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PROCESS PLANT EQUIPMENT
Operation, Control, and Reliability
Edited by
MICHAEL D. HOLLOWAY
CHIKEZIE NWAOHA
OLIVER A. ONYEWUENYI
WILEY
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
CONTENTS
Contributors xxiii
Preface xxiv
SECTION I PROCESS EQUIPMENT OPERATION
1 Introduction
Michael D. Holloway
3
2 Valves 9
Ali Ahammad Shoukat Choudhury, Chikezie Nwaoha, and Sharad Vishwasrao
2.1 Types of Control Valves, 10
2.1.1 Linear-Motion Control Valves, 10
2.1.2 Rotary-Motion Control Valves, 11
2.1.3 Nonreturn Valves, 12
2.1.4 Relief Valves, 12
2.2 Control Valve Actuators, 12
2.2.1 Pneumatic Valve Actuators, 12
2.2.2 Electric Valve Actuators, 13
2.2.3 Hydraulic Valve Actuators, 13
2.3 Control Valve Sizing and Selection, 13
2.3.1 Selecting a Valve Type, 14
2.3.2 Sizing and Selection: Letting the Computer Do It All, 15
2.4 Common Problems of Control Valves, 15
2.4.1 Control Valve Cavitation, 15
2.4.2 Control Valve Leakage, 16
2.4.3 Control Valve Nonlinearities, 17
2.5 Diagnosing Control Valve Problems, 19
2.6 Control Valve Reliability and Selection, 20
2.7 Control Valve Maintenance, 22
2.7.1 Detecting Control Valve Stiction, 23
viii CONTENTS
2.8 Control Valve Troubleshooting, 24
References, 24
3 Pumps
Craig Redmond
3.1 Types of Pumps, 28
3.1.1 Positive-Displacement Pumps, 28
3.1.2 Dynamic Pumps, 30
3.2 Pump Applications, 34
3.2.1 Flooded Suction Applications, 34
3.2.2 Suction Lift Applications, 35
3.2.3 Staged Pumping, 35
3.2.4 Solids-Handling Applications, 36
3.3 Pump Sizing and Selection, 37
3.3.1 System Head Curve, 37
3.3.2 Pump Peformance Curves, 38
3.3.3 Actual Pump Sizing and Selection, 39
3.3.4 Net Positive Suction Head, 40
3.3.5 Net Positive Suction Head Available, 40
3.4 Pump Maintenance, 40
3.4.1 Bearing Lubrication, 41
3.4.2 Seal Maintenance, 41
3.4.3 Maintaining Performance, 43
3.4.4 Winterizing and Long-Term Storage, 43
3.4.5 Cold Temperature Installations, 43
3.5 Pump Troubleshooting, 44
4 PipesShaohui Jia
4.1 Types of Pipes, 45
4.1.1 Seamless Pipe, 45
4.1.2 Welded Pipe, 45
4.2 Pipe Selection, 46
4.2.1 Pipe Strength, 46
4.2.2 Pipe Toughness, 46
4.2.3 Pipe Weldability, 48
4.2.4 Piping Material, 48
4.3 Pipeline Network Design and Optimization, 48
4.4 Pipeline Failure, 50
4.4.1 Pipe External Corrosion, 51
4.4.2 Pipe Internal Corrosion, 52
4.4.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking, 53
4.5 Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection, 54
4.5.1 Pipeline Inspection, 54
4.5.2 Pipeline Inspection Tools, 55
4.5.3 Pipeline Leak Detection, 56
4.6 Pipe Maintenance, 58
4.6.1 Pipeline Coatings, 58
4.6.2 Pipeline Repair, 59
4.7 Pipe Troubleshooting, 60
References, 61
CONTENTS ix
5 Cooling Towers 63
Zaki Yamani Zakaria and Chikezie Nwaoha
5.1 Cooling Tower Operation, 63
5.1.1 Cooling Tower Psychrometrics, 63
5.1.2 Principles of Cooling, 65
5.1.3 Heat Exchange, 67
5.1.4 Components of Cooling Towers, 67
5.2 Types of Cooling Towers, 69
5.2.1 Natural-Draft Cooling Towers, 69
5.2.2 Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers, 72
5.3 Common Problems of Cooling Towers, 74
5.3.1 Scale Deposits, 74
5.3.2 Delignification of Wood, 74
5.3.3 Poor Pump Performance, 75
5.3.4 Poor Airflow, 75
5.3.5 Makeup Water, 75
5.3.6 Clogging of Distribution Nozzles, 75
5.4 Measuring Cooling Tower Performance, 75
5.4.1 Performance Assessment, 76
5.5 Cooling Tower Maintenance, 77
References, 79
6 Filters and Membranes 81
Flora Tong and Chikezie Nwaoha
6.1 Types of Filters, 81
6.1.1 Gas Filters, 82
6.1.2 Liquid Filters, 83
6.2 Mechanisms of Filtration, 87
6.2.1 Depth Straining, 87
6.2.2 Surface Straining, 87
6.2.3 Depth Filtration, 87
6.2.4 Cake Filtration, 87
6.3 Filter Selection, 87
6.3.1 Chemical Compatibility, 87
6.3.2 Accurate Pore Size, 87
6.4 Particle-Size Measurement Techniques, 88
6.4.1 Image Analysis, 88
6.4.2 Direct Mechanical Measurement, 88
6.4.3 Ultrasonics, 88
6.4.4 Laser Scattering Technology, 88
6.5 Filter Location, 89
6.5.1 Pressure Line Filters, 89
6.5.2 Suction Line Filters, 89
6.5.3 Return Line Filters, 89
6.6 Membrane Filtration, 89
6.6.1 Ultrafiltration, 90
6.6.2 Microfiltration, 94
6.6.3 Reverse Osmosis, 95
6.6.4 Nanofiltration, 102
6.7 Filter Maintenance, 103
6.7.1 Preparation for Maintenance, 104
References, 104
x CONTENTS
7 Sealing Devices
Malt Tones and Jim Drago
7.1 Gaskets, 107
7.1.1 Gasket Materials, 107
7.1.2 Gasket and Seal Construction, 113
7.1.3 Principles of Gasket Operation, 119
7.1.4 Gasket and Metal Seal Applications, 120
7.1.5 Gasket Selection, 123
7.2 Compression Packings, 125
7.2.1 Packing Materials, 126
7.2.2 Packing Construction, 128
7.2.3 Packing Selection, 129
7.2.4 Packing Installation, 130
7.3 Mechanical Seals, 131
7.3.1 Considerations for Using Mechanical Seals, 132
7.3.2 Types of Mechanical Seals, 134
7.3.3 Mechanical Seal Applications, 137
7.3.4 Environmental Controls, 140
7.3.5 Failure Analysis, 142
7.3.6 Troubleshooting Mechanical Seals, 144
7.4 Expansion Joints, 147
7.4.1 Joint Construction, 148
7.4.2 Principles of Joint Operation, 149
7.4.3 Joint Selection, 149
7.4.4 Industrial Use of Expansion Joints, 152
7.4.5 Joint Installation, 155
7.4.6 Joint Troubleshooting, 156
7.5 General Sealing Device Selection, 157
7.5.1 Product Selection, 157
7.5.2 Understanding the Forces, 157
7.5.3 STAMPS Criteria, 158
References, 161
8 Steam Traps
Jacob E. Uche and Chikezie Nwaoha
8.1 Steam Trap Operation, 163
8.2 Types of Steam Traps, 164
8.2.1 Thermodynamic Steam Traps, 164
8.2.2 Mechanical Steam Traps, 166
8.2.3 Thermostatic Steam Traps, 169
8.3 Steam Trap Installation, 172
8.3.1 Outlets of Steam-Using Equipment, 172
8.3.2 On Steam Lines, 172
8.4 Steam Trap Checking, 172
8.4.1 Sight Method, 173
8.4.2 Sound Method, 174
8.4.3 Temperature Method, 174
8.4.4 Fluid Conductivity Method, 174
8.5 Common Problems of Steam Traps, 175
8.5.1 Air Binding, 175
8.5.2 Dirt, 175
8.5.3 Improper Sizing, 175
8.5.4 Steam Trap Leakage, 175
8.5.5 Steam Locking, 176
8.5.6 Water Hammer, 176
8.5.7 Erosion of Seat and Valve Sealing Faces, 176
8.5.8 Life Expectancy, 176
8.6 Steam Trap Selection, 176
8.7 Steam Trap Applications, 178
8.7.1 Protection Service, 178
8.7.2 Process Service, 178
8.7.3 Other Applications, 178
8.8 Steam Trap Sizing, 178
8.8.1 Basic Considerations, 179
8.9 Steam Trap Maintenance, 181
References, 181
9 Process Compressors
N. Sitaram and Chikezie Nwaoha
9.1 Types of Compressors, 183
9.2 Continuous Compression Compressors, 184
9.2.1 Ejectors, 184
9.2.2 Dynamic, Rotodynamic, or Turbocompressors, 185
9.3 Intermittent Compression Compressors, 186
9.3.1 Positive-Displacement Compressors
(Intermittent Flow), 186
9.3.2 Rotary Compressors (Continuous Flow), 187
9.4 Centrifugal Compressors, 189
9.4.1 Major Components of Centrifugal Compressors, 189
9.4.2 Thermodynamics of Centrifugal Compressors, 195
9.4.3 Energy Transfer in Centrifugal Compressors, 196
9.4.4 Slip in Centrifugal Impellers, 197
9.4.5 Losses and Efficiencies, 198
9.4.6 Performance, Stall, and Surge, 199
9.4.7 Drivers, 201
9.5 Reciprocating Piston Compressors, 202
9.5.1 Compressor Operation, 202
9.5.2 Thermodynamic Laws, 203
9.5.3 Compression Cycles, 203
9.5.4 Power Requirements, 204
9.5.5 Multistage Compression, 204
9.5.6 Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency, 205
9.5.7 Valve Losses, 206
9.5.8 Major Components of Reciprocating Piston
Compressors, 206
9.5.9 Drivers, 207
9.6 Compressor Troubleshooting, 209
References, 210
Further Reading, 211
10 Conveyors
Okenna Obi-Njoku
10.1 Industrial Use of Conveyors, 213
10.2 Types of Conveyors, 214
10.2.1 Belt Conveyors, 214
10.2.2 Bucket Conveyors, 215
CONTENTS xi
183
213
CONTENTS
10.2.3 Cart-on-Track Conveyors, 215
10.2.4 Chute Conveyors, 216
10.2.5 Gravity Wheel Conveyors, 216
10.2.6 Monorails, 216
10.2.7 Chain Conveyors, 216
10.2.8 Pneumatic Conveyors, 217
10.2.9 Roller Conveyors, 217
10.2.10 Screw Conveyors, 218
10.2.11 Slat Conveyors, 218
10.2.12 Sortation Conveyors, 219
10.2.13 Vane-Type Throwing Machines, 219
10.2.14 Tow Conveyors, 219
10.2.15 Trolley Conveyors, 219
10.2.16 Vertical Conveyors, 220
10.2.17 Vibrating Conveyors, 220
10.2.18 Troughed Belt Conveyors, 220
10.2.19 Magnetic Belt Conveyors, 220
10.2.20 Power-and-Free Conveyors, 220
10.3 Conveyor Selection, 221
10.4 Conveyor Safety, 221
10.5 Conveyor Maintenance, 222
10.6 Summary, 222
References, 223
Storage Tanks
Marcello Ferrara and Chikezie Nwaoha
11.1 Types of Storage Tanks, 225
11.1.1 Aboveground Tanks, 225
11.1.2 Underground Tanks, 226
11.2 Storage Tank Classification, 227
11.2.1 Aboveground Tanks, 227
11.2.2 Underground Tanks, 227
11.3 Construction Materials, 227
11.3.1 Tank Materials, 227
11.3.2 Protective Coatings, 228
11.3.3 Insulation, 229
11.4 Common Problems of Storage Tanks, 229
11.4.1 Corrosion, 229
11.4.2 Vapor Losses, 230
11.4.3 Storage Tank Fires, 231
11.5 Storage Tank Maintenance, 233
11.5.1 Tank Blanketing, 233
11.5.2 Holiday Detection, 233
11.5.3 Tank Cleaning, 234
11.6 Tank Appurtenances, 241
11.6.1 Mixers, 241
11.6.2 Dikes, 241
11.6.3 Insulators, 241
11.6.4 Platforms and Ladders, 242
11.6.5 Gauging Devices, 242
11.6.6 Valves, 242
11.6.7 Manways, 243
11.6.8 Diffusers, 243
11.6.9 Water Cannons, 243
11.6.10 Vents, 243
11.6.11 Grounding, 243
11.6.12 Supporting Structures, 243
11.7 Storage Tank Maintenance, 243
References, 244
12 Mixers
Jayesh Ramesh Tekchandaney
12.1 Mixing Concepts: Theory and Practice, 246
12.1.1 Batch and Continuous Mixing, 246
12.1.2 Selection of Mixing Equipment, 247
12.1.3 Design of Mixing Equipment, 247
12.1.4 Scale-Up of Mixing Equipment, 247
12.2 Fluid Mixing, 248
12.2.1 Fluid Mixing Applications, 248
12.2.2 Mixing Regimes, 249
12.2.3 Power Consumption in Agitated Vessels, 249
12.2.4 Flow Characteristics, 251
12.2.5 Liquid Agitation Equipment, 253
12.3 Solid Blending, 264
12.3.1 Properties of Solids Affecting Blending, 264
12.3.2 Types of Blend Structures, 265
12.3.3 Mechanisms of Solid Blending, 265
12.3.4 Segregation Mechanisms, 265
12.3.5 Scale-Up of Solid Mixers, 266
12.3.6 Solid Blending Equipment, 266
12.4 Mixing High-Viscosity Materials and Pastes, 274
12.4.1 Dispersive, Distributive, and Convective Mixing, 275
12.4.2 Power for Viscous Mixing, 275
12.4.3 Scale-Up of High-Viscosity Mixers, 275
12.4.4 Heat Transfer, 275
12.4.5 Equipment for Mixing High-Viscosity Materials
and Pastes, 275
12.5 Mechanical Components in Mixing Equipment, 284
12.5.1 Motors, 284
12.5.2 Mixer Speed Reducers, 285
12.5.3 Couplings, 287
12.5.4 Bearings, 288
12.5.5 Shaft Seals, 289
12.5.6 Variable-Speed Operation Devices, 291
12.5.7 Mixer Installation, Startup, and Maintenance, 292
12.5.8 Mixer Specifications, 295
References, 295
13 Boilers
Celestine C. C. Nwankwo
13.1 Types of Boilers, 298
13.1.1 Water Tube Boilers, 299
13.1.2 Fire Tube Boilers, 300
13.1.3 Pot Boilers, 300
13.1.4 Saddle Boilers, 301
13.1.5 Packaged Boilers, 301
CONTENTS xiii
245
297
xiv CONTENTS
13.1.6 Fluidized-Bed Combustion Boilers, 301
13.1.7 Stoker-Fired Boilers, 302
13.1.8 Pulverized Fuel Boilers, 302
13.1.9 Waste Heat Boilers, 302
13.1.10 Thermic Fluid Heaters, 302
13.1.11 Superheated Steam Boilers, 302
13.2 Boiler Accessories, 303
13.2.1 Fittings and Accessories at the Boiler Unit, 303
13.2.2 Steam Accessories, 303
13.2.3 Combustion Accessories, 304
13.3 Boiler Selection, 305
13.3.1 Costs, 305
13.3.2 Boiler Sizing, 305
13.3.3 Heating and Heating Fuels, 306
13.4 Common Problems of Boilers, 306
13.4.1 Scaling, 306
13.4.2 Corrosion, 307
13.4.3 Boiler Water Carryover, 308
13.5 Boiler Failure Analysis and Welding Defects, 308
13.5.1 Boiler Failure Analysis, 308
13.5.2 Welding Defects, 309
13.6 Boiler Maintenance, 313
13.6.1 Boiler Upgrading and Retrofitting, 315
13.6.2 Boiler Feed Water Treatment, 316
13.6.3 Boiler Stack Economizer, 317
13.6.4 Boiler Blowdown Control, 317
13.7 Boiler Troubleshooting, 319
13.7.1 Combustion Problems, 319
13.7.2 Draft Fan and Burner Problems, 320
13.7.3 Fuel Pump and Fuel Pressure Problems, 320
13.8 Boiler Chemicals, 321
13.8.1 Phosphates, 322
13.8.2 Lime Softening and Sodium Trioxocarbonate, 322
13.8.3 Chelates, 322
13.8.4 Polymers, 323
13.8.5 Oxygen Scavengers, 324
13.8.6 Neutralizing Amines, 325
13.8.7 Filming Amines, 325
13.9 Boiler Efficiency and Combustion, 325
13.9.1 Heat Losses, 326
13.9.2 Types of Burners, 326
13.9.3 Burner Control Systems, 327
References, 327
Further Reading, 328
SECTION II PROCESS PLANT RELIABILITY
14 Engineering Economics for Chemical Processes 331
Alberto R. Betancourt-Torcat, L. A. Ricardez-Sandoval, and Ali Elkamel
14.1 Time Value of Money, 331
14.2 Cash Flow Analysis, 333
14.2.1 Compound Interest Factors for Single Cash Flows, 333
CONTENTS xv
14.2.2 Compound Interest Factors for Annuities, 334
14.2.3 Arithmetic and Geometric Gradient Series, 334
14.3 Profitability Analysis, 336
14.3.1 Payback Period, 336
14.3.2 Minimum Acceptable Rate of Return, 336
14.3.3 Present and Annual Worth Analysis, 336
14.3.4 Internal Rate of Return, 337
14.4 Cost Estimation and Project Evaluation, 340
14.4.1 Capital Investment, 340
14.4.2 Cost Indexes, 341
14.4.3 Capital Cost Estimates, 342
14.4.4 Production Costs and Estimations, 348
14.4.5 Estimation of Revenues and Cash Flow, 352
References, 353
15 .2,.1
15 .2.,2
15 .2..3
15 .2.,4
15 .2..5
15.2..6
15.2..7
15.2.,8
15..2.,9
15.2..10
15.2..11
15..2.,12
15.2..13
15 Process Component Function and Performance Criteria 355
Robert Free
15.1 Material Classification, 355
15.2 General Physical Quantities and Considerations, 356
Important Definitions, 356
State Quantities, 357
Phase, 357
Isolation, 357
Flammability, 359
Viscosity, 359
Volatility, 361
Corrosive Substances, 361
Conductivity, 361
Composition, 362
Morphology, 363
Solid-Specific Considerations, 363
Coefficient of Friction, 365
15.3 Material Transfer and Conveyance Equipment, 366
15.4 Conveyors, 367
15.4.1 Conveyor Belts, 367
15.4.2 Overhead Conveyors, 377
15.4.3 Roller Conveyors, 382
15.4.4 Chute Conveyors, 388
15.4.5 Screw Conveyors, 389
15.4.6 Other Conveyor Types, 392
15.5 Pumps, 394
15.5.1 Head and Pressure: Fluid Flow Systems, 394
15.5.2 Pump Construction and Operation, 395
15.5.3 Selection by Application, 398
15.5.4 Reliability, Maintenance, and Process Development, 399
15.5.5 Additional Information, 400
15.6 Valves, 400
15.6.1 Valve Construction and Function, 401
15.6.2 Selection Specification, 404
15.6.3 Additional Information, 405
15.7 Pipes, 405
15.7.1 Pipe Standards, 406
xvi CONTENTS
15.7.2 Pipe Classification, 406
15.7.3 Common Pipe Materials, 408
15.7.4 Pipe Sizing, 410
15.7.5 Additional Information, 410
15.8 Conclusions, 410
References, 410
Corporation Web Sites, 411
16 Failure Analysis and Interpretation of Components 413
Michael D. Holloway
16.1 Assessing the Situation, 413
16.2 Failure Defined, 414
16.3 Taking Advantage of Failure, 415
16.4 Sources of Failure, 416
16.5 Failure of Materials and of Machines, 416
16.6 Types of Forces, 417
16.7 Strength, 418
16.7.1 Stress and Strain, 418
16.7.2 Yield, 419
16.8 Creep (Deformation), 419
16.9 Fatigue (Material), 420
16.9.1 Rate of Fatigue, 421
16.9.2 Fracture, 421
16.10 Wear, 422
16.11 Property Changes, 423
16.12 Temperature, 423
16.13 Oxidation: Molecular Transitions and Chemical Influences, 425
16.13.1 Corrosion, 425
16.13.2 Corrosion in Nonmetals, 425
16.13.3 Galvanic Corrosion, 426
16.14 Deposit Formation, 426
16.15 Factors that Affect Deposit Formation, 428
16.15.1 Concentration and Pressure, 428
16.15.2 Particle Size and Contaminant Type, 428
16.15.3 Adsorption, 429
16.16 Documenting Failure, 429
16.16.1 Root Cause Investigation, 430
16.16.2 Failure Examination, 432
References, 432
17 Mechanical Integrity of Process Vessels and Piping 435
Oliver A. Onyewuenyi
17.1 Perspectives on Mechanical Integrity, Fitness for Service, and
Condition Monitoring, 437
17.1.1 Mechanical Integrity, 437
17.1.2 Condition Monitoring, 438
17.1.3 Fitness for Service, 438
17.2 Types of Flaws and Damage Mechanisms, 439
17.2.1 Flaws or Discontinuities Versus Defects, 439
17.2.2 Types of Flaws, 440
17.2.3 Weld Flaws, 440
17.2.4 In-Service Flaws and Environmentally Assisted Flaws, 440
CONTENTS xvii
17.2.5 In-Service Degradation and Susceptibility of Various
Alloys, 440
17.2.6 HAC and SCC Susceptibility of Various Alloy Systems, 441
17.3 Inspection, Characterization, and Monitoring of Flaws, 442
17.3.1 General Metal Loss and Local Thinned Area Corrosion, 442
17.3.2 Pitting and Crevice Corrosion, 443
17.3.3 HIC, SOHIC, and Blister Damage, 443
17.3.4 Cracklike and Sharp Flaws, 443
17.3.5 Online Condition Monitoring of Damage, 443
17.4 Fracture Mechanics and Fitness-for-Service Assessment, 443
17.4.1 Applicable Codes and Standards, 444
17.4.2 When FFS is Needed, 444
17.4.3 FFS Assessment Procedure, 446
17.5 Control and Prevention of Brittle Fracture, 452
17.5.1 Definitions, 452
17.5.2 Brittle Versus Ductile Fracture, 452
17.5.3 Industry and Regulatory Codes and Standards for Brittle
Fracture Control, 453
17.5.4 Determination of the Minimum Metal Temperature, 453
17.5.5 Determination of the Lower Design Temperature, 453
17.5.6 Toughness Requirements, 455
17.5.7 Brittle Fracture Risk Assessment of Existing Systems, 455
17.5.8 Assessment Approaches, 456
17.5.9 LDT and Design Code-Based Assessments, 456
17.5.10 FFS-Based Assessments, 458
17.5.11 Assessment per API 579-1 and ASME FFS-1 Part 3, 458
17.5.12 Full FFS Assessment, 458
17.6 Case Histories and Examples of FFS Applications to Cracks in
Process Plant Pressure Vessels, 459
References, 464
18 Design of Pressure Vessels and Piping 467
Maher Y. A. Younan
18.1 Modes of Failure, 467
18.1.1 Failure Under Static Loading, 467
18.1.2 Failure Under Dynamic Loading, 468
18.1.3 Failure Under Other Types of Loading, 469
18.2 Basic Stress Analysis, 469
18.2.1 Allowable Stresses, 470
18.3 Design of Pressure Vessels, 470
18.3.1 Geometric Considerations, 470
18.3.2 Design of Vessels Under Internal Pressure, 471
18.3.3 Nozzles or Branch Connections, 472
18.3.4 Design of Formed Heads, 474
18.3.5 Vessels and Pipes Subjected to External Pressure, 475
18.3.6 Design of Vessel Supports, 478
18.3.7 Design by Rule Versus Design by Analysis, 479
18.4 Design of Piping Systems, 481
18.4.1 Wall Thickness for Internal Pressure, 481
18.4.2 Pipe Span Calculations, 482
18.4.3 Pipe Supports, 483
18.4.4 Expansion and Flexibility, 483
18.4.5 Code Compliance, 485
References, 486
xviii CONTENTS
19 Process Safety in Chemical Processes 489
Jelenka Savkovic-Stevanovic
19.1 The Hazards, 490
19. 1.1 Special Hazards, 490
19. 1.2 Toxicology, 490
19. 1.3 Flammability, 493
19. 1.4 Explosions, 494
19. 1.5 Ignition, 494
19. 1.6 Ionizing Radiation, 495
19. 1.7 Pressure, 495
19. 1.8 Temperature Disturbance, 496
19. 1.9 Noise Disturbance, 496
19. 1.10 Fire and Explosion Index, 496
19.2 Hazard Analysis, 499
19.2.1 Safety Checklists, 500
19.2.2 Process Operation and Hazards, 501
19.3 Risk Analysis, 503
19.3.1 Decision-Making System, 503
19.3.2 Qualitative Risk Analysis, 505
19.3.3 Qualitative Model Development, 505
19.4 Safety Ratings, 511
19.4.1 Hazard Potential of a Volatile Substance, 513
19.4.2 Hazard Potential from an Explosion, 514
19.4.3 Evaluation of Hazardous Properties, 515
19.4.4 Rating of Flammable and Explosive Substances, 516
19.5 Development and Design of a Safe Plant, 524
19.5.1 Design and Construction Methods, 526
19.5.2 Evaluation of Hazards by Probability of Occurrence, 530
19.5.3 Reliability Analysis, 534
19.5.4 Safety Based on Process Control, 539
19.5.5 Damage-Minimizing Systems, 541
19.6 Safety Process Operation, 543
19.6.1 Batch and Continuous Processes, 544
19.6.2 The Human Aspect of Safety, 545
19.6.3 Safety in Production Practice, 546
19.6.4 Maintenance, 548
19.6.5 Plant Safety Optimization, 553
19.6.6 Plant and Process Modification, 555
19.6.7 Hazard Impact Reduction, 556
19.7 Safety and Reliability Analysis, 557
19.7.1 Process Safety Information, 558
19.7.2 Project Safety Information. 558
19.7.3 Design and Control Safety, 563
19.7.4 Operating Procedures, 563
19.7.5 Training, 564
19.7.6 Process Hazard Analysis Revalidation, 565
19.7.7 Emergency Flaring Systems, 572
19.7.8 Computerized Hazard Identification, 574
19.7.9 Risk Assessment, 578
19.8 Summary, 581
References, 582
SECTION III PROCESS MEASUREMENT, CONTROL,AND MODELING
20 Flowmeters and Measurement
Gregory Livelli and Chikezie Nwaoha
20.1 Flow Measurement Techniques, 587
20.1.1 Volumetric Totalizers, 587
20.1.2 Turbine Flowmeters, 588
20.1.3 Oval Gear Totalizers, 589
20.1.4 Lobed Impeller Gas Meters, 589
20.1.5 Vortex Flowmeters, 590
20.1.6 Swirl Flowmeters, 591
20.2 Flow-Rate Meters, 592
20.2.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters, 592
20.2.2 Variable-Area Flowmeters, 593
20.2.3 Electromagnetic Flowmeters, 594
20.2.4 Ultrasonic Flowmeters, 595
20.2.5 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters, 596
20.2.6 Thermal Mass Flowmeters, 598
20.3 Common Problems of Flowmeters, 599
20.3.1 Liquid Carryover, 599
20.3.2 Dirt, 599
20.3.3 Viscosity Effects, 599
20.3.4 Solids in a Fluid, 600
20.3.5 Gas Content in a Liquid, 600
20.3.6 Corrosion Risks with Aggressive Fluids, 600
20.3.7 Vibration, 600
20.3.8 Pulsation, 600
20.4 Flowmeter Installation and Maintenance, 601
20.4.1 Flowmeter Installation, 601
20.4.2 Flowmeter Maintenance and Operating Characteristics, 603
20.5 Calibration and Certification, 606
20.5.1 Why Calibrate?, 606
20.5.2 Flow-Rate Calibration Methods, 606
20.5.3 Boundary Conditions and Measurement Fixtures, 607
20.6 LACT and Prover Descriptions, 607
20.6.1 What Is a LACT Unit?, 607
20.6.2 What Is a Meter Prover Used For?, 608
20.6.3 Operation of a LACT Unit, 608
20.6.4 LACT Unit Components, 609
20.6.5 Liquid Displacement Provers, 613
20.7 Troubleshooting LACT and Prover Systems, 614
20.8 Troubleshooting Flowmeters, 614
References, 617
21 Process Control
John A. Shaw
21.1 Control System Components, 619
21.2 Control System Requirements, 620
21.3 Sensor Response, 620
21.3.1 Process Response, 620
CONTENTS xix
587
619
XX CONTENTS
21.3.2 Controller/Actuator Response, 624
21.4 Control Algorithms, 624
21.4.1 On/Off Switch, 624
21.4.2 PID Algorithm, 624
21.4.3 Control Modes, 625
21.5 Loop Tuning, 625
21.5.1 Quarter-Wave Decay, 625
21.5.2 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Methods, 626
21.5.3 Other Methods, 628
21.5.4 Controllability of Processes, 629
21.6 Multiloop Control, 629
21.6.1 Cascade Control, 629
21.6.2 Ratio Control, 632
21.6.3 Feedforward Control, 633
21.7 Final Control Elements, 633
21.7.1 Time-Proportional Heating Elements and Solenoid
Valves, 633
21.8 Process Controllers, 634
21.8.1 Distributed Control Systems, 634
21.8.2 Programmable Logic Controllers, 634
Reference, 634
22 Process Modeling and Simulation
Mathew Chidiebere Aneke
22.1 Process Modeling, 635
22.1.1 Steady State Versus Dynamic Models, 636
22.1.2 Lump-Sum Versus Distributed Models, 636
22.1.3 Shortcut Versus Rigorous Models, 636
22.2 Process Simulation, 636
22.3 Process Optimization, 636
22.4 Commercial Tools for Process Modeling, Simulation, and
Optimization, 637
22.4.1 Modular Mode Process Simulators, 637
22.4.2 Equation-Oriented Process Simulators, 637
22.5 Process Modeling Case Studies, 638
22.6 Concluding Remarks, 650
References, 650
Appendix I Methods for Measuring Process Temperature
Chikezie Nwaoha
Appendix II Airflow Troubleshooting
Chikezie Nwaoha
Appendix III MIG Shielding Gas Control and Optimization
Jerry Uttrachi
Appendix IV Rupture Disk Selection
Chikezie Nwaoha
Appendix V Pressure Gauge Selection
Chikezie Nwaoha
Appendix VI Corrosion and Its Mitigation in the Oil
and Gas Industries
Krupavaram Nalli
Appendix VII Mixers
Jayesh Ramesh Tekchandaney
Glossary of Processing Terms
Garlock Sealing Technologies
Index
CONTENTS
673
681
685
693
