structure on naming
actions, differences related to test materials or aspects of the task set-up, or other factors. Ceiling
effects may have contributed to the patterns of performance seen here. In the sentence production
task, control participants were effectively at ceiling for both unaccusative and unergative targets,
and patients were effectively at ceiling for unergative targets. It is impossible to know whether
the interaction of group and sentence type would continue to be found if the task were made
more difficult, such that neither group was at ceiling on either sentence type. Similar
16
considerations apply in sentence-picture matching, where both controls and patients were again
close to ceiling on transitive unaccusative and active sentence; there is no way to know whether
an interaction between sentence type and task would have emerged if the task were made more
demanding such that neither group was at ceiling. These questions will require further study to
answer.
The effect of unaccusative argument structure on production was more pronounced in
patients than in controls in the sentence production task. This may reflect the increased difficulty
of planning and producing an entire set of thematic roles relative to simple action naming.
One implication of the effect of unaccusative verbs on sentence production in the patient
group is that increased difficulty producing sentences with unaccusatives (and possibly other
sentences with non-canonical word order and displaced constituents) is not limited to patients
with agrammatism. In this respect, our result joins a growing literature reporting difficulty in the
production of non-canonical constructions in fluent aphasia (cf. e.g. Berndt et al., 1997; Caplan
& Hanna, 1998; Faroqi-Shah & Thompson, 2003). Aphasic diagnostic group played no role in
patient selection in the present study, but, as it happened, no patient in the group tested here was
classified as a Broca’s or agrammatic aphasic. It is possible that the source of difficulty in
producing sentences with unaccusatives differs between Broca’s/agrammatic patients and
patients in other clinical aphasic groups. For instance, individuals with Broca’s/agrammatic
aphasia may have a specific deficit in producing verbs whose argument structure requires
syntactic movement, while other aphasic groups may have a superficially similar abnormal
pattern of performance because they have a reduction in the processing resources needed to
produce such verbs.
17
While the present study did not find a correlation between the effect of argument
structure on action naming and its effect on sentence production, this does not entail that there
are no operations common to these two processes. However, the absence of such a correlation
does suggest that task-specific factors played a significant role in determining the effect of
argument structure. These factors can be understood as part of a linguistic and psycholinguistic
theory of encoding actions and events, and much work is needed for them to be fully explained.
Turning to comprehension, results of the sentence-picture matching task revealed that
sentences without argument movement were comprehended at a significantly higher rate than
movement constructions. The results of this study showed an effect of group in reaction times,
but no interaction of group with sentence type in either accuracy or reaction times. The lack of a
greater effect of syntactic complexity in patients relative to controls has been reported previously
for comprehension of active and passive sentences when patients with mild aphasia are
compared to controls (Dick et al., 2001; Caplan, Waters, DeDe, Michaud, & Reddy, 2007).
The highly significant correlation between the effect of movement in
transitive/intransitive unaccusative and active/passive sentences points to the importance of a
common mechanism in determining comprehension of these two sentence types. The leading
candidate for such a mechanism is some aspect of the comprehension of thematic roles presented
in non-canonical order (in generative grammar, the consequence of syntactic movement). The
fact that this effect was found in control participants as well as patients with aphasia strongly
suggests that it reflects the processing demands of these sentences, not an aphasia-specific deficit
in processing certain structures. As noted above, the patients tested here did not have an
agrammatic or Broca’s type of aphasia; it is possible that disturbances affecting comprehension
18
of these sentences arise for different reasons in the present patients than in those with
agrammatic or Broca’s aphasia.
Finally, no relationship was found between the effect of argument structure on action
naming and the effect of movement on comprehension, nor was there a significant correlation
between the effect of argument structure on sentence production and the effect of movement on
comprehension. This is consistent with the view that these factors largely affect these tasks in
different ways.
In summary, across all tasks, unaccusative verbs were associated with decreased
performance relative to non-movement constructions. In naming and sentence-picture matching
tasks, however, this difference was present in age-matched controls as well as participants with
aphasia. Thus, the results of this experiment did not point to an aphasia-specific deficit in the
representation or processing of movement chains. Instead, they supported the hypothesis that
deficits in aphasic comprehension and production are at least in part a reflection of reduced
processing capacity. The difficulties seen with unaccusative verbs affected all tasks, but they
were not correlated across tasks. This suggests that the effects of unaccusativity differ in the
separate contexts of action naming, sentence production, and sentence comprehension. More
work is needed to understand the mechanisms that underlie the effects of a verb expressing a
non-canonical thematic structure across these various tasks. Finally, this study involved only a
limited sample of patients characterized mostly by mild, fluent aphasia, whereas claims about
movement deficits are generally specific to agrammatic aphasia. It may be the case that more
severely affected patients, or patients with a particular type of aphasia such as agrammatism,
have specific deficits affecting these structures. There is thus a need to extend the investigation
19
to a larger sample of patients to determine whether any individuals with aphasia might exhibit
across-task deficits in the representation of movement.
20
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Acknowledgements
This research was partially supported by a grant from NIDCD (DC 00942) to David Caplan.
24
Table 1. Patient Data
Pt. Age Sex
Handedness
Education (years)
Years Post-
Stroke Etiology Classification
FN 37 M R 16 1 LH CVA Mild/Fluent RH 57 F R 19 14 LH CVA Mild/Fluent JA 74 M R 14 2 LH CVA Mild/Fluent MG 93 M R 18 6 LH CVA Mild/Fluent
LO 55 F R 12 1 LH CVA
Mild-moderate cognitive-linguistic deficits with relatively intact comprehension
CP 43 M R 12 29 LH CVA Mild/Fluent LK 50 M L 16 6 RH CVA Mild/Nonfluent CB 69 F R 18 6 LH CVA Mild/Fluent
HV 80 F R 16 4 LH CVA
Initial diagnosis Broca’s/nonfluent, resolved to mild/ fluent production
BD 56 M R 17 8.5 LH CVA Moderate fluent with moderately impaired comprehension
25
Table 2. Results (Mean accuracy/RT; standard deviation in parentheses)
A. Single-Word Naming, Percent Correct Responses
Unaccusative Unergative
Control 86 (35) 94 (24)
Patient 63 (49) 80 (40)
B. Sentence Production, Percent Correct Responses
Unaccusative Unergative
Control 96 (21) 97 (18)
Patient 83 (38) 96 (21)
C. Sentence-Picture Matching, Percent Correct Responses
Intransitive
Unaccusative
Transitive
Unaccusative Passive Active
Control 92 (27) 98 (13) 96 (19) 98 (13)
Patient 86 (35) 99 (10) 92 (27) 98 (15)
D. Sentence-Picture Matching, RT (msec)
Intransitive
Unaccusative
Transitive
Unaccusative Passive Active
Control 2089 (1735) 1468 (1066) 1531 (1112) 1492 (1112)
Patient 3596 (2889) 2684 (2594) 2953 (2746) 3235 (3320)
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Figure Captions
Figure 1: Sample Picture Stimuli
Figure 1A. Stimuli used in picture-naming and sentence production tasks
Figure 1B. Stimuli used in sentence-picture matching task: Unaccusative
Figure 1C. Stimuli used in sentence-picture matching task: Active-Passive
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Appendix A. Target Verbs for Production Tasks
Unaccusative Unergative
1. bounce 1. cry
2. burn 2. jump
3. break 3. laugh
4. melt 4. run
5. explode 5. pray
6. float 6. sit
7. crash 7. sneeze
8. roll 8. swim
9. sink 9. crawl
10. tear 10. wink
11. wilt
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Appendix B. Sentence-Picture Matching Stimuli
Intransitive Unaccusative Transitive Unaccusative
1. The man is collapsing. 1. The man is collapsing the blocks.
2. The girl is shaking. 2. The girl is shaking the juice.
3. The man is hanging. 3. The man is hanging the towel.
4. The boy is choking. 4. The boy is choking the girl.
5. The girl is bouncing. 5. The girl is bouncing the ball.
6. The boy is floating. 6. The boy is floating the boat.
7. The dog is rolling. 7. The dog is rolling the ball.
8. The robot is breaking. 8. The robot is breaking the vase.
9. The tank is exploding. 9. The tank is exploding the building.
10. The robot is melting. 10. The robot is melting the spaceship.
11. The robot is cracking. 11. The robot is cracking the vase.
12. The pirate ship is sinking. 12. The pirate ship is sinking the little boat.
13. The monkey is dangling. 13. The monkey is dangling the banana.
14. The woman is suffocating. 14. The woman is suffocating the man.
15. The alien is vaporizing. 15. The alien is vaporizing the spaceman.
16. The alien is freezing. 16. The alien is freezing the spaceman.
17. The woman is stretching. 17. The woman is stretching the towel.
18. The man is drowning. 18. The man is drowning the rat.
19. The man is bending. 19. The man is bending the bar.
20. The girl is spinning. 20. The girl is spinning the top.
21. The boy is swinging. 21. The boy is swinging the stick.
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Simple Transitive Active Simple Transitive Passive
1. The father is squeezing the girl. 1. The father is being squeezed by the girl.
2. The boy is biting the girl. 2. The boy is being bitten by the girl.
3. The boy is kicking the horse. 3. The boy is being kicked by the horse.
4. The grandmother is kissing the boy. 4. The grandmother is being kissed by the boy.
5. The child is hugging the mother. 5. The child is being hugged by the mother.
6. The boy is pinching the teacher. 6. The boy is being pinched by the teacher.
7. The policeman is hitting the thief. 7. The policeman is being hit by the thief.
8. The boy is scratching the girl. 8. The boy is being scratched by the girl.
9. The girl is tickling the father. 9. The girl is being tickled by the father.
10. The man is pushing the woman. 10. The man is being pushed by the woman.
11. The girl is following the cat. 11. The girl is being followed by the cat.
12. The girl is tapping the mother. 12. The girl is being tapped by the mother.
13. The boy is punching the girl. 13. The boy is being punched by the girl.
14. The teacher is poking the girl. 14. The teacher is being poked by the girl.
15. The girl is tripping the boy. 15. The girl is being tripped by the boy.
16. The man is tackling the boy. 16. The man is being tackled by the boy.
17. The boy is chasing the dog. 17. The boy is being chased by the dog.
18. The mother is touching the baby. 18. The mother is being touched by the baby.
19. The boy is pulling the grandfather. 19. The boy is being pulled by the grandfather.
20. The girl is teasing the boy. 20. The girl is being teased by the boy.
31
Appendix C. Scoring Codes for Single-Word Naming
Categories receiving a score of 0 (no credit) shaded gray. Response Type Code Description Example
Target Word TW Target word in an acceptable form.
jump jump, jumping, jumped
Target Word—Participial TWP Target word in an
unambiguously participial form. break broken
Target Word—Sentence TWS Target word in a phrase or
sentence context. crawling baby is
crawling
Acceptable Substitution AS
Substitution that shares the structure of the target and is
judged semantically appropriate. wilting drooping
Structure-Preserving
Substitution SPS
Substitution that does not change the structure of the target but is
not judged semantically appropriate.
crying trying
Structure-Changing
Substitution SCS
Substitution that does not match the target verb syntax,
independent of semantic content. floating playing
No Action Word NoAct
Participant does not produce a verb as a response. Includes
inappropriate use of a noun with verbal morphology.
crashing accident burning firing
Gesture or Nonword
Vocalization Ges Participant substitutes a gesture
or sound effect for target verb. laughing ha ha ha
Circumlocution Circ Participant expresses the
semantic content of the target in a multi-word circumlocution.
bounce She’s throwing it down and it comes up in the air
Frozen form Froz Target is produced in the context of a fixed/idiomatic phrase
breaking Broken Arrow (movie title)
No Response NR Participant attempts to respond but fails.
32
Appendix D. Scoring Codes for Sentence Production
Categories receiving a score of 0 (no credit) shaded gray. Response Type Code Description Example Target Response
Target Sentence TS All obligatory arguments present in target order. swim U The girl is
swimming.
Target Sentence—Participle/Gerund/
Nominal Form TSP
Participial, nominal or gerund form of target with preserved theta structure.
rip I
The kite was ripped from landing in the tree. (JA)
No verb/incorrect nominalization of
target verb. Nom
Gives no evidence of knowledge of target verb’s
thematic structure. break I
The breaking is from the trees. (BD)
Valency increase, added subject V+S
Intransitive pictorial context described with non-
depicted subject. break I
Someone broke a branch. (LO)
Valency increase, added object V+O Direct object used where
intransitive expected. wink U The man winked his left eye. (KL)
Valency decrease, subject omission V-SO Subject omission in
violation of theta criterion. bounce T Bounce the ball. (BD)
Valency decrease, object omission V-OO Object omission in
violation of theta criterion. float T The man is floating. (LK)
Valency decrease, unexpressed obj. V-UO Object omission without
theta violation. crash T The man crashed into the tree.(CP)
Valency decrease, PP substitution. V-PP Direct object is realized
incorrectly as PP. explode T We exploded from the school. (BD)
PP selection error PP Verb occurs with non-subcategorized PP. burn I The books burned
into the fire. (CP)
Inverted Subject InvS Subject appears in postverbal position. burn I Burning up
papers. (LO)
Nontarget theta-role assignment Theta Inappropriate θ-assignment
for verb or picture. rip I The kite was ripping through the trees. (CB)
Frozen form Froz Target appears in fixed or idiomatic phrase. fall IN The sun also
rises. (CB)
Fragment Frag Response cannot stand as a matrix clause. crawl U
Cute little baby crawling along. (LO)
Agreement or tense error Agr/T Error in agreement or tense
morphology. jump U The boy jump over the wall.(RH)
Other grammatical error Other Any grammatical error not
explicitly coded. cry U Girl is crying. (HV)
Lexical Retrieval LR Omission or inappropriate
substitution of NP arguments depicted.
melt I
The man melted the 3-pronged not pronged the uh... (RH)