PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

OF WINEMAKING

Principles and Practices of Winema king by Roger B. Boulton, Vernon L. Singleton, Linda F. Bisson, and Ralph E. Kunkee

Wine Microbiology by Kenneth C. Fugelsang

Winery Utilities Planning, Design and Operation by David R. Storm

Winemaking From Grape Growing to Marketplace by Richard P. Vine, Ellen M. Harkness, Theresa Browning and Cheri Wagner

Wine Analysis and Production by Bruce W. Zoecklein, Kenneth C. Fugelsang, Barry H. Gump, and Fred S. Nury

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTI CES

OF WINEMAKING Roger B. Boulton Vernon L. Singleton Linda F. Bisson Ralph E. Kunkee all of University of California, Davis

~ Springer

The author has made every effort to ensure the accuracy ofthe information herein. However, appropriate information sources should be consulted, especially for new or unfamiliar procedures. It is the responsibility of

every practitioner to evaluate the appropriateness of a particular opinion in in the context of actual clinical situations and with due considerations to new developments. The author, editors, and the publisher cannot be

held responsible for any typographical or other errors found in this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Boulton, Roger B. PrincipIes and practice ofwinemaking-Roger B. Boulton ... [et al.].!

p. cm. Originally published : New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4419-5190-8 ISBN 978-1-4757-6255-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-6255-6

1. Wine and wine making. 1. Boulton, Roger B. TP548.P742 1995

663.2-dc20 94-41182

CIP

Art Direction: Andrea Meyer, emDASH inc. Cover Design: Saeed Sayrafiezadeh, emDASH inc.

ISBN 978-1-4419-5190-8

Electronic Services < http://www_wkap.nl >

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A C.IP. CataJogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

© 1996, 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Springer-Verlag Media New York, Inc. in 1999

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permis sion of the publisher Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly ana1ysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now know Of hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if the are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

9 8

springeronline.com

TO Maynard A. Amerine. Mentor, leader, and bon vivant. Professor Amerine developed (especially variety suitability and sensory analysis), chronicled, and taught enology for the world. He kept us all reminded that wine is far more than a commodity or just a food. It contributes to sophisticated dining, enhances and facilitates social interaction, challenges the senses and the intellect, and makes glad the heart of the moderate and well-balanced man or woman.

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book contains reports of some research conducted by the authors and not previously published. Thanks are due and gladly offered to donors supporting our research, including the American Vineyard Foundation, the Wine Institute, and the California Wine Advisory Board. Our own research students and supporting members of the Californian wine industry are also thanked. We greatly appreciate typing of some of the drafts by Jill Frommelt and Susan Woody with final manuscript preparation by Diane Eschenbaum. David M. Coons is thanked for preparation of many of the figures for Chapters 4 and 6.

vii

CONTENTS

Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1 A. Basic Philosophy of this Book 1 B. Planning Before Beginning Winemaking 3 C. General Sequence of Operations in Winemaking 6 D. Some Hazards Specific to Winemaking 6 E. References 12

2 Viticulture for Winemakers 13 Introduction 13 A. Species of Grapes for Wine 14 B. The Grape Variety, Clones, and Viruses 16 C. Variety Selection 17 D. Effects of Vineyard Location 24 E. Vineyard Management 32 F. Berry Composition, Ripening, and Seasonal Variation 35 G. Selection of State of Ripeness for Harvest and Harvesting 52 H. References 60

3 Preparation of Musts andJuice 65 A. Crushing and Destemming 65 B. Must Handling 68 C. Juice and Skin Separation for White Wines 73 D. Juice Clarification for White Wines 75 E. Juice and Must Treatments 79 F. Pressing 91 G. Juice Storage Alternatives 95 H. References 98

4 Yeast and Biochemistry of Ethanol Fermentation 102 A. Definition, Origins, and Identification of Wine-Related Yeasts 102 B. Natural Grape and Winery Flora 122

ix

x Contents

C. Fermentation Inoculation Practices 123 D. Yeast Morphology and Cellular Organization 126 E. Yeast Nutrition and Growth Characteristics 126 F. Fermentation Biochemistry 135 G. Fermentation Kinetics 141 H. End Products of Yeast Metabolism 146 I. Nitrogen Metabolism During Fermentation 153 J. Sulfur Metabolism During Fermentation 167 K. Problem Fermentations 168 L. Ethanol Tolerance 176 M. Fermentation Bouquet and Other Volatile Esters 178 N. References 181

5 Red and White Table Wmes 193 A. Aspects of Wine Fermentations 193 B. White Table Wines 211 C. Late-Harvest Wines 217 D. Preparing Base Wines for Sparkling Wine 219 E. Preparing Wines to be Distilled 220 F. Red Table Wines 221 G. Fortified Wines 237 H. References 238

6 Malolactic Fennentation 244 Introduction 244 A. Deacidification by Malolactic Conversion 245 B. Bacteriological Stability Following Malolactic Fermentation 247 C. Flavor Changes from Malolactic Fermentation 248 D. Malolactic Fermentation and Wine Style 251 E. Controlling the Malolactic Fermentation 254 F. Detection of Malolactic Conversion 260 G. Postmalolactic Fermentation Operations 262 H. Identification and Cultivation of Malolactic Bacteria 262 I. Intermediary Metabolism of the Malolactic Conversion 269 J. References 273

7 The Fining and Clarification of Wmes 279 A. Aspects of Clarification 279 B. The Fining Agents 282 C. Wine Clarification 289 D. Wine Filtration 293 E. Filtration Testing and Modeling 307 F. References 315

8 The Physical and Chemical Stability of Wine 320 A. Tartrate Stability 320 B. Protein Stability 339 C. Colloidal Stability 344 D. Immobilized Agents for Wine Treatment 346 E. References 347

9 Microbiological Spoilage of Wine and Its Control 352 A. Definitions of Microbiological Spoilage 352 B. Origins of Wine Spoilage Microorganisms 353

Contents xi

C. Diagnosis of Spoilage as Microbiological 354 D. Kinds of Microbiological Spoilages of Wine 356 E. Identification of Wine Spoilage Microorganisms 357 F. Spoilage by Molds and Yeasts 360 G. Spoilage by Lactic Acid Bacteria 369 H. Spoilage by Acetic Acid Bacteria 373 I. Spoilage by other Aerobic Bacteria 377 J. References 378

10 The Maturation and Aging of Wines 382 A. Background and Objectives 382 B. Time-Temperature Relationships and Traditional Regimes for Different Classes of Wines 389 C. Bulk Maturation-Variables, Chemistry, and Quality Effects 393 D. Wooden Cooperage 399 E. Oxidation and Browning 406 F. Blending 415 G. Bottle Aging and Post-Bulk-Maturation Storage 420 H. Rapid Maturation and Aging 424 I. References 424

11 The Bottling and Storage of Wines 427 A. Preparation for Bottling 427 B. Bottling Operations 435 C. Transport and Storage Considerations 442 D. References 447

12 The Role of Sulfur Dioxide in Wine 448 A. Physical Properties 448 B. Chemical Properties 454 C. References 470

13 Must,Juice, and Wine Transfer Methods 474 Introduction 474 A. Types of Pumps 474 B. Pump Characteristics 477 C. The Calculation of Frictional Losses 478 D. Alternative Transfer Methods 488 E. In-Line Additions and Treatments 489 F. References 491

14 Heating and Cooling Applications 492 A. Heating and Cooling Applications 493 B. Heating and Cooling Calculations 494 C. General Heat Exchanger Design Considerations 502 D. Types of Heat Exchangers 505 E. Cooling by Direct Heat Transfer 512 F. Refrigeration Systems 514 G. Energy Requirements and Conservation 517 H. Off-Peak Generation of Cooling Capacity 519 I. References 519

15 Juice and Wine Acidity 521 A. Acid Concentrations 521 B. Acidity Measures 523

xii Contents

C. Predicting pH and Titratable Acidity Values D. Estimating Changes in pH and Titratable Acidity E. References

16 Preparation, Analysis, and Evaluation of Experimental Wmes A. Size of Experimental Lots, Containers B. Representative Samples C. Controls and Replication D. Chemical and Physical Analyses of Experimental Wines E. Sensory Evaluation F. References

Appendices

Glossary

Index

530 534 537

539 540 541 542 543 544 547

548

574

585

PREFACE

Historically, scientific and educational books can be classified into three categories: those providing concepts and principles, those of­fering gathered information, and those pre­senting opinion or perspective (which mayor may not be instructive).

While there are many wine-related books of the third kind and some of the second, there are few of the first, and this book attempts to fill that void. Of course, some aspects of cate­gories two and three inevitably remain.

Because our teaching program at Davis has always been based on the interdisciplinary ap­proach to enology, we have pooled our expe­rience to provide a volume that provides the benefits of such interaction and discussion rather than the more usual self-styled expert approach to such books.

Much of the material in this book is used in our university courses in enology. These have been developed as part of our personal teach­ing duties and generally include a mixture of scientific understanding and practical observa­tion of the phenomena that occur during winemaking and in wines. The aim is to con­trol these phenomena to produce the highest quality of wine for the style sought.

Although many of the data presented and examples used throughout have been drawn

from studies within California, the concepts developed will be generally useful to enolo­gists throughout the world.

Although this volume covers the basic prac­tices and their rationale for successful wine production, wines and wine regions of the world and details of specialty wine production (such as vermouths, fruit wines, etc.) are omit­ted as separate topics, although incorporated as appropriate in general explanations. The emphasis upon commercial scale by no means precludes use of the material by small-volume winemakers, for whom the principles of wine­making are equally valid, although practices may need to be adjusted for the scale. Commer­cial scale implies the consideration of eco­nomics and sensible expenditure of effort and analyses to ensure that marketably good wine is produced. Winemakers have been consulted regarding various sections and practices con­sidered commercially advantageous. We hope to have eliminated errors of omission or com­mission; any lapses remain ours and, if in­formed, we will clarity them in following pub­lications.

We intend, then, to meet the need for a universally useful, detailed, deep, and broad text in English on the science, technology, and practices of making wine. Very complete con-

xiii

xiv Preface

side ration will be given to the grapes to be used, fermentation, processing, maturation, stabilization, and preparation for distribution and sale. An emphasis on quantitative details, as well as qualitative, will be given where possi­ble. Metric (USI) units will be used through­out. An appendix is given for conversion to English, European, and older U.S. units.

Very careful attention has been given to the design of this text so that it can be used section by section. Nevertheless, we highly rec­ommend the reader begin with the introduc­tory chapter, where the hazards, economic and otherwise, in commercial winemaking are outlined. This will give a realistic perspective to the joy and satisfaction that uniquely come from creation of this product of science and art-wine.

Careful observers may notice that this book is the latest of a long and distinguished line of texts written by faculty at the University of California, beginning with Professor W. V. Cruess' The Principks and Practice of Wine Mak­ing, first published in 1934. Subsequent edi-

tions, under the title The Technology of Wine­making, were written by Professor Cruess (Uni­versity of California at Berkeley) and Profes­sors M. A. Amerine, H. W. Berg, R E. Kunkee, C. S. Ough, V. L. Singleton, and A. D. Webb (University of California at Davis). The current volume is a completely new book, yet it con­tinues, as did its predecessors, to embody our department's three-part mission of scientific research, teaching, and outreach to the public and industry. As the University of California moves into its 117th year of teaching and research in viticulture and enology, we salute the many who have advanced these areas be­fore us.

ROGER B. BOULTON

VERNON L. SINGLETON

LINDA F. BISSON

RALPH E. KUNKEE

Department of Viticulture and Enology University of California, Davis