APPENDIX A

METRIC UNIT CONVERSION

CHART - SI, U.S. AND COMMON

Inches

12.00 3.937 X 10-2

39.37

Cubic feet

1 0.1337 133.7 3.531 X 10-2

35.31

548

Feet

8.333 X 10-2

1 3.281 X 10- 3

3.281

Square feet 1 10.76

Gallon (U.S.)

7.481 1 1000 0.2642 264.2

(Read across)

Length

Area

Volume

1000 Gallons

7.481 X 10-3

1.000 X 10-3

1 2.642 X 10- 4

0.2642

Millimeters

25.4 304.8

1000

Square meters 0.0929

Liters

28.32 3.786 3786

1000

Meters

2.54 X 10- 2

0.3048 1.000 X 10- 3

1

Cubic meter

2.832 X 10- 2

3.786 X 10- 3

3.786 1.000 X 10- 3

1

Pounds

2000 2.205 X 10- 3

2.205 2205

ft 3/s

1 3.447 X 10-2

2.205 X 10-3

3.531 X 10-2

35.31

Ib/ft3

1 62.4

Tons (U.S.)

5.000 X 10- 4

1 1.102 X 10- 6

1.102 X 10- 3

1.102

1000 gal./hr

29.10 1 6.460 X 10- 2

1.027 1027

6.240 X 10-2

lb/ft/hr

2.419 2419

0.5778

ft 2/hr

3.875 X 10 4

1

0.239

Btu/hr /ft2 /oF

1 0.1761

Mass

Grams

453.6 9.072 X 10+5

1 1000 1.000 X 10+6

Volumetric flow rate

gal./min

485.0 15.48 1 15.85 1.585 X 10 4

Density

g/cm3

1.602 X 10- 2

1 1.000 X 10- 3

Viscosity

Centipoise

0.4134 1 1000

Thennal conductivity

Diffusivity

Heat capacity

Heat transfer coefficient

Kilograms

0.4536 907.2 1.000 X 10- 3

1 1000

L/s

28.32 0.9737 6.309 X 10- 2

1 1000

Appendix A 549

Tons (Metric) (Tm)

4.536 X 10- 4

0.9072 1.000 X 10- 6

1.000 X 10- 3

1

m3/s

2.832 X 10- 2

9.737 X 10- 4

6.309 X 10- 5

1.000 X 10- 3

1

kg/m3

16.02 1000

Pascal.second

4.134 X 10- 2

1.000 X 10- 3

1

W /m2/(OC/m)

1.731

1 2.581 X 10-5

550 Appendix A

Mass transfer coefficient

lb-mole/hr /ft2 /mole fraction kg-mole/s/m2/mole fraction

1.356 X 10-3

mmHg

51.71 760.0 750.1

1 737.5

7.501 X 10-3

BTU

3413 1.285 X 10-3 3.966 X 10-3

9.484 X 10-4

Horsepower

1 1.341 l.818 X 10-3 l.415 1.341 X 10-3

0.2250

psi

1.934 X 10- 2

1 14.70 14.50 1.450 X 10- 4

kWhr

2.930 X 10- 4

1 3.766 X 10- 7

1.162 X 10- 6

2.772 X 10- 7

Kilowatt

0.7457 1 l.356 X 10- 3 1.055 l.00 X 10-3

Force

Pressure

Atmosphere

1.316 X 10- 3 6.805 X 10- 2

1 0.9869 9.870 X 10- 6

Heat, energy, or work

ftlbr

778.2 2.655 X 10+ 6

1 3.086 0.7376

Power

Ftlbr/s

550.0 737.56 1 778.16 0.7376

Volumetric Flux

1

Newton

4.444

Bar

1.333 X 10- 3 6.895 X 10- 2

1.013

1.000 X 10- 5

Calorie

252.0 8.604 X 10+ 5

0.3241

0.2390

BTU/s

0.7068 0.9478 l.285 X 10- 3

1 9.478 X 10- 4

Pascal

133.3 6.895 X 10 3

1.013 X 105 l.000 X 105

Joule

1055 3.600 X 10+ 6

1.356 4.184

Watt

745.7 1000 l.356 1055

gal./ft2/hr

1

m3/m2/s

9.767 X 10-5

1

L/m2/s

9.767 X 10- 2

1000 10,239 10.24

0.3170

meter = m Pascal = Pa

1.000 X 10-3

Energy flux

Gas constant, R

8.314 kPa m 3/kg-mole K (J/gm-mole K) Common unit abbreviations and prefixes

W/m2

3.155 1

Newton = N Watt = W

gram = g liter = L Joule = J second = s

J1- = micro 10- 6 m = milli 10-3 k = kilo 10+3 M = mega 10+ 6

APPENDIX B

BATF REGULATIONS

1. Approved Wine Treatments and Additives

The u.s. winemaking regulations are estab­lished by the publication of a proposed rule which is followed by a comment period in which winemakers, members of wine compa­nies, trade organizations, and the public can submit opinions. These are then considered by the ATF staff and a decision is made and published in the Federal Register. The major philosophies are that permitted treatments should be "good commercial winemaking" practices, juices or wines should not undergo major changes in composition, and healthful­ness must not be compromised.

The most recent version of these is listed in Federal Register, Volume 55, Number 118, June 19, 1990, pages 25019 to 25021 with amend­ments listed in Federal Register, Volume 58, Number 193, October 7, 1993, pages 52222 to 52232. The list covers the materials and treat­ments that have been approved for winemak­ing and these are summarized in Table B-1 with related comments. It should be under-

stood that these are individually and generally permitted, but no single wine would have more than a few additions or treatments. Several are alternatives to achieve the same result, many involve treatments that leave no residue and some are aimed at special but rare circum­stances. A treatment or additive not specifi­cally allowed by the regulations is prohibited until a Conditional Use Permit is granted or new regulations or interpretations are forth­coming.

Regulations in other countries are not the same. The U.S. practice has been to allow importation of wines as long as they are legally made in their home country and honestly la­beled. The reverse frequently has not been the case. The Office International Vigne et Vin (ON) is the international organization that attempts to set uniform regulations worldwide, but tends to view the European practices as sacrosanct.

Labeling is controlled by additional regula­tions governing what must be stated on the label, e.g., alcohol content, what may be stated, and the tolerances of concentrations.

551

552 Appendix B

Table B-1. Approved materials and the limits of their use in winemaking (BATF 1990, 1993).

Materials

Acacia (gum arabic)

Activated carbon

Albumen (egg white)

Use

To clarify and stabilize wine

To assist precipitation during fermen­tation, to clarify and to purify wine

To remove color in wine and/or juice from which the wine as pro­duced

Fining agent for wine

Aluminosilicates (hydrated) e.g., ben- To clarify and to stabilize wine or tonite (Wyoming clay) and kaolin juice Ammonium carbonate Yeast nutrient to facilitate fermenta­

tion to wine

Ammonium phosphate (mono- and dibasic)

Ascorbic acid, iso-ascorbic acid (erythorbic acid)

Yeast nutrient in wine production and to start secondary fermentation in the production of sparkling wines To prevent oxidation of color and flavor components of juice and wine.

Calcium carbonate (with or without To reduce the excess natural acids in calcium salts or tartaric and malic acids)

Calcium sulfate (gypsum)

Carbon dioxide (including food grade dry ice) Casein, potassium salt of casein Citric acid

high acid wine, and in juice prior to or during fermentation A fining agent for cold stabilization

To lower pH in sherry wine

To stabilize2 and to preserve wine

To clarify wine To correct natural acid deficiencies in wine

Reference or limitation

The amount used shall not exceed 2 Ib/lOOO gal. (0.24 giL) of wine (GRAS)!. The amount used to clarify and pu­rify wine shall be included in the total amount of activated carbon used to remove excessive color in wine (GRAS). The amount used to treat the wine, including the juice from which the wine was produced, shall not exceed 25 lb/IOOO gal. (3.0 giL). If the amount necessary exceeds this limit, a notice is required (GRAS). May be prepared in a light brine I oz (28.35 grams) potassium chloride, 2 lb (907.2 grams) egg white, I gal. (3.785 L) of water. Usage not to

exceed 1.5 gal of solution/I ,000 gal. of wine (GRAS). (GRAS)

The natural fixed acids shall not be reduced beow 5 giL. The amount used shall not exceed 2 lb/IOOO gal. (0.24 giL) (GRAS). The amount used shall not exceed 8 lb/IOOO gal. (0.96 giL) of wine (GRAS). May be added to fruit, grapes, berries, and other primary winemaking mate­rials, or to the juice of such materials, or to the wine, within limitations which do not alter the class or type of the wine (GRAS). The natural or fixed acids shall not be reduced below 6 giL (GRAS).

The amount used shall not exceed 30 lb/IOOO gal. (3.60 giL) of wine. The sulfate content of the finished wine shall not exceed 2.0 giL, ex­pressed as potassium sulfate (GRAS). (GRAS)

GRAS) (GRAS)

To stabilize wine other than citrus The amount of citric acid shall not wine exceed 5.8 lb/IOOO gal. (0.7 g/l)

(GRAS).

Table B-1. (Continued)

Materials

Copper sulfate

Defoaming agents: (polyoxyethylene 40 monostearate, silicon dioxide, dimethylpolysiloxane, sorbitan monostearate, glyceryl monooleate, and glyceryl dioleate).

Dimethyl dicarbonate

Enzymatic activity

Carbohydrase (alpha-amylase)

Carbohydrase (beta-amylase)

Carbohydrase (glycoamylase, amyloglucosidase)

Catalase

Cellulase

Glucose oxidase

Pectinase

Protease (general)

Use

To remove hydrogel sulfide and/or mercaptans from wine

To control foaming, fermentation ad­junct

To sterilize and to stabilize wine, dealcoholized wine, and low alcohol wine

To convert starchs to fermentable carbohydrates

To convert starches to fermentable carbohydrates To convert starches to fermentable carbohydrates

To clarify and to stabilize wine

Appendix B 553

Reference or limitation

The quantity of copper sulfate added (calculated as copper) shall not ex­ceed 0.5 parts copper per million parts of wine (0.5 mg/L) with the residual level of copper not to be in excess of 0.5 parts per million (0.5 mg/L) (GRAS). Defoaming agents which are 100% active may be used in amounts not exceeding 0.15 Ib/l000 gal. (0.018 giL) of wine, defoaming agents which are 30% active may be used in amounts not exceeding 0.5 Ib/l000 gal. (0.05 giL) of wine. Silicon diox­ide shall be completely removed by filtration. The amount of silicon re­maining in the wine shall not exceed 10 parts per million. DMDC may be added to wine, deal­coholized wine, and low-alcohol wine in a cumulative amount not to ex­ceed 200 parts per million (200 mg/L). The enzyme preparation used shall be prepared from nontoxic and non­pathogenic microorganisms in accor­dance with good manufacturing prac­tice and be approved for use in food by either FDA regulation of by FDA advisory opinion. The amylase enzyme activity shall be derived from Aspergillus niger, As -pergillus oryzae, Bacillus subtilis, or bar-ley malt from Rhizopus oryzae from Bacillus licheniformis. The amylase enzyme activity shall be derived from barely malt. The amylase enzyme activity shall be derived from Aspergillus niger or As­pergillus oryzae or from Rhizopus oryzae or from Rhizopus niveus. The enzume activity used shall be derived from Aspergillus niger or bovine liver (GRAS).

To clarify and to stabilize wine and to To enzyme activity used shall be de­facilitate separation of the juice from rived from Aspergillus niger (GRAS). the fuit To clarify and to stabilize wine The enzyme activity used shall be

derived from Aspergillus niger (GRAS). To clarify and to stabilize wine and to The enzyme activity used shall be facilitate separation of juice from the derived from Aspergillus niger (GRAS) fruit To reduce or to remove heat labile The enzyme activity used shall be proteins derived from Aspergillus niger or

Bacillus subtilis or from Bacillus licheniformis (GRAS).

554 Appendix B

Table B-1. (Continued)

Materials

Protease (bromelin)

Protease (ficin)

Protease (papain)

Protease (pepsin)

Protease (trypsin)

Ethyl maltol

Ferrocyanide compounds (sequestered complexes)

Ferrous sulfate

Fumaric acid

Gelatin (food grade) Granular cork

Hydrogen peroxide

Ion exchange

Isinglass Lactic acid

Malic acid

Malolactic bacteria

Maltol

Use Reference or limitation

To reduce or to remove heat labile The enzyme activity used shall be proteins derived from Ananus comosus or

Ananus bracteatus(L) (GRAS). To reduce or to remove heat labile proteins To reduce or to remove heat labile proteins

To reduce or to remove heat labile proteins

To reduce or to remove heat labile proteins

To stabilize wine

To remove trace metal from wine

To clarify and to stabilize wine

To correct natural acid deficiencies in grape wine, to stabilize wine To clarify juice or wine To smooth wine

To remove color from the juice of red and black grapes

To adjust acidity and/or pH

To clarify wine To correct natural acid deficiencies in grape wine To correct natural acid deficiencies in juice or wine To stabilize grape wine

To stabilize wine

The enzyme activity used shall be derived from Ficus spp. (GRAS). The enzyme activity used shall be derived from Carica papaya (L) (GRAS). The enzyme activity used shall be derived from porcine or bovine stom­achs (GRAS) The enzyme acuVlty used shall be derived from porcine or bovine pan­creas (BRAS). Use authorized at a maximum level of 100 mg/L in all standard wines except natural wine produced from Vilis vinifera grapes. No insoluble or soluble residue in excess of 1 part per million shall remain in the finished wine and the basic character of the wine shall not be changed by such treatment (GRAS) The amount used shall not exceed 3 oz/lOOO gal. (0.022 giL) of wine (GRAS). The fumaric acid content of the fin­ished wine shall not exceed 2.4 giL. (GRAS) The amount used shall not exceed 10 Ib/lOOO gal. of wine 0.2 giL) (GRAS). The amount used shall not exceed 500 parts per million. The use of hydrogen peroxide is limited to oxi­dizing color pigment in the juice of red and black grapes (GRAS). Treatment does not reduce the pH of the juice or wine to less than pH 2.8 nor increase the pH to more than pH 4.5. (GRAS) (GRAS)

(GRAS)

Malolactic bacteria of the type Leu­conostoc oenos may be used in treating wine (GRAS). Use authorized at a maximum level of 250 mg/L in all standard wine except natural wine produced from Vilis vinifera grapes (GRAS).

Table B-1. (Continued)

Materials

Milk (pasteurized whole or skim)

Nitrogen gas

Oak chips or particles, uncharred and untreated Oxygen and compressed air Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP)

Appendix B 555

Use Reference or limitation

Fining agent for white grape wine or The amount used shall not exceed sherry 2.0 L of pasteurized milk per 1000 L

of white grape wine or sherry (0.2% v/v).

To maintain pressure during filtering (GRAS) and bottling or canning of wine and to prevent oxidation of wine To smooth wine

May be used in juice and wine None. To clarify and to stabilize wine and to The amount used to treat the wine, remove color from red or black wine including the juice from the wine was or juice produced, shall not exceed 60

Ib/IOOO gal. (7.9 g/L) and shall be removed during filtration. PVPP may be used in a continuous or batch process. The finished wine shall re­tain vinous character and shall have color of not less than 0.6 Lovibond in a one-half inch cell.

Potassium bitartrate To stabilize grape wine The amount used shall not exceed 35 Ib/1000 gal. (4.19 g/L) of grape wine

Potassium carbonate and/or potas- To reduce excess natural acidity in siumbicarbonate wine and in juice prior to or during

fermentation Potassium citrate pH control agent and sequestrant in

treatment of citrus wines

Potassium metabisulfite To sterilize and to preserve wine

Silica gel (colloidal silicon dioxide) To clarify wine

Sorbic acid and potassium salt of sorbic acid

Soy flour (defatted)

Sulfur dioxide

To sterilize and to preserve wine; to inhibit mold growth and secondary fermentation Yeast nutrient to facilitate fermenta-tion of wine

To sterilize and to preserve wine

(GRAS). The natural or fixed acids shall not be reduced below 5 parts per thou­sand (5 g/L) (GRAS). The amount of potassium citrate shall not exceed 25 Ib/l000 gal. (3.0 g/L) of finished wine (GRAS). The sulfur dioxide content of the finished wine shall not exceed the limitations (GRAS). Use shall not exceed the equivalent of 20 lb colloidal silicon dioxide at a 30% concentration per 1000 gal. of wine (2.4 g/L). Silicon dioxide shall be completely removed by filtration (GRAS). The finished wine shall contain not more than 300 milligrams of sorbic acid per liter of wine (GRAS). The amount used shall not exceed 2 Ib/l000 gal. (0.24 g/L) of wine (GRAS). The sulfur dioxide content of the finished wine shall not exceed the limitations (GRAS).

556 Appendix B

Table B-1. (Continued)

Materials

Tannin

Tartaric acid

Thermal gradient processing

Thiamine hydrochloride

Yeast, autolyzed

Yeast, cell wall/membranes of autoluzed yeast

Use

To adjust tannin content in apple juice or in apple wine

To clarity or to adjust tannin content of juice or wine (other than apple)

To correct natural acid deficiencies in grape juice/wine and to reduce the pH of grape juice-wine where ameliorating material is used in the production of grape wine To separate wine into low-alcohol and high-alcohol wine fractions

Reference or limitation

The residual amount of tannin shall not exceed 3.0 giL calculated as gallic acid equivalents (GAE). Total tannin shall not be increased by more than 150 mh/L by the addition of tannic acid (polygalloylglucose). The residual amount of tanning, cal­culated in gallic acid equivalents, shall not exceed 0.8 giL in white wine and 3.0 giL in red wine. Only tannin which does not impact color may be used in the cellar treatment of juice or wine. Total tannin shall not be increased by more than 150 mg/L by the addition of tannic acid. (GRAS)

The fractions derived from such pro­cessing shall retain vinous character. Such treatment shall not increase the lacohol content of the high-alcohol fraction to more than 24% by vol­ume. The addition of water other than that originally present in the wine prior to processing will render standard wine "other than standard."

To separate juice into low Brix and The low Brix fraction derived from high Brix juice fractions such processing may be used in wine

production. The high Brix fraction derived from such processing shall not be diluted with water for use in

Yeast nutrient to facilitate fermenta­tion wine

Yeast nutrient to facilitate fermenta­tion in the production of grape or fruit wine To facilitate fermentation of juice/wine

wine production. The amount used shall not exceed 0.005 lb/IOOO gal. (0.6 mg/L) of wine or juice (GRAS). GRAS)

The amount used shall not exceed 3 lb/IOOO gal. (0.36 giL) of the wine or juice (GRAS).

[GRAS-an acronym for "generally recognized as safe." The term means that the treating material has an FDA listing in title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, part 182 or part 184, or is considered to be generally recognized as safe by advisory opinion issued by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2To stabilize-to prevent or to retard unwanted alteration of chemical and/or physical properties.

APPENDIX C

STAINLESS STEELS AND THEIR CLEANING

Stainless steels are widely used in the wine and food industries due to their freedom from staining and discoloration, their inertness to oxidation and corrosion, and the ease with which their surfaces can be cleaned. The in­ertness of stainless steels is due to the presence of at least 18% chromium in the alloy and a thin oxide film that adheres to the surface. Nickel {and in some cases also molybdenum} is generally added to further enhance the corro­sion resistance. The presence of up to 8% carbon and the 18% chromium has led to the term 18-8 steels. These are also described as austenitic and they are nonmagnetic.

1. Types of Stainless Steels

The two main types of stainless steels that are used in wine and juice applications are 304 and 316. The 304 steels can contain between 16 and 25% chromium and 7 and 12% nickel and are highly ductile. This form is widely used in wineries throughout the United States although they are susceptible to pitting by dilute sulfur dioxide solutions and attack by

concentrated sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. The 316 steels have chromium contents in the 16 to 18% range, nickel between 10 and 14%, and molybdenum added at the 2 to 3% level and are more resistant to sulfur dioxide and inorganic anions such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids. Both series are vulner­able to chloride ions, but 316 is less so. In other countries other designations are often used for these steel types (Table C-l).

2. Passivation of Stainless Steel

The protective oxide film can be destroyed by improper cleaning and maintenance proce­dures and the metal which is exposed is then susceptible to oxidation and corrosion. The use of chlorine solutions with concentrations above 200 mgjL and scraping of the surface by steel wool, tools, or other metal objects and welding without adequate cleaning and passi­vation are common reasons for corrosion of stainless surfaces.

Passivation of the stainless steel is a process in which the surface is cleaned and the oxide

557

558 Appendix C

TableCI. Cross reference of stainless steel types (Troost 1980).

England EN 58 E - 58H 58 B, 58 C France Mnor Z 6 CN 18-10 Z3CND Z 10CNT Germany DIN X5 CrNi

17006 (7) 18/9 1.4301

Italy UNI X6CN 1911

Sweden SIS 2333 United States AlSI 304

film is encouraged to develop. If corrosion exists, passivation is one approach to prevent­ing further deterioration. While the oxide film will form naturally on clean exposed surfaces, the formation is aided by the use of strong acid mixtures and oxidizing agents. The wash­ing of the surface with such a solution also dissolves any free iron present on the surface of the stainless steel and passivation can be used to remove rust spots from these surfaces.

The 300 series of stainless steels can be passivated by using a 50% by volume solution made from concentrated nitric acid and water. A solution temperature of 55°C is recom­mended for fastest results, although ambient temperature is acceptable for larger applica­tions. The person performing the treatment should be wearing protective clothing, and for internal surface treatments or applications in confined spaces, the vessel or area should be well ventilated. The solution should be applied to the entire surface and this should be cov­ered repeatedly. The surface being treated should be kept wet for approximately one hour before rinsing. The rinsing solution should be clean warm water and thorough rinsing is required to remove all traces of the acid. The surface should be wiped dry with a clean cloth and this should show no signs of discoloration when the treatment has been successful. The vessel is then ready for use. For applications using a solution-recirculating or CIP (clean-in-place) system, all fittings that are made of materials that would be attacked by

X5 CrNiMo X 10 CrNiTi 18/10 18/9 1.4401 1.4541 X8CND X8CNT 1712 1808

X8CNT 1810 2237

316 321

the acid solution should be removed in order to prevent attack and possible plating of the stainless surface, notably with copper.

3. Types of Corrosion

There are several different kinds of corrosion. The two most important for winemaking ap­plications are pitting and stress-corrosion cracking. The understanding of these in re­gard to the operating conditions will help to prevent future problems and assist in the spec­ification of equipment materials.

Pitting can occur in steels that are appar­ently immune to certain solutions. It usually occurs as small deep pits that are confined to localized spots rather than across the general surface. The site can be a scratch, indent, or surface deposit that can lead to the breaking of the oxide film. Once the pit is formed the corrosion becomes accelerated due to local electrolytic action. In wine tanks that are made of 304 stainless steel, this can easily occur in headspace above a wine when the tank is par­tially full. The condensation of water droplets on the walls of the tank dissolves sulfur diox­ide from the headspace and a local low-pH corrosion site develops. The corrosion is not always obvious at first and once started it can continue even after the tank is emptied. This is less of a concern with 316 steels, but it is a good practice to avoid partially filled tanks wherever possible.

Stress-corrosion cracking occurs when there is a combination of corrosion and applied

stress in the metal. One particularly trouble­some agent for the austenitic steels is the long-term exposure to chloride ions. Under winemaking conditions this can occur from dried deposits from the use of rinse waters that are high in chloride or inadequate rinsing following the use of hypochlorite solutions. It can also occur in equipment which is under periodic stress, such as pump impellers and

Appendix C 559

housings, and equipment that is periodically heated and cooled during use, such as heat exchangers that use steam as a heating medium.

TROOST, G. 1980. Technologie des Weines, 2nd ed. p. 769. Stuttgart, Germany, Eugen Ulmer.

APPENDIX D

WATER UTILIZATION

1. Water Usage

Water is used in wineries for several purposes, but the greatest demand is for washing and sanitizing tanks, fermentors, barrels, and other process equipment during the harvest. The volumes used during the six- to eight-week harvest period are often between one-fifth and one-half those used during the entire year. Typical water usage figures for a number of wineries in California are presented in Figures D-l and D-2 and the values are expressed on a specific basis. The volume used depends on the size of the winery (and, indirectly, that of its fermentors), the extent of barrel usage for fermentation and aging, the ease of cleaning of the winery equipment and floors, and the approach that is adopted toward rinsing.

Water requirements for the cleaning of tanks will usually be proportional to tank sur­face area. The surface area of a cylindrical tank is proportional to the tank volume raised to the power 2/3 or 0.667 and the water required per volume of wine would then be proportional to tank volume raised to the power -1/3 or -0.33. With barrels, the same relationship would be expected for the clean-

560

ing of the inner surface area but the volume used may be closer to the volume of the bar­rel, especially so for soaking and rinsing treat­ments. The other components will be related to the rinsing of pipe lines, floor areas, and process equipment and these will not gener­ally follow any particular geometric scaling law.

The observed values (Figures D-l and D-2) are well correlated by the following relation­ships:

Harvest:

Water consumption (L/Tm crushed)

= 10,168 [Tmro.292

Annual:

Water consumption (L/Tm crushed)

= 50,920 [Tm rO.326

where the exponents - 0.292 (harvest) and - 0.326 (annual) are like those expected from the surface area function but with significant water usage for other purposes, especially dur­ing the harvest.

Appendix D 561

1000

j:: ...... d

8 m ::J

Qj 100 •• .... III ~ U ~

ti Q)

at

10 100 1000 10000 100000

Grape Intake (T)

Fig. D-l. The seasonal water usage of California wineries.

2. Wastewater Characteristics

The importance of the water consumption is that it generally becomes the wastewater vol­ume that needs to be treated and discharged. The seasonal nature of the water usage in wineries will require special design considera­tions, and the batch and cyclical use associated with equipment rinsing during the days of harvest will also need special flow dampening

10000

j:: ...... d

8 III (/j

::J

Qj 1000 .... III ~ U ~

ti Q)

at

100 100 1000

components in order that efficient perfor­mance be obtained by any treatment system.

The components of winery wastewater that are important to a biological treatment system are the biological oxygen demand or BOD, the pH, the suspended solids content, and the presence or absence of microbial inhibitors and nutrients for the microorganisms. The level of the suspended solids will usually deter-

•

10000 100000

Grape Intake (T)

Fig. D-2. The annual water usage of California wineries.

562 Appendix D

mine the frequency of sludge removal, and the pH will determine the spectrum of organisms that can grow successfully in the pond or digester. The biological oxygen demand is a measure of the microbially degradable solutes present in the water and will be related to the rate at which oxygen must be transported into the water for effective microbial growth and metabolism in aerobic systems.

In winery wastewater, the major BOD com­ponents will be the sugars, glucose and fruc­tose from juices and from wine it will be ethanol, glycerol, and tartaric and malic acids. There will be a significant chemical oxygen demand (COD) from wines due to the phenols and sulfite. All of these will be diluted out with general rinse water and some pickup will oc­cur from grape solids and yeasts that are washed away. There may be a major BOD contribution due to citrate that has been used in acidic rinse waters. The contribution from sugars will disappear after the fermenting sea­son and the water characteristics will approach those associated with wine residues from rins­ing and the sanitizers, detergents, and soften­ers associated with equipment cleaning.

The rinse water can also contain significant chemical sanitizers such as hypochlorite. These will be especially destructive to the microflora of a treatment pond, especially at a pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Sulfur dioxide solutions that are dumped have the potential to be particularly damaging, but if the pH is raised to 7.0, the antimicrobial activity will be lost and the sul­fite becomes a component of the chemical oxygen demand.

The organic acid content of juices and wines and the presence of citrate will cause signifi­cant swings in the buffer capacities in winery rinse water streams and this will require a more sophisticated pH adjustment system than those commonly used in other applications.

While many wine makers are aware of the importance of trace nutrition for microorgan­isms on successful growth rates and byproduct formation, the same is not generally true when the activity of wastewater treatment culture is concerned. The corresponding practice of in-

oculating wastewater with active cultures and providing sufficient vitamin, nitrogen, and phosphorus is still in its infancy with a general tendency to use standard supplements of am­monia and phosphorus, based on the nutri­tional requirements of other wastes.

There are only a few published reports of the compositional characteristics of winery wastewater. Ranges for the major design char­acteristics are given in Table D-I, based on the reports by Rice (1978) and Crites (1987).

The usable nitrogen and phosphorus con­tents are especially low and the pH is close to neutral when large volumes of water are used. The data of Rice (1978) indicate a water con­sumption of almost four volumes of water per volume of wine and come from a time when water usage was less of a concern. The values reported by Rice also show variations of almost twofold, both above and below the means in BOD and COD during the season. The sea­sonal pH variation ranged from 3.7 to 11.7 and the suspended solids content ranged from 40 to 2250 mg/L. The specific BOD load for this winery was 9.2 kg/Tm of grapes.

The current limit for BOD in one coastal region of California is 50 mg/L with a oneday maximum of 90 mg/L. Other limits are shown in Table D-2.

Table D-l. Reported waste water characteristics for wineries.

Harvest Characteristic 1 period Nonharvest

BOD (mgjL) 2550 2840 COD (mgjL) 3530 4050 SS (mgjL) 250 400 NH3 (mg NjL) 4.3 4.2 TN (mgNjL) 19.3 27.2 TP(mgPjL) 4.2 5.9 pH 7.5 7.0

lBOD is the biological oxygen demand.

COD is the chemical oxygen demand.

SS is the suspended solids content.

General

950 nja 286 10 33 nja 6.5

NH3 is the nitrogen concentration in the form of ammonia.

TN is the total nitrogen concentration.

TP is the total phosphorus concentration.

Table D-2. Typical discharge limits for one water control region in California.

Characteristic Daily maximum 30-day average

BOD (five day, mg/L) 80 Suspended solids (mg/L) 80 Settleable solids (mL/L) 0.2 pH 6.5 to 8.5

BOD is the biological oxygen demand.

3. Efficient Use Strategies

50 50 0.1 6.5 to 8.5

The more efficient use of winery water will require a closer examination of the purpose for each use. There are some situations in which the development of separate rinsing, sanitizing, and acidirying streams could be used several times before discharge provided that the stream is filtered to remove suspended matter. The ability to incorporate separate

Appendix D 563

streams with recycling depends on the ease with which any cleaning stream can be cap­tured and recovered. The development of sep­arate tanks for such streams together with appropriate filtration and/or sterilization components has the potential to reduce water usage to a fraction of present levels. The con­tainment of such streams would also permit more specific treatment of them prior to dis­charge so as to minimize disturbances to the treatment system.

CRITES, R. W. 1987. "Winery wastewater land appli­cations." Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Irrigation and Drainage Division, Special Conf., Portland, Ore­gon,July 28-30.

RICE, A. 1978. "Long-term activated sludge treat­ment of winery waste waters." Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 29: 177-180.

APPENDIX E

SAFETY LIMITS OF SOME WINE-RELATED

COMPOUNDS

There are a number of federal and state codes that apply to conditions of worker exposure and working environments, fire protection, buildings, and the transport of flammable and hazardous materials by road and air.

1. Exposure Limits

The exposure limits that are generally used are the time-weighted average (TWA) values for a normal eight-hour workday (or 40-hour work week), to which nearly all workers can be exposed, day after day, without adverse effects. Excursions above the limit are allowed if com­pensated by for excursions below the limit (Crowl and Louvar 1990). The rotation of per­sonnel and the seasonal and periodic nature of many winery operations can sometimes pro­vide variances to these requirements.

2. Flammability Limits of Vapors

The flammability limits of a vapor are the limits of the range of vapor compositions for

564

which it is flammable. There is no combustion of the vapor below the lower flammability limit (LFL) or above the upper flammability limit (UFL). Alternative terms for these limits that are used by some agencies are the lower and upper explosive limits (LEL and UEL, respec­tively).

Table E-1. Time weighted average exposure limits

Threshold limit values

Compound (ppm vapor) (mg/m3 25°C)

Acetaldehyde 10 180 Acetic acid 10 25 Ammonia 25 18 Carbon dioxide 5000 9000 Ethyl acetate 400 1400 Ethyl alcohol 1000 1900 Ethyl mercaptan 0.5 Gasoline 300 900 Hydrogen sulfide 10 14 Isoamyl acetate 100 525 Isoamyl alcohol 100 360 Methyl mercaptan 0.5 I Sulfur dioxide 2 5

Appendix E 565

Table E-2. Flammability limits, density and sensory threshold of selected vapors

Compound

Ammonia Sulfur Dioxide Ethanol Benzene Toluene

Flammability limits' (% v/v)

Lower Upper

15.5 27.0 nonflammable

3.28 18.95 1.3 7.9 1.2 7.1

• In air (Crowl and Louvar 1990).

Table E-3. Flash points of ethanol solutions and selected solvents.

Liquid Flash point DC (F)

wine (% vol/vol EtOH) Literature"

(10%) 45.6 (114.0) (12%) 43.8 (11 0.8) (14%) 41.8 (107.2) (20%) 36.0 (96.8) (40%) nla Ethanol 12.8 (55.0)< Benzene -ILl (12.0)< Toluene 5.0 (40.0)<

"Interpolated from data of Wine Institute 1979.

bBoulton (1991).

<Crowl and Louvar (1990).

3. Flash Points of Liquids

Predictedb

49.0 (120.2) 46.1 (115.0) 43.7 (110.7) 38.1 (100.6) 26.6 (79.9)

The flash point, often abbreviated simply as FP, is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off an ignitable mixture in air. At the flash point, the vapor will burn, but only briefly since insufficient vapor is produced to main­tain combustion. A somewhat arbitrary choice of lOO°F (37.8°C) has been chosen by a num­ber of agencies as the reference temperature for determining the flammability classifica­tions for many liquids. Based on this criterion,

Relative vapor density

(air = 1.0)

0.59 2.2 1.59 2.70 3.19

80 r--------, 60

70

Q 60

~ 50

~ u.

30

20 0 o 10 20 30 40 50

Ethanol Content (%vlv)

Sensory Threshold

(ppm vapor)

100 10 nla nla nla

• Flash Point

• Vapo"­Content

Flarrmable Limit (lFU

FIg. E-1. The flash point and vapor concentration of ethanol solutions.

table wines are not flammable in that their flash points are above 37.8°C, while fortified wines and spirits are. A more complete rela­tionship for the flash point as a function of ethanol content is shown in Figure E-1.

BOULTON, R. B. 1991. Unpublished calculations.

CROWL, D. A., AND J. F. LOUVAR 1990. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications. En­glewood Cliffs, I\ij: Prentice Hall.

APPENDIX F

MEDIA

Unless otherwise indicated, pH adjustments are made either with solutions of KOH or H 3P04 • See main text for specific applications and literature references.

Acetate agar: 9.8% potassium acetate, 2.5% yeast extract, 1.0% glucose, adjust to pH 8.4 with NaOH, 15% agar.

Acid Plates (for some acetic acid bacteria): 0.5% yeast extract, 2% glucose, 0.5% KH 2P04 ,

2% agar. Acidify autoclaved, cooled molten medium with 0.1 mL concentrated HC1 per 100 mL (to give a final pH of about 4).

AR (apple Rogosa broth): 2% tryptone, 0.5% yeast extract, 0.5% peptone, 0.5% glu­cose, 0.005% Tween 80 (added as a 5% solu­tion) made up in 20% apple juice, adjust to pH5.5.

ARA agar (apple Rogosa with Acti-dione): AR broth with 1 mg/lOO mL Acti-dione®! (cycloheximide), 2% agar.

Arginine broth: AR containing 2% glucose (rather than 0.5%) plus 0.6% L-arginine.

Bacillus sporulation broth: 8% nutrient broth (Difco Laboratories 0003-01), 5 mg% MnS04 ·H 20.

CaC03-Ethanol Agar: 0.5% yeast extract, 2% agar, and 2% Precipitated CaC03 (3% ethanol added to autoclaved, cooled molten medium2).

CaC03-wort agar: To Wagar add 2% Pre­cipitated CaC03.

566

CaC03-YM agar: To YM agar add 2% Precipitated CaC03.

Cornmeal agar: 1.7% cornmeal agar (Difco Laboratories 0386-02).

Frateur agar: 1 % yeast extract (adjust to pH 6-7), 2% agar, and 2% Precipitated CaC03 (20 mL of 95% ethanol added to autoclaved, molten agar2).

Fructose broth: AR broth with 2% fructose. Glycerol broth: 2% glycerol and 0.5% yeast

extract. Gorodkowa agar3: 0.1 % glucose, 1.0% pep­

tone, 0.5% NaCL, 2% agar. GYC agar: 5% glucose, 1 % yeast extract

(adjust to pH 4.5), 3% Precipitated CaC03, and 3.0% agar 2.

HOAC agar3: 10% glucose, 1 % tryptone, 2% yeast extract, 2% agar (add 1 % glacial acetic acid to autoclaved, cooled molten medium).

MYP (Mannitol) agar: 5% yeast extract, 2.5% mannitol, 3% peptone, 2.5% agar.

Methylene Blue Stain: 0.4% methylene blue, 10% ethanol (95%), 0.4 M KH 2P04•

Modified Carr Medium: 30% yeast extract, 20% ethanol, 20% agar.

Sorbate-Ethanol agar: Wagar plus 0.3% KSorbate, 10% ethanol.

V-8 agar: 350 mL V-8 juice, 5 g Baker's yeast cake, 350 mL H 20, 14 g agar.

W agar 3 (wort): 10% wort (e.g., Fleis-

ehmann's Diamalt, often clarified by being heated to boiling and roughly filtered), 0.3% yeast extract, 0.5% peptone, 2% agar.

W+ agar (wort with Acti-dione): WAgar plus 1 mg/lOO mL Acti-dione® (cyclohexi­mide)!.

WLD (W L differential agar): Difco Labora­tories (0425-17) and BBL (11816); same as WLN with Acti-dione! (2 mg/L).

Appendix F 567

WLN (W L nutrient agar}: Difco Laborato­ries (0424-01) and BBL (11818); already con­tains agar and a pH indicator.

YM: agar: 0.3% yeast extract, 0.3% malt extract, 0.5% peptone, 1.0% glucose, 2% agar.

YM:+ agar: YM: Agar plus 1 mg/lOO mL Acti-dione (cycloheximide)!.

lActi-dione® (cycloheximide) Sigma Chemical Company (C-6255). Amounts added are twice those given above, since approximately one-half of its activity is lost during autoclaving.

2 Solid media with CaC03 need to be vigorously swirled in the cooled molten state immediately before being poured in order to resuspend the precipitate.

30f ten used as yeast sporulation media.

APPENDIX G

CATALASE TEST

AEROBIC VS ANAEROBIC BACTERIA

The catalase test is used to determine whether the bacteria in question are in the broad sense "aerobes" or "anaerobes:" aerobes are cata­lase-positive, and anaerobes are catalase-nega­tive. For wine-related bacteria, the catalase­positive organisms are bacilli and acetic acid bacteria (Chapter 9). These are considered to be obligate aerobes requiring the presence of molecular oxygen for abundant growth. How­ever, limited growth may also occur under conditions of low oxygen concentration, per­haps depending upon the redox potential. For example, bacillus spoilage has been found in bottled wines (Chapter 9). The wine-related catalase-negative bacteria include only lactic acid bacteria (Chapter 6). They are facultative anaerobes, not inhibited by atmospheric molecular oxygen, and generally growing as well as surface colonies as in submerged cul­tures. The lactic acid bacteria are mi­croaerophic (Chapter 6) and growth in "stab cultures" often is stronger in the stab a few mm below the surface-although a small mass

568

of growth in characteristically also seen at the surface.

SIGNIFICANCE

Molecular oxygen is toxic to all bacteria, if the concentration is high enough, because of for­mation from it of hydrogen peroxide (H 20 2), which is toxic, and of small quantities of the free radical, superoxide (On, which is even more toxic. The obligate aerobic bacteria uti­lize °2, but are protected from its toxicity by containing the enzyme superoxide dismutase. The latter prevents accumulation of superox­ide by catalyzing the reaction of it with pro­tons to produce 02 and H 20 2:

20,- + 2H+ ........... ---.. ------------------) ° + H ° 2 superoxide dismutase 2 2 2

All aerobic organisms contain this enzyme. Most of the aerobic bacteria also produce cata­lase, which decomposes H 20 2 to 02 and water:

2H n -------------) 2H 0+0, 2 2 catalase 2 2

The lactic acid bacteria contain superoxide dismutase, but are catalase-negative. They pro­tect themselves from the toxic effects of H 20 2

coming from 02 by the use of their peroxidase enzymes. These enzymes reduce H 20 2 to wa­ter, in the course of oxidation of organic com­pounds.

The obligate anaerobes, clostridia, for ex­ample (not found in wine), do not have super­oxide dismutase.

PROCEDURE

Apply a loop of pure and freshly grown bacte­rial culture to a drop of 3% H 20 2 (a fresh ten-fold dilution of a commercial 30% solu­tion) onto a microscope slide. Within a few seconds organisms which are catalase-positive will show bubbling or foaming. Yeast can be used as a positive control. The use of a hand­lens may be of assistance in the evaluation in some cases, or the use of either a very dark or a very light surface as background. The H 20 2

can be added directly to a colony on solid

Appendix G 569

nutrient medium, but of course all bacteria coming in contact with the H 202 will be killed. It should be noted that a hot loop in H Z02 will also give some bubbling. For catalase­negative organisms, not only will there be no bubble formation, but the form of the mass of bacterial material will remain entire, more-or­less intact, and not become visibly frayed-as happens, along with the foaming, with cata­lase-positive organisms.

EXCEPTIONS

Some strains of Acetobacter pasteunanus are catalase-negative. Confirmation of these cata­lase-negative bacteria as (aerobic) acetic acid bacteria can be obtained by growth on, and clearing of, various calcium carbonate media (Chapter 9). Lactic acid bacteria are some­times found to be catalase-positive when culti­vated on nutritionally deficient media. The procedures for identification of lactic acid bacteria given in Chapter 6 obviate this possi­bility.

APPENDIX H

MICROSCOPIC CELL COUNTING

A very useful skill for the winemaker is profi­ciency with the microscope for quick determi­nation of the presence or population of yeast or bacteria in liquid suspensions. This tech­nique is especially helpful in preparation of yeast starter cultures for sparkling wine fer­mentation and of bacteria starter cultures for malolactic fermentation. In these cases, unlike the preparation of yeast starter cultures for regular vinification fermentations, there are few macroscopic clues-such as obvious tur­bidity and foaming-to indicate the maturity of the culture. Microscopic cell counting is also useful as a preliminary step for making colony counts-where the sample is spread on a nutrient agar plant and incubated (Chapter 9); the microscopic examination indicates the number of aseptic, serial dilutions required to give the proper number of cells per plate. Furthermore, cell counting skill is also useful in the evaluation of incipient microbiological spoilage of stored wines. Cell counts obtained over various times showing static or decreasing cell concentrations probably indicate a harm­less situation. However, the opposite condi­tion, of increasing cell counts with time, indi-

570

cates that special attention and further treat­ment should be applied promptly to the stored wine. The microscopic cell counting tech­nique has its limitations, especially in the spoilage situations just mentioned, in that low concentrations « 10 4 cell/mL) cannot be evaluated with precision. In these instances, the winemaker must rely on viable counts, either as spread plates (Chapter 9), or as used in the quality control procedure for sterile bottling (Chapter 11). These methods require several days' incubation before results are ob­tained.

Two kinds of counting chambers are used for the microscopic procedure. Both of the chambers have the same cell counting grid of a "large" square, measuring 1.0 mm per side, divided into 25 "medium" squares, and each of the latter further subdivided into 16 "tiny" squares (Figure H-I). The grids have raised borders, on which a cover glass is placed, and which sets the height of the chamber, that is, the volume of liquid defined by the grid. The main difference between the two chambers is that the height for Levy-Hausser is 0.1 mm, while that for the Petroff-Hausser is 0.02 mm.

Thus, the decision on which chamber to use is partly determined by the concentration of the cells: the Levy chamber generally used for lower suspensions, and the Petroff for higher suspensions. Nominally, this limits the Levy chamber to the counting of yeast and the Petroff chamber to the counting of bacteria. The factor used for calculation of cell concen­tration of the suspension being measured is 10 4 times the number of cells found in the "large" square for the Levy-Hausser, and 2x107 times the number of cells found in a "tiny" square of the Petroff-Hausser. Gener­ally the "hi-<iry" microscopic objective lens (40x) is used with the Levy-Hausser, and the oil-immersion objective (lOOx) for the Petroff. Another feature of the Petroff-Hausser is that the chamber itself is thin enough to allow for microscopic viewing with oil-immersion and

""" ~ 100Xf ield ~ , ............ ~ r---J

r---. ......... If {' ">10..\ , I

I --{

1 \

1\

" .....

Appendix H 571

phase-contrast optics. This is an important fea­ture for the counting of lactic acid bacteria. Some Levy-Hausser chambers are also manu­factured for use with phase-contrast optics.

Concerning the coverslips used for the chambers, at the dimensions employed the surface tension of the water, or wine, is not inconsequential. There will be a natural bow­ing of a thin slip, which decreases the volume of the fluid in the chamber. To overcome this, special thick coverslips can be used for the Levy-Hausser, although attention must be paid to the objective lens being used to assure that its depth of focus is great enough to penetrate below the lower surface of this thicker cover slip. For the Petroff-Hausser, regular, thin cov­erslips are available, onto which are mounted rigid plastic frames, strong enough to over­come the surface tension. (In supply catalogs,

......... i"'"

" , 40X field , , ~

~ I'" J

.... ,

J I

""f-. -~ ............ '\

./ <.

'" -""" 1 6X field

1 mm x 1 mm = 1 "large" square or 25 "medium-sized" squares or 400 "tiny" squares

Fig. H-I. Grid dimensions of Hausser counting chambers.

572 Appendix H

the main use of the Levy-Hausser chambers.) In operation, the coverslip is placed over

the grid and a drop of the cell suspension (thoroughly mixed) is added by means of a pasteur pipette to one edge of the coverslip. Capillary action will pull the liquid into and fill the chamber. If the coverslip is bumped or otherwise disturbed such that too much liquid enters the chamber, it is advised to start over. The weight of the coverslip is insufficient to displace excess liquid from the grid. It is help­ful as a preliminary step to use the low-power objective to locate the grid of a dry, unloaded chamber and to note the microscope stage setting in order to return the chamber to the same position after the sample is loaded. The "medium" squares are double-lined (some­times triple-lined), which aids in their location (Figure H-I).

The number of squares, and the number of cells to be counted is dependent upon the concentration of the sample. If possible, at least 100 cells should be counted, to give at least a three-digit number, and enough squares, widely distributed, to get a good rep­resentation of the total grid. The Levy-Hausser has two grids, and the cells in each ought to be counted. For highest precision, the cham­bers should be loaded several times. A conven­tion is employed for cells resting on lines: cells touching the borders of the top or right side of the square being viewed are included in the enumeration, while those touching the bottom or left borders are excluded. For yeast, when the number of cfu's (colony forming units) is desired, individual and budding cells alike are counted as a single unit. For bacteria, a chain of cells is taken as a single CFU. In both cases, where an estimation of the biomass, rather than CFU s, is desired, for yeast, one should assess whether a budding cell is one or two units, or something in between; and for bacte­ria, assess the approximate proportion of the bacterial chains as singles, doublets, triplets, etc. One should be consistent and record ob­servations and assumptions carefully.

For yeast a rough indication of the viability

of the culture can also be obtained microscop­ically. For this, a mixture is made of approxi­mately 1:1 of the culture and a solution of methylene blue stain (Appendix F) (Fink and Kiihles 1933; Townsend and Lindgren 1953; Painting and Kirsop 1990). The mixing can be done directly on a microscope slide. The vi­able cells will take up the stain and reduce it to its colorless form, giving an unstained cell, whereas the dead cells will take up the stain without reduction, giving a blue cell. The ter­minology here is somewhat uncertain. Viability in this case is dependent of a cell's capacity to ferment, to carry out some portion of glycoly­sis. The term may not exactly coincide with capability of a cell to reproduce and form a colony when placed on nutrient medium. Also, this test must be done on fresh cells, not on samples that have been stored.

Difficulties in obtaining precise cell counts often come from streaming of the cells across the field of view, and, especially for bacteria, from Brownian motion. The former is best handled by patience, allowing the microscope to sit undisturbed for several minutes. The latter can be somewhat lessened by suspension of the bacteria in a solution of 4% PVA (poly­vinyl alcohol). (Aqueous PVA is very suscepti­ble to mold. It should be prepared as needed or stored at refrigerator temperature for only short periods.)

REFERENCES

FINK, H., AND R. KUHLES. 1933. "Beitrage zur Meth­yleneblaufarbung der Hefezellen und Studien iiber die Permeabilitat der Hefezellmembran. II. Mitteilung. Eine verbessert Fiirbefliissigkeit zur Erkennung von toten Hefezellen." Hoppe-Seyler z. Physiol. Chern. 218:65-66.

PAINTING, K., AND B. KiRSOP. 1990. "A quick method for estimating the percentage of viable cells in a yeast population, using methylene blue staining." World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 6:236-237.

TOWNSEND, G. F., AND C. C. LINDGREN. 1953. "Struc­tures in the yeast cell revealed in wet mounts." Cytologia 18: 183.201.

APPENDIX I

ADDRESSES OF MANUFACTURERS OF

WINERY EQUIPMENT!

Abcor (see Koch Membranes Systems) Alfa-Laval, P.O. Box 500,5-14700 Tumba, Swe­

den Amos Maschinenfabrik GmbH, Postfach 1160,

D-74081 Heilbronn, Germany APV-Crepaco, 395 Fillmore Avenue, Tona­

wonda, NY 14150, USA Bird Machine Co., Rucaduc Road, South

Walpole, MA 02071, USA Blachere & Cie.,2 4 rue Levat, 34 Montpellier,

France Bucher (see Bucher-CMMC) Bucher-CMMC, F-49290 Chalonnes sur Loire,

France Ceraflo (see Norton Co.) Cherry-Burrel, P.O. Box 35600, Louisville, KY

40232, USA Contherm (see Tetra Laval Food) Coq2 (see Bucher-CMMC) Cellulo Co., 124 M Street, Fresno, CA 93721,

USA

Celite Corp., P.O. Box 519, Lompoc, CA 93438-0519, USA

Cuno Inc., 400 Research Parkway, Meriden, CT 06450, USA

DDS (De Danske Sukkerfabrikker), P.O. Box 149, DK-4900 Nakskov, Denmark

Demoisy, B.P. 135, F-21204 Beaune, France Diemme Costruzioni Enolmeccaniche SPA,

Lugo, Italy DOff-Oliver Inc., 77 Havemeyer Lane, Stamford,

CT 06904, USA E. I. Du Pont Nemours & Co., 1007 Market

Street, Wilmington, DE 19898, USA Durco (Duriron Co.), 9542 Hardpan Road, An­

gola, NY 14006, USA Eagle Picher Industries, 580 Walnut Street,

Cincinnati, OH 45202, USA Egretier, D.F 301, Narbonne, France Enopompe snc, Via 25 Aprile, 42015 Correggio­

RE, Italy Fristam Pumps Inc., P.O. Box 620065, Middle-

1 This list is limited to the principal offices of manufacturers of widely distributed products for winemaking that have been mentioned in this book. It does not include manufacturers of bottling and packaging equipment due to the limited coverage of these topics. This is not a complete list and does not attempt to provide names of local agents or representatives. In the United States there are compilations of such in the annual directories of several industry magazines such as Practical Winery, Vineyard & Winery Management and Wines & Vines. There is no attempt to endorse or otherwise indicate preference for these products.

20f historical interest, limited involvement at present or no longer in business.

573

574 Appendix I

ton, WI 53562-0065, USA Gasquet Soc., 80 rue Reully, F-7500 Paris, France Graham Manufacturing Co., 20 Florence Av­

enue, Batavia, NY 14020, USA Great Lakes Corp., 2500 Irving Park Road,

Chicago, IL 60618, USA Guth KG., Postfach 1309, D-76829 Landau, Ger­

many Healdsburg Machine Company, 452 Healdsburg

Avenue, Healdsburg, CA 95448, USA Hoechst Celanese, 13800 South Lakes Drive,

Charlotte, NC 28273, USA Howard Rotavator CO.,2 P.O. Box 100, Harvard,

IL 60033, USA IMECA, Zone industrielle, B.P. 94, F-34800 Cler­

mont-I'Herault, France lIT Fluid Technology Corp., P.O. Box 2158,

Costa Mesa, CA 92628-2158, USA Jabsco (see lIT Fluid Technology Corp.) Johnston Bar Screen (see Wheelabrator Eng. Sys­

tems) KLR, 350 Morris Street, Suite E, Sebastapol, CA

95472, USA Koch Membrane Systems (Romicon), 850 Main

Street, Wilmington, MA 01887-3388, USA Luigi Mori snc, Via B. Naldini, 23, 50028 Tavar-

nelle val di Pesa, Italy Mabille2

MacKenzie 2

Manville (see Celite Corp) Manzini (see Teodoro Manzini) Marzola2 Membrana (Ghia), 7070 Commerce Circle,

Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA Memcor (Memtec), Oakes Road, Old Toongab­

bie, NSW 2146, Australia Millipore Corp., 80 Ashby Rd, Bedford, MA

01730, USA Moyno (see Robbins Myers) Mori (see Luigi Mori) Mott Metallugical Corp., Farmington Industrial

Park, Farmington, CT 06032, USA Neztsch Inc, 119 Pickering Way, Exton, PA

19341-1393, USA Norton Co., 1 New Bond Street, Worcester, MA

01601, USA Novo Ferment Ltd., Vogesenstrasse 132, CH-4056

Basle, Switzerland Padovan spa, 3lO15 Conegliano, Veneto, Italy Pall Corp., Rte 281, Cortland, NY 13045, USA PCI (Patterson Candy Intl.), Laverstoke Mill,

Whitchurch, Hampshire RG 287NR, U.K.

Paul Mueller Co., P.O. Box 828, Springfield, MO 65801, USA

Pera SA,2 F-345lO Florensac Herault, France Ragazini Off. Mecc. srl, Via Volta, 8, 48018

Faenza-RA, Italy Rhone Poulenc Chemie, 21 rue Jean Goujan,

F-25360 Paris, France Robbins Myers, P.O. Box 960, Springfiled, OH

45501, USA Rupp (see Warren Rupp) Santa Rosa Stainless Steel, P.O. Box 518, Santa

Rosa, CA 95402, USA Sartorius Corp., 140 Wilbur Place, Bohemia, NY

11716, USA Scott Laboratories, P.O.Box 4559, Petaluma, CA

94955-4559, USA SFEC (Soc. Fabr. d'Elements Catalytiques), B.P.

F-33-84599 Bollene, France Seitz Werke GmbH, Postfach 889, D-55543 Bad

Kreuznach,Germany Schenk Filterbau GmbH, Bettringer Strasse 42,

D-73550 Waldstetten, Germany Teodoro Manzini srl, Via Enrico Fermi, 8, 42015

Correggio-RE, Italy Tri-Clover Inc., 9201 Wilmont Road, Kenosha,

WI 53140, USA Valley Foundry Machine Works,2 25lO So. East

Avenue, Fresno, CA 93717, USA Vaslin (see Bucher-CMMC) Velo spa, Via Piave, 55 Fraz. Caselle, 3lO30 Altiv­

ole-TV, Italy Vinipal, Rua Oliva Teles 251, Praia da Granja,

4405, Portugal Warren Rupp, P.O. Box 1568, Mansfield, OH

44901, USA Waukesha Foundry, 1300 Lincoln Avenue,

Waukehsa, WI 53186, USA Wedge Wire Co., P.O. Box 157, Wellington OH

44090, USA Westec Winery Equipment, P.O. Box 338,

Healdsburg, CA 95448 Westfalia Separator AG, D-59302 Oelde, Ger­

many Wheelabrator Eng. Systems, P.O. Box 64118, St.

Paul, MI 55164, USA Wilden Pumps, 22069 Van Buren Street, Colton,

CA 92324, USA Willmes Maschinenbau KG, Postfach 143, D-

64625 Bensheim, Germany Winery Systems Corp.2 York Machine Works, 1401 Charter Oak Avenue,

St. Helena, CA 94574, USA

GLOSSARY

Definitions given are usually specific wine-re­lated meanings. General dictionaries should be consulted as well.

Acetification: The oxidative conversion of wine to vinegar, ethanol to acetic acid. An aerobic fermentation by Acetobacter.

Acidity: Titrable or titratable acidity is that determined by quantitative titration with al­kali. Usually it is expressed in grams of tartaric acid per liter in wines. Older French literature used giL as H 2S04 and % tar­taric or g/lOOmL has been common. Total acidity has been used as the same value to include fixed and volatile acidity. This can be misleading in that a portion of the tar­taric acid (and others) is present as neutral­ized anions and therefore not directly titra­ble. Volatile acidity, as acetic acid, is very low in wines unless activity of vinegar bacte­ria has been appreciable. (See al50 pH.)

Aging: The general time-related improve­ment of wines specifically after bottling, but sometimes applied to the whole period of wine storage after fermentation. (See also Maturation.)

Alternative products: Products that, when produced, remove an equivalent portion of wine, e.g., vinegar or juice concentrate.

Amelioration: A specific meaning in wine­making applies especially to must better­ment, particularly from fruits other than wine grapes. It involves lowering of exces­sive acid, usually by dilution with water, and

increasing the sugar content so that palat­able and stable wines result. (See also Chap­talization.)

American Society for Enology and Viticulture (ASEV): Headquartered in Davis, Califor­nia, this organization is more international than the name implies having sizable groups of members in Japan and elsewhere. In ad­dition to activities including an annual meeting, they publish the American Journal of Enology and Viticulture (AJEV), undoubt­edly the most important reviewed scientific and technical journal of the field in English and arguably in the world regardless oflan­guage.

Aroma: The odors in wines_related to the grape from which they were made as distin­guished from process and aging odors. (See also Bouquet.>

Azeotrope: A combination of two or more substances that boil at a constant and usu­ally lower temperature than the compo­nents. Ethanol and water form an azeotrope which, depending on atmospheric pressure, boils at 25.6°C rather than 26.8°C for pure ethanol. The azeotrope is 95.5% by weight ethanol ( 4.5% water) and purer ethanol cannot be made by simple distillation.

Bacteriophage: A virus that affects bacteria.

Barrel: Sometimes used too generally, a bar­rel is an oaken liquid container with a dou­ble-arched truncated ellipsoid shape made liquid tight by appropriate taper of side units

575

576 Glossary

(staves) and ends (heads) wedged together by driven metal hoops. The usual sizes for wine, regardless of region, have been in the range of 190 to 230 L, more or less. Histori­cally, other sizes had special names (firkin, keg, hogshead, tun, etc.) and other shapes also (oval, upright, etc.). The use of the equivalent French term bamque is an affec­tation. Barrels for other commodities had other standard sizes: beer, 31 gallons and bourbon whiskey, 50 gallons, for example.

BATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Fireanns): The U.S. federal agency which has been responsible for regulating and controlling all aspects of production, label­ing, and marketing of wine and other alco­holic beverages. A part of the Treasury De­partment.

Body: The mouth-filling characteristic of wines related to viscosity ranging from thin and watery to full and high-bodied.

Bordeaux mixture: A fungicidal spray pre­pared from copper sulfate and calcium hy­droxide (slaked lime) in water.

Bottle: A standard wine bottle contains 750 mL of wine. Formerly, U.S. wine bottles were called fifths because they held 1/5 gal. or 757 mL.

Bottle aging: Storage of wine in bottle or similar essentially anaerobic container and the effects (usually desirable) eventually produced.

Bouquet: The odors in wines resulting from processing and aging as distinguished from the raw material's odors, e.g., fermentation or bottle bouquets. (See also Aroma.)

Brandy: A high-content alcoholic beverage product or component distilled from grape WIne.

Brix: Solution property equivalent to that of reference aqueous solutions of sucrose in grams per 100 grams of solution at 20°C. Usually measured by hydrometry (density) or in juices by refractometry. Balling first prepared tables, but Brix improved them and the term Balling is obsolete. Brix is

nearly universal in the food industry, but Baume and Oechsle are convertible units used in other countries. The Brix in the past has tended to be termed degrees Brix, but this unnecessary and is not followed in other food industry practice.

Byproduct: A product produced incidentally to winemaking not made from or diminish­ing the yield of wine. Cream of tartar or grape seed oil are examples. (See also Alter­native and Specialty products.)

DC: Temperature in Celsius (or Centigrade) degrees. Water freezes at O°C and boils at lOO°e.

Case: A standard wine case contains 12 bot­tles, 750 mL each, and therefore a total of 9 liters.

Champagnes: Either sparkling (high-C02 )

wines from the Champagne district in France or (clearly designated) similar wines from elsewhere including the United States. The French argue for only the first defini­tion and as a result terms such as Sekt in Germany and Cava in Spain have been sub­stituted.

Chaptalization: Term for the addition of sugar to musts before fermentation in order to obtain adequate alcohol in the wine. Regulated by laws in most countries, prohib­ited in California, similar results may be permitted by adding grape concentrate or reserved sweet juice. Named for the French­man popularizing it, Chaptal.

Charmat process: Secondary fermentation of sparkling wine in large (bulk) tanks rather than individual bottles. Named for the French originator.

Climate: The typical weather for a given place, usually large-scale areas. Climatic Re­gions I-V: A system of characterizing and comparing vineyard regions and subregions based upon average heat summation. Meso­climate: Local variations within a vineyard or among nearby vineyards which affect typ­ical weather seen by grapevines, e.g., a sun­facing slope versus a relatively shaded one.

Microclimate: The weather as modified by very local conditions in and about a specific VIne.

Clone: A new vine or a group of vines pro­duced from a cutting of one parent vine and therefore genetically identical. By ex­trapolation and with increasing chance for slight variation depending upon the num­ber of transfers, the term may be used (mis­used) for propagants from a group of vines representing a uniform varietal vineyard.

Cold Duck: A nearly vanished recent faddish type of sparkling wine blended from red (often Concord in the United States) and white base wines and produced by the Char­mat process.

Concentrate: Concentrated grape juice, white unless otherwise stated, prepared by vacuum and low temperature for use in sweetening other food products including musts and wines. Rectified concentrate is a term being introduced from Europe with legalistic limitations involving further pro­cessing to eliminate most characteristics other than sugar.

Coolers: A blended beverage commonly about half wine and half dilute acidic solu­tion or fruit juices and other flavorings os­tensibly for hot-weather and lower-alcohol (6% or so) situations. Dwindling in impor­tance.

Cooperage: Winery containers generally. De­rived from barrels and other wooden con­tainers made by coopers.

Cream of tartar: Potassium bitartrate, the predominant crystalline deposit forming in wine. Purified from wine tartar (argols), it is a byproduct useful in cooking.

Crusher destemmer: Usually a single ma­chine, but possibly two separate units, to remove the grape berries from their rachises and break them open for fermentation or juice removal. The objective is ordinarily complete removal of the cluster stems and 100% opening of the berries with minimal grinding or solids dispersal into the fluid.

Glossary 577

Cuvee: The term (derived from French) for the particular blend of base wines to be used to make a sparkling wine.

Decanting: Transfer of relatively clear wine (usually bottled wine) by pouring off leaving undisturbed sediments and crusts behind. (See also Racking.)

Delle concept: Noting that high content of either sugar or alcohol prevented yeast growth and a combination of the two gave more microbial stability than the same con­tent of either alone, Delle (a Russian) de­vised a scheme of units to predict stability of sweet wines. The units are not very reliable, but the concept is important in explaining why table wines at relatively low alcohol content (Sauternes, for example) are stable if their sugar is high enough. The phe­nomenon appears to result from stress on the yeast by either or both components.

DMDC (Dimethyl dicarbonate): Supersedes DEPC (diethyl pyrocarbonate). Kills yeasts to sterilize wines. Decomposes sponta­neously in aqueous solution to carbon diox­ide and small amounts of methanol.

Dry: The descriptor for a wine without fer­mentable sugar and/or no detectable taste of sweetness from sugar. Commonly, less than 2 giL of reducing sugars.

Dyer: Preferred English term for the French tientuner (same meaning) used here for a red grape that has red pulp and juice and not just red berry skin, as is usual. Such varieties are useful to make a very red wine for blending with wines undesirably weak in red color.

Enology: The science and technology (and residual artful know-how) of making and processing wine in all of its complexity. The original spelling was oenology.

Estate bottling: Various wordings and legal nuances are involved, but the intent is to indicate that the grapes were produced by or at minimum under the specific control of the ownership of the bottling winery. Pro-

578 Glossary

gressively less direct control is indicated by such terms as "produced and bottled by," "cellared and bottled by," or "bottled by."

Ester: A type of chemical compound formed from an acid and an alcohol by the elimina­tion of water or hydrolyzed back to its con­stituent acid and alcohol by addition of the elements of water. The smallest major ester of interest in wines is the four-carbon ethyl acetate formed from acetic acid and ethyl alcohol. Organic esters of this type, espe­cially those with about eight carbons, are attractively fruity in smell.

Exp: The exponent of the natural logarithm base e: exp(2) is e 2•

Extract: Extract in wines is defined as the nonvolatile dissolved solids of the wine and ordinarily is expressed in Brix (see Brix). It is important to recognize that residual sugar contributes to extract and to pay attention to whether the values given are total extract or sugarfree extract. A high-extract dry wine is one that has had considerable pomace contact and also may have high glycerol from fermentation.

"F: Fahrenheit temperature, water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F. Replace with °C. (See also °C.)

FAN (Free Amino Nitrogen): Amino acid ni­trogen exclusive of proline (an imino acid), usable by yeasts, ammonia is not included.

Fennenter: The agent for fermentation; one who or that which causes or conducts fer­mentation. For examples "he is a fermenter of Cabernets" or "that yeast is a galactose fermenter."

Fennentor: An apparatus for fermentation. "The wine was fermented in a stainless steel fermentor. "

Fining: Clarification of wines or possibly musts by addition of agents, usually insolu­ble or colloidal ones such as bentonite or gelatin, which combine with incipient haze formers and precipitate them and them­selves from solution.

Flavonoid: Natural CIS phenols formed with two benzene rings connected by a three­carbon bridge. Includes anthocyanins, cate­chins (flavan-3-0ls), flavonols, and con­densed tannins in grapes and wines. They are responsible for the red colors, much of the brown colors, the astringency, and the known bitterness of wines. (See also Phenols')

Flavor: The overall sensory character includ­ing odors, tastes, and feelings such as astrin­gency' body, or perhaps "texture."

Flavored wines: Vermouths and Special Nat­ural Wines are those that incorporate fla­vors from other sources (natural) besides grapes.

Fortification: (See WSA).

Fractional blending: (See Solera System).

Fusel oil: A distillation fraction from wine or its constituents in wines, primarily higher (more than two-, usually five-carbon) alco­hols. (See also Higher Alcohols.)

GAE (Gallic Acid Equivalent): Based upon phenol assay (usually by Folin-Ciocalteu reagent) with gallic acid as comparison stan­dard usually in mg/L for wines or mg/kg for grapes.

GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe): A term introduced into food regulations to cover substances considered to have such long and widespread usage that further spe­cific testing is superfluous and wasteful, su­crose for example.

Grafting: The operation of splicing a scion cutting to a rootstock to produce a single combined vine.

Grape seed oil: Oil expressed or extracted from grape seeds. A good food, it resembles olive oil in composition. It can be a useful byproduct of winema king, but has been sel­dom economic.

Hard: The less desirable flavor impression of a red wine both bitter and tart and often tannic. The antonym of soft-a wine with­out excess in these features. It mayor may not disappear with appropriate maturation

and aging, but it should improve. Softer wines can, of course, also improve with age.

Headspace: The gas volume, usually deliber­ate, above the wine in a container including bottles, for example, "That wine was bot­tled with a headspace of 5 mL, but with 10 years of aging an ullage (see Ullage) of 50 mL developed."

Hectare: An are is 10 X 10 m or 100 square m. A hectare is therefore 100 X 100m =

10,000 m 2 or 2.47 acres.

Hectoliter: One hundred liters. A common unit for wine processing tabulations in Eu­rope equal to 26.4 u.S. gallons. We prefer kiloliters 00 hectoliters) for two major rea­sons: more directly related to metric tons and easier to visualize in relation to old practices in the U.S. wine industry Obs 11000 gal.). (See also Kiloliter.)

HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatog­raphy): A modern instrumental technique to separate and quantitate compounds pre­sent in complex solutions such as wines. CLC, gas-liquid chromatography, is a sepa­rate but analogous procedure limited to volatile compounds.

HTST (High-Temperature Short-Time): Pas­teurization treatments.

Higher alcohols: Isoamyl alcohol and rela­tives with more than two carbons produced by fermentation and contributing to heavy, fusely tastes, especially in WSA wines and brandies (not always undesirable flavors at low levels). (See also Fusel oil.)

Kiloliter: One thousand liters or one m 3 (a stere). Although hectoliters (1/10 kL) are most commonly used in Europe, kL is pre­ferred in America and one m 3 is the SI unit of volume. It is easier to visualize (I m 3) and is more mentally compatible with the obso­lete usage of Ib/l000 gal. One U.S. gallon = 3.785 L; 1 kL = 264.2 gal.; 1 Ib/l000 gal. = 120 g/kL.

Laccase: Phenol-oxidizing enzymes not pre­sent unless produced in grapes by mold

Glossary 579

infection, but important in browning and related reactions of moldy grapes. Different and usually wider substrate specificity than grape PPO (See also PPO.)

Lactic acid bacteria: Those bacteria capable of producing lactic acid (not present from grapes or yeasts) in wines, usually by malo­lactic fermentation. (See also Malolactic Fer­mentation.)

Lees: Sediments (yeast, tartrates, seeds, fin­ing agents, etc.) settled to the bottom of wine containers.

Maceration: Steeping crushed grapes before drawing off juice or young wines. Alterna­tive expressions include skin contact, po­mace fermentation, etc.

Maceration, carbonic: Holding whole grape clusters in a closed container in an atmo­sphere of carbon dioxide (possibly self-gen­erated by respiration) so that they metabo­lize some of their sugar anaerobically. This is properly done at fairly warm temperature and for sufficient time, at least several days, so that a special flavor and light tannin plus vivid color and fruity flavor result in the wine made from the pressed juice. The wines so produced are termed nouveau style by analogy to Beaujolais nouveau.

Maderization: A rather confusing term prob­ably better dropped in favor of oxidation or I and heated. It derives from the chemi­cal and sensory characters of Madeira-type wines that are both oxidized and baked. It is not related to wood-extract flavors as Span­ish speakers might assume.

Malolactic fermentation: The conversion by specific bacteria of malic acid into lactic acid with associated reduction in total acid­ity and other flavor changes.

Marc: See Pomace.

Maturation: The time-related improvement of wines before bottling, especially bulk maturation in oak containers. Mter matura­tion appropriate to the type and style, a wine is considered mature, ready, and ripe to bottle.

580 Glossary

Mildews: Filamentous fungi (molds) includ­ing downy mildew and powdery mildew that cause disease on grape vines or others that may cause unsightly growths on winery walls, etc. Obligate aerobes, they can not grow in properly stored wine.

MOG (Material Other than Grapes): Con­taminants such as leaves in harvested grapes.

Must: The grape material ready to be fer­mented. Whole must is usually crushed but destemmed grapes and must pumps are de­signed to handle this mash without appre­ciable grinding. When the pomace has been removed, the resultant juice, whether fur­ther clarified or not, can be called must if it is to be fermented or further fermented, but the general term must usually implies whole must, and juice or young wine are the terms preferred for certain clarity, if they are meant.

Mute: Pronounced "mutay," this is grape juice prevented from fermentation, often by high additions of S02 or other means, in­tended for later use in making wines. An adopted French term.

Noble rot: The term for desired infection of wine grapes by Botrytis cinerea under circum­stances of weather and season such that a shriveled berry results with high sugar con­tent suitable for making sweet table wines such as Sauternes or Trockenbeerenausle­sen.

OIV (The Office International de la Vigne et du Vin): Based in Paris, performs many useful functions in gathering worldwide grape and wine statistics, codifying regula­tions and analytical procedures, etc. It pub­lishes their Bulletin (BOIV), which also in­cludes useful briefs on other publications.

Overcropped: The condition of a vine carry­ing so much crop load that it is unable to produce enough photosynthesis to properly mature the fruit. Ordinarily indicated by inadequate sugar development and failure to ripen properly.

Pectin: Complex polysaccharides involving galacturonic acid, its methyl ester, and other sugar derivatives. They contribute to viscos­ity and sometimes hazes of musts and wines. Shortened and solubilized by pectinase en­zymes.

Pedicel: The small cap stem attaching each grape berry to the rachis.

Peptides: Short polymers of amino acids, pieces (polypeptides longer) of proteins. (See also Proteins.)

pH: An acidity scale. The negative of the logarithm of the molar hydrogen ion con­centration in a solution such as wine or must. At pH 7.0 the solution is neutral, below it is increasingly acidic and tart to a minimum of zero, and above increasingly alkaline to a maximum of 14. For wine grape juices and wines, 3.2-3.8 is generally to be expected, with lower than that rela­tively underripe and sour or above overripe and flat-tasting. Since pH is an exponential (base 10) function, relatively small numeri­cal differences in pH correlate with large reactivity and flavor differences.

Phage: (see Bacteriophage)

Phenols: Chemical compounds consisting of a benzene ring with at least one hydroxyl group. Those naturally occurring in plants are termed polyphenols and usually have at least two hydroxyl groups, usually vicinal (side by side). The group includes phenolic acids, cinnamates, flavonoids, and tannins in grapes and wines.

Phylloxera: A serious grape insect pest native to Eastern North America which, when in­troduced to European grape vines, causes vineyard decline and death. Dactylasphaera vitifoliae (formerly called Phylloxera vitifoliae or P. vastatrix) has a complicated life cycle, including a flying form causing leaf galls on resistant grape species in humid climates and the universal and more devastating small yellow root louse forms. Vitis species native to the endemic areas for this pest are resistant and can be used as rootstocks or

breeding stock for resistance. Other species of phylloxera specifically attack other plants, oak, for example.

Pomace: The solids (grape skins and seeds especially) left after wine or juice is drained and pressed from the whole must or young wine. Marc and press cake are essentially the same. Pronounced "pumice," pomace may be sweet (unfermented) or dry (fer­mented) and may be the source of recover­able alcohol or other byproducts as well as a waste disposal problem.

ppm (Parts per million): For wine, usually milligrams per liter, but any value, prefer­ably in the same units, such as Ib/million lb. A confusing term which should be re­placed by more specific SI units. Particularly confusing in comparing liquid and gaseous concentrations. (See Chapter 1).

PPO (Polyphenol Oxidase): The natural browning enzyme of grapes and most other plant products. Present in juices to varying degrees.

Proof: A measure of alcohol content usually limited to distilled beverages. One % by volume of ethanol equals 2 V.S. proof mea­sured at 60°F. British proof is slightly dif­ferent. Proof spirit is 100 proof(50% vol/vol ethanol).

Proof gallon: One V.S. gallon (3.785 L) of 100 proof (50% vol/vol) ethanol or the equivalent amount of ethanol.

Proteins: Relatively large chains of amide-lin­ked amino acids. Twenty amino acids are commonly involved and may also be linked to other subunits such as carbohydrates (glycoproteins). Enzymes are proteins and the most common haze producers in white wines are proteins.

Pump over: The operation of transferring fluid, especially fermenting red wine, from low in the container back over the surface, particularly the cap of floating grape skins. The term may be applied to similar proce­dures such as mixing tanks of wine to dis-

Glossary 581

tribute or keep distributed fining agents, etc. Punching down is an alternative proce­dure of submerging the cap during macera­tions such as red wine fermentations.

Quality: The summation of intrinsic factors such as color, odor, and flavor that cause knowledgeable and discriminating cus­tomers to say that that one wine is better and worth more than another one. Obvi­ously varying from wine type to wine type, subjective, and prone to frequent disagree­ment even among enologists, high quality is, nevertheless, an all-important goal with wine.

Rachis: The stem of the grape cluster.

Racking: The process almost invariably fol­lowed during transfer of bulk wine by pumping or siphoning the relatively clear top portion away without or prior to dis­turbing the sediment (lees). Like decanting, except applied to bulk wine handling and not to simple pouring of wine from one container to another or individual bottles.

Racking arm: A gooseneck tube and valve arrangement through the lower end of a tank rotatable so as to enable removal of clear fluid down to near the lees.

Raisin: The French word for grape which, in English, has become restricted to raisins sec or dried grapes, ordinarily sun-dried with the characteristic flavor, high sugar, brown color, etc.

Rose: The French word for pink (pro­nounced rozay) applied to light red wines, especially pink table wines.

Saccharomyces: Literally "sugar fungus" from Latin; the generic (genus) scientific name for yeasts of the type used in wine fermenta­tions.

Scion: The portion of a vine that carries the aboveground grape variety when grafted to a rootstock.

Skin contact: The operation (and conditions, especially time and temperature) of macer­ating the solids (pomace, skins, seeds) of

582 Glossary

grapes with the fluid juice or fermenting wine. Necessary in the typical conversion of red grapes into red wine, but sometimes used in other contexts, such as making heavier white wines.

Sluggish fennentation: A fermentation that proceeds more slowly than it should. (See Stuck)

Solera system: A fractional blending system developed for Spanish sherry.

Sparkling wines: Champagnes and other wines fermented a second time in a closed system (Charmat tank or individual bottle) so that the carbon dioxide generated re­mains in the wine. Distinguished from car­bonated wines which are charged with sepa­rately collected carbon dioxide in the same way as soda pop.

Specialty product: Wine or wine-containing product not usually or traditionally made, e.g., wine coolers, de alcoholized wine. (See also Alternative products and Byproducts)

Spoilage yeast: Those yeasts, in the context of this book, which mayor may not be able to complete a fermentation of grape juice, but produce off odors, off flavors, or turbid­ity where not wanted. Species of all the 19 or so wine-related yeast genera can be in­cluded. (See also Yeast).

Statistics: (1) Collected data, usually numeri­cal, characterizing wine production, e.g., L or Tm by variety, vintage, area, etc.; and (2) the branch of mathematics and the proce­dures employed to estimate the typicality and believability of experimental or variable results.

Stemmy: A characteristic flavor imparted by not or incompletely removing the cluster stems (rachises) during winemaking. It is reminiscent of herbaceous, peppery, bitter components.

Stuck: A fermentation that has halted before the expected completion owing to exces­sively high temperature, unanticipated nu­trient shortage, etc.

Style: The characteristics within a wine type that are intended to distinguish one wine from another. For example, in the category of young varietal Zinfandel red table wines, we would emphasize a raspberry-fruity style, others might emphasize more vinous, tannic character.

Sulfur dioxide: The gas (S02) formed by burning sulfur in air. Quite soluble in water and easily compressed to a liquid, it is un­pleasant to work around, but useful for hundreds of years as a constituent or addi­tive in juices and wines to prevent undesir­able chemical and microbial deterioration. It may be liberated under appropriate con­ditions (especially acidity) from its salts such as potassium metabisulfite (pyrobisulfite, K 2S20 5) or other bisulfites and sulfites.

Sur lies: A French term meaning "on lees" used to designate a rather specific type of maceration on the yeast lees, usually with periodic stirring and especially with barrel­fermented Chardonnay wine. A complex flavor can result from the yeast leakage over time.

Table wines: Here the term means all those grape wines that are made by a single, com­plete fermentation. They are therefore lim­ited to about 12% alcohol (under 14% by U.S. tax category) unless made from botry­tized musts or dried grapes. They are in­tended as a beverage to accompany a meal. In other languages, table wine can be a slightly denigrating term signifying ordinary quality, but that is not implied here. Table wines include the finest wines of the types and styles as well as the everyday ones.

Tannin, tannic: Large, astringent, protein­precipitating natural phenols and their fla­vor effect in wines. Grapes contain, espe­cially in the seeds, condensed tannins (flavonoid polymers), whereas oak barrel extract and tannic acid used in fining are hydrolyzable into gallic and/or ellagic acid. They have similar flavor and hide-to-Ieather tanning effects, but different chemistry.

Taste: Strictly, the mouth sensations sensed by the taste buds including bitter, salty, tart (acidic), and sweet. Commonly, the other oral sensations of astringency, body, and hotness or pungency are also included. (See also Flavor).

Tawny: The brick-red color which develops as red wine ages usually with some oxida­tion, as opposed to bright red or blue-red. A defect in wines intended to be fresh and fruity like most roses, but expected and often a mark of quality in mature red wines. It indicates a special style in ports, and, if produced by heating the wine, is not neces­sarily viewed as a quality improvement.

TCA: A perfect example of why we detest jargon. This term has been used for the tricarboxylic acid cycle (Kreb's or citric acid cycle) of aerobic metabolism, trichloroacetic acid (a protein precipitant), and 2,4,6-tri­chloroanisole (an active corky odorant).

Terpene: A class of compounds biochemi­cally derived from mevalonic acid and made up of five-carbon isoprene units. Ten-carbon monoterpenes are important odorants of the highly aromatic muscat grapes and wines from them and relatives.

Tm: See Ton, metric.

Ton, metric: Sometimes written tonne and essentially equivalent to a long ton in the obsolete English system, it is 1000 kg. One T M equals 2204.6 Ib or 1.1 U.S. English tons. A quintal (q) is 0.1 T M' 100 kg, or 220.5 lb. The equivalent term megagram, Mg, is seldom used, probably from potential confusion with milligram, mg.

Ullage: The amount that a container lacks of being full, especially if occasioned by loss from an originally full condition. (Pro­nounced uh-lage) (See Headspace).

VA (Volatile Acidity): The portion of the to­tal acidity that is volatile (distillable away from the fixed acidity) representing acetic acid and relatives. It is considered indicative of microbiological (acetobacter) spoilage, if appreciable. Red table wines with more than 1.4 giL as acetic and other grape wines

Glossary 583

with more than 1.2 giL are by U.S. regula­tions too high to be marketed as unspoiled wines. Wines high in acetic acid are or become also high in ethyl acetate and the latter is more odorous.

Varietal: A wine named for the variety of grapes from which it was made. By U.S. regulations it must be from a minimum of 75% of the named grape, with additional rules if more than one variety is named.

Vector: Transporting agent for disease, e.g., nematodes can be vectors for grapevine viruses.

Veraison: The French word for ripening now adopted specifically for the onset of ripen­ing of grapes. The transition stage marking the beginning of sugar accumulation, berry softening, chlorophyll loss, and anthocyanin formation.

Vinegar: Wine and other (designated) alco­holic beverages aerobically converted by Acetobacter into condiments rich in acetic acid and ethyl acetate for salad dressing and similar usage. Formerly, now seldom, a spoiled wine. An alternate product for wineries.

Vinification: The process of making wines from grapes.

Vinous: The flavor that denotes wine without specific varietal aromas or special bouquets.

Vintage: A specific harvest season for grapes and the resultant wine. By U.S. regulations designation on a wine label of the year of harvest requires that 95% of the wine was made from grapes harvested during that year.

Vintner: Properly, a seller of wines.

Viticulture: The science and technology of grape growing.

Vitis: The botanical genus of grapes. Species include most importantly vinifera (the clas­sic wine grapes), labrusca or labruscana (Concord and relatives), and several other species less known for fruit, but useful for other purposes. Hybrids are genetic crosses involving more than one species of grape.

584 Glossary

Wild yeasts: Yeasts which can initiate a fer­mentation of grape juice, but are not toler­ant enough to ethanol to complete the fer­mentation. They are usually associated with the grape berry. Species are included from the genera: Hansenula, Kloeckera, Hansenias­pora, and Metschnikowia. (See also Yeast)

Wmemaking: The part of enology specifically related to selecting and converting grapes to wine ready to be consumed. The single word is preferred, unless special meaning is to be expressed. Winemaking and that of beer are interesting to contrast. Preferable usage could be "making of wine and beer are interesting to contrast."

Wine spirits: Alcohol and associated compo­nents of the distillate prepared from grape wine. By laws in the United States and many other (but not all) countries, other fermen­tation sources can not be used in wines or brandies, much less ethanol from petroleum.

Wine yeast: Yeasts that can ferment wine grape juice to completion (dry) and pro-

duce a wine free of off-flavors and off-odors. Rather limited to species of the genus Sac­charomyces and perhaps Schizosaccharomyces. They can also be spoilage yeasts, if present in an unwanted situation, e.g., semisweet bottled table wine. (See also Yeasts)

WSA (Wine Spirits Addition): Fortification, the addition of distilled alcohol during winemaking. The technique used to make stable sweet wines by arresting the fermen­tation before completion by adding brandy of high proof. Traditional ports, sherries, muscatels, etc., are made this way, and com­monly are 18% alcohol.

Yeast: By brief scientific definition, a single­celled fungus. Wine-related yeasts are those found associated with grapes, vineyards, winery equipment, wine storage containers, or in wine. Here they are subdivided into three groups: Wine yeasts, Wild yeasts, and Spoilage yeasts.

Yeast hulls: Empty (autolyzed) yeast cell walls. Sometimes called yeast ghosts.

A

Acetaldehyde binding kinetics of, 461 binding with bisulfite, 459 formation, 136-137

Acetamide, 372-373 Acetic acid, 41,149-150,417,523 Acetic acid bacteria

kinds of, 373-374 spoilage, 373-376 spoilage prevention, 374 taxonomy, 374-376

Acetobacter, 149 aceti, 374-375 cap management, 122 hansenii, 375-376 liquefaciens, 374-377 pasteurianus, 374-377

catalase test, 568 spoilage, 373-376 xylinum, 370,376

Acetoin, malolactic, 250 Acetyl-CoA, 127 2-Acetyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine, 373 Acid(s)

acetic, 149-150, 523 amino (see Amino acids) ascorbic (see Ascorbic acid) caffeic, 42, 408, 412-415 gallic, 42, 43, 45, 408, 412-414

INDEX

a-keto glutaric, 147 lactic, 522 malic, 522 mucic (see Calcium mucate) organic, 138, 146 pyruvic, 523 sorbic, 434 succinic, 147,522 tartaric, 85, 521, 534

Acidification cation exchange, 86 tartaric acid addition, 85, 534

Acidity, 38, 39,41,53-55,57,399,521-537 (see also specific acids)

changes during precipitation, 536 dissolved CO 2 , 434 organic acids, 521 pH,523 titratable acidity, 523

Acti-ciione, (see Cycloheximide) Activated carbon, 288, 407 Activation energy

of browning, wine, 442, 467 of calcium tartrate crystallization, 337 of enzyme inactivation, 88-89 of ester hydrolysis (acetates), 180 of oxygen uptake, wine, 442, 467 of sulfur dioxide loss, wine, 442, 467 of thiamin cleavage, 463 of viscosity, 482

585

586 Index

Activation energy (cont.) of yeast death, 145 of yeast growth, 145 of yeast maintenance, 145

Active amyl alcohol, 150, 165 Active dry wine yeast

production and use, 123-124 survival factors, 124

Active transport, 155-156 Acylation, 44-45 Additives, permitted, 551 Addresses of equipment manufacturers, 572-3 Adenosine triphosphate, 127

malolactic, 270-272 yeast fermentation, 127, 132, 135-137

Adsorption phenomena (see Fining) Aeration, juice, 87 Aerobic bacteria, 373-378, 568 Aerobic conditions, 391,405 Aging, 382-424 (see also Maturation)

bottle, 391, 420, 423-424 cellar temperature, 389 esterification during, 398-399, 420 oak extraction (see Oak) phenol polymerization during, 233 rapid, 388, 424 rate effects, 467 temperatures, 423

Air diaphragm pumps, 476 Albumen, 283 Alcohol(s), 41 (see also Ethanol)

Fusel, higher, 50 (see also Higher alcohols) Alcohol dehydrogenase, 137

and ethanol tolerance, 177-178 Alcohol removal, 306 Alcohol yield, 195 Alcoholic fermentation (see Fermentation) Aldehydes, 50, 391 Alginate, 286 Alkaline oxygen uptake, 410-411 Alternative products, 8-9 (see also Brandy,

Concentrate, Vinegar) Amertume spoilage, 373 Amino acid(s)

assimilation by yeast, 154-155, 158 biosynthesis by yeast, 131 degradation by yeast, 154 in grapes, 46-48 measures of free (FAN), 81 metabolism by yeast, 155 precursors of higher alcohols, 164 preference by yeast, 154, 159-160 transport in yeast, 157 uptake patterns by yeast, 153, 156-158, 160

Ammonia, 11 Ammonium

grape content, 81

malolactic, 264-265 transport in yeast, 157 uptake by yeast, 154, 159 yeast growth, 159-160

Ampelography, 17 Anaerobic

bacteria, 568 conditions, 405-406, 422 TCA pathway, 128

Analysis chemical, 543-544 sensory, 544-547

difference, 417,545-546 hedonic, 4, 417-418, 546-547 panel selection, 544

Anthocyanins, 34, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 408, 412, 419

acylation of, 44 copigmentation, 44, 224 glucosides of, 44, 90 individual, 223 ionization of, 223 polymerization of, 233 solubilization of, 224

Antimicrobial additives diethyl dicarbonate, 434 dimethyl dicarbonate, 434 sorbic acid, 434 sulfur dioxide, 84, 454

Antioxidant ascorbic acid, 465 sulfur dioxide, 464

Arginine, 25, 46 degradation pathway, 162-164 malolactic bacteria, 264-265

Aroma, 18-20,31, 33, 34,46,49-51, 383, 387,398, 424

Arthrospores, 116 Ascomycetes, 104 Ascorbic acid, 52, 83, 84, 408

laccase substrate, 84 Ascospores, 111-113 Assimilation

nitrate, 114 nitrogen compounds, 114

Astringency, 41, 46, 402, 410 ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) 127, 132, 135-137 ATPase, 525

ethanol toxicity, 171, 172 exchange reaction, 524 in berries, 525 in yeast, 157 malolactic, 272 potassium gain by, 524 proton loss by, 524

Autolysis, 135

B

Bag-in-box, 420 Bacilli spoilage, 377-378 Bacillus (see Bacilli) Bacteria, malolactic and flavor, 248-250 Bacteria spores, (see Bacilli) Bacteria/yeast, interaction, malolactic, 254 Bacteriophage, malolactic, 250-260 Balling scale, 194 Barnyard odor, Brettanomyces, 365 Barrels, 393, 399-406 (see also Oak, Staves, Wood,

Trees) construction, 400, 403-405 contamination, 393,405 management, 405-406 pretreatment, 406 sensory effect, 400-403 shape, 399 size, 400 surface, 399-400

Basidiomycetes, 104 Batch cooling (see Cooling) Batch fed fermentation (see Syruped fermentation) BATF regulations, 6, 418, 551-556 Baume scale, 194 Belgium beer, (see Lambie) Bentonite, 281-283, 284-285 Bentotest, 341 Berry composition, 35-52, 39

acids, 41 alcohols, 41 aroma compounds, 49 carbohydrates, 40 climatic variation, 37 lipids, 48 minerals, 40 miscellaneous compounds, 51 nitrogenous substances, 46-48 phenols, 42 populations, 57 terpenoids, 49 vitamins, 51

Berry development, 35 enlargement, 35-38

Biotin, 82, 134 Bisulfite (see Sulfur dioxide) Bitterness, 41, 46, 410 Blastospores, 116 Blending, 26, 384-385, 388, 392-393, 415-421

fractional, 420 (see also Solera) mathematics of, 418-421 objectives, 416-418 restrictions, 416

Blue fining, 287-288 Blush wine (see White table wine, Rose wine) BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), 562

Botrytis cinerea, 37, 122, 217 J3-g1ucan, 90, 217 gluconic acid, 37, 41 laccase, 37, 83, 218, 408 oxygen uptake in juices, 83

Bottle aging, 391, 420, 424 Bottled wine

heating/ cooling calculations, 443 pressures in, 440 storage temperatures, 423, 442 time to cool, 443

Bottling corking, 438 de dusting, 437 filling, 437 gas exchange during, 439 labelling, 438 operations, 435-442 preparation for, 427 quality control, 435 room, 437

Bouquet, 383, 420, 424 fermentation, 398

Index 587

Bouquet garni of sulfite and tartrate, 361 Brandy, 2

higher alcohols effect on, 153 Brettanomyces, 103-104, 107, 112

barrels, 367 cellobiose, 368 control, 367-369 Custer's effect, 367 detection, 365-366 glucose, 368 identification, 366-367 Lambic beer, 365,368 off odors, 365 origins, 353-354 prevention, 365 scenario, spoilage origins, 353-354 spoilage, 364-369 sterile bottling, 368 wine species, 368

Brix, 34, 37, 39,41,54-58 Brix/acid,55 potential ethanol, 196 scale, 194 temperature corrections, 195

Browning, 43, 235 juice, 43, 83 wine, 235, 406-415, 442-442, 467

Bubble point, 430-431 Budding, (buds)

vines, 27, 29 yeast, 105

multilateral, 113 Buffer capacity, 526

effect of pH, 526-528

588 Index

Buffer capacity (cont.) equations for, 527 estimated values, 529 measurement, 528

Bulk aging (see Maturation) 2,3-Butane diol

in extract, 138 malolactic, 250

Butyric acid, Brettanomyces, 365 Byproducts, 2, 8-9

c

CabernetSauTIgnon, 46, 50,51, 386,423 Caffeic acid, 42, 408, 412-415 Caffeoyl tartrate (see Caftaric acid) Caftaric acid, 41-43, 408-409, 412 Calcium, 323 Calcium carbonate, 85-86, 534

media, 375-376 Calcium malate, 85 Calcium mucate, 338 Calcium tartrate

concentration product, 322, 335 crystallization rate, 335 in deacidification, 85 seeded rate test, 336 solubility, 322 stability testing, 336

Calcium sulfate, 337 California and Europe, grape juices, 125 Candida, 115

ropy wines, 371 spoilage yeast, 361

Canopy management (see Vineyard management) Cap management, 122 (see also Pump-over opera-

tion) Carbohydrates, 40-41 Carbon (see Activated carbon) Carbon dioxide

effect on acidity, 434 hazard, 7, 10 levels in bottled wine, 433 release during fermentation, 198 venting of cellars, 433

Carbonic maceration, 236 malolactic, 251-252

Casein, 283 Casse, 338 Catabolite repression (see Glucose repression) Catalase test, 568

for lactic acid bacteria, 263-264 Catechin, 44, 45-46, 408, 412 Cations, 323, 338 Cell counting, 569-571 (see Microscopic cell

counting) Cell diTIsion, types of in yeast, 105

Cellobiose, Brettanomyces and, 368 Cellulose fibers, 297 Centrifugal pumps, 477 Centrifuge(s)

decanting (scroll), 78, 293 desludging (disc), 77, 291

Champagne, malolactic, 253 Chardonnay, 386,423 Chromosomes, yeast 120, 121 Cider, mousey, 372-273 Cinnamate decarboxylase, Brettanomyces, 365-366 Clarification, 75-79, 289-305

centrifuges, 291,293 juice, 75 natural settling, 289 settling aids, 290 wine, 289, 293

Clearing, calcium carbonate media, 375-376 Climate, 15, 20, 24, 30-32

variation in, 37-39, 46 Climatic region, 24, 30-32, 37-38 Clones, 16, 17 Closures

cork (see Cork) plastic, 421-422 screw cap (see Screw cap)

Cluster parts, 40, 59 COD (chemical oxygen demand), 562 Cold soak (see Skin contact) Cold stability (see Potassium bitartrate) Cold storage, 388, 389, 424 (see also Refrigeration) Colloidal stability, 344 Colloids, 286, 344 Color extraction (see Red table wines) Color phenomena

browning in red wine, 235 changes during aging, 233-235 effect of pH, 223 effect of S02' 223 in red wines, 224 red monomer contributions, 233 red polymer formation, 233 rates of red polymer formation, 233

Complex flavor, 387-388, 392, 420 Concentrated juice, 2, 8-9

Zygosaccharomyces, 363 Concord, 417 Condensed tannin, 45 ConductiTIty

effect of pH, 329 in seeded tests, 328, 330

Conjugation, yeast, 111, 114 Consumer Preferences, 23, 383, 387, 420, 424 (see

also Analysis, sensory, hedonic; Marketing) Containers

concrete, 394 experimental,540-541

plastic, 394 steel, 394, 398 (see Stainless steel) wooden (see Barrels)

Continuous de juicers, 75 Control of

Brettanomyces spoilage, 367-369 malolactic fermentation, 254

Coolers, 2 Cooling

of bottled wine, 443 of must, 493 of juice, 495, 497, 499 ofwine,495,497,499

Cooper, 403 Cooperage, 394 (see Barrels, Oak, Wooden

cooperage) Copigmentation, 244 Copper

in grapes, 35, 339 limits in wines, 338 pickup, 339, 394

Copper sulfate removal of sulfide, thiol with, 289

Cork, 383, 390, 420-422 corkiness, 360, 422 off-odor (see Trichloroanisole)

Corkers, heated jaws, 438 Cos~,4-5, 384, 386, 398, 400, 420, 424 Coumaric (p) acid, 42 (see Coutaric acid) Counting chambers, 569-571 Coutaric acid, 42, 43, 412 Crabtree effect, 130, (see also Glucose, inhibition

and repression) Crop level, 32-34 (see also Vineyard management) Crossflow filtration, 78, 303 Crushers, 66 Crushing, 57, 60, 65-68

special conditions botrytised berries, 68 carbonic maceration, 68 stem addition (retention), 68 whole berry, 67 whole cluster, 68

Cryptoccus, 115 Crystallization

processes, 331 rates, 325

Cufex (see Potassium ferrocyanide) Cultivation of wine microbes, 358-359 Custer's effect, Brettanomyces, 367 Cycloheximide

Brettanomyces identification, 366-367 inhibition of yeast, 113, 358 toxicity, 366

o

Damascenone, 50 DAP (see Diammonium phosphate) Deacidification

Index 589

carbonate treatmen~, 85, 534 malolactic fermentation, 245-247, 534

Debaryomyces, 114, 115 as spoilage yeast, 361

Decanter (see Centrifuges) DEDC (see Diethyl dicarbonate) Degree-days, 30-32 Dehiscent yeast, Ill, 114 Dekkera, 107 (see also Brettanomyces) Density scales, 193

Balling, 194 Baume, 194 Brix, 194 Klosterneuburg, 195 Oeschle, 194 Plato, 195

Density segregation, 58 Dessert wines, 2, 390, 397 (see also Port, Muscatels,

Sherries) Destemming, 59, 65 Detection,

Brettanomyces spoilage, 365-366 malolactic, 248-250,260-261

Deuteromycetes, 104 Diacetyl

malolactic bacteria, 249 yeast, 249

Diammonium phosphate, 80 Diaphragm pump, 476 Diethyl dicarbonate, 434 Diffusion

facilitated, 155-156 simple, 155

Direct heat transfer liquid CO2 , 513 solid CO2 , 512

Dissolved carbon dioxide, 432 acidity effects, 434

Dissolved oxygen, 70, 88, 432 Diatomaceous earth, 295 Dimer,45 Dimethyl dicarbonate, 434

malolactic, 259, 369-370 microbial stabilization by, 363

Disulfides cleavage by sulfite, 463

DMDC (see Dimethyl dicarbonate) Dormancy, leaf drop, 29, 32 Double salt deacidification, 85, 86 Drainers, 73

early models, 74 contemporary 74 screens, 75

Dyer varieties, 23 (see also Anthocyanins)

590 Index

E

Economics, 3-6, 24, 26, 27, 383-386, 418 of scale, 5, 384

Efflux, lactic acid, 272 Ehrlich reaction, 152, 165-166 Ellagitannins, 44, 402 (see also Tannins) Electricity consumption, 517 Electron transport chain, 127-128, 130 Electrophoresis, malolactic bacteria, 269 Elemental sulfur (see Sulfur) End products

of malolactic, 248-250 of nitrogen metabolism, 164-167 of yeast metabolism, 146-153

Energy conservation, 517 Enrichment cultures, 103-104 Enzymatic analysis, malic acid, 261 Enzyme additions

glucanase, 90 glycosidase, 90 pectinases, 89

Epicatechin gallate, 45 Erythorbic acid (see Ascorbic acid) Esters, 423

composition in wine, 178 formation during aging, 398 formation during fermentation, 178-180

in relation to higher alcohols, 150 hydrolysis, 180 loss during aging, 424 yeast strain, 180

Ethanol and malolactic, 255, 258 as end product, 146 effect on pKas, 531 inhibition of yeast growth, 142 loss during fermentation, 139, 205-206 rate of formation, 144, 149 toxicity of yeast, 170-171 yield, 137-138, 195

Ethanol precipitation test, 342-343 Ethanol tolerance in yeast, (see also Ethanol

toxicity) adaptation in yeast, 177-178 alcohol dehydrogenase, 177 enzyme denaturation, 172 intracellular concentration, 172 membrane fluidity, 177 Saccharomyces, 125 survival factors, 171, 177 wine and nonwine strains, 177 yeast growth and fermentation, 172

Ethanol toxicity, (see also Ethanol tolerance) ATP-ase activity, 171, 172 enzyme denaturation, 172 glucose repression, 171

survival factors, 171, 177 yeast, 170-172

2-Ethoxyhex-3,5-diene (see Geranium off-odor) Ethyl acetate, 179 Ethyl bitartrate, 398-399, 420 Ethyl caproate, 50 Ethyl carbamate, 25, 166-167

malolactic, 265 4-Ethyl guaiacol, Brettanomyces, 365-366 4-Ethyl phenol, Brettanomyces, 365-366 2-Ethyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridines, 372-373 Europe and California, grape juices, 125 Euvitis, 14 Evaporation

during aging, 398, 405-406 during fermentation, 204

ethanol, 204, 406 water, 205, 406

Exchange capacity, 284 Experimental wines, 539-547

analysis of, 543 controls, 542 lot size, 540 replication, 542 sampling of, 541 sensory evaluation of, 543

Exposure (see Sunlight, Canopy management) Exposure limits, 564-565

average values, 564 Extended maceration (see Skin contact) Extract

in juices, 195, 196 in wines, 138-139 nomogram for wine, 139

Extraction, 40 (see also Red table wine)

F

FADH/FADH2 (Flavine adenine dinucleotide), 127 Fats (see Lipids) Fatty acids

survival factors, 171 Fermentation(s) (see also Malolactic fermentation)

barrel, 198, 202-204 biochemistry, 126-137 bouquet, 178 carbon dioxide release, 198 cooling

jackets, 202 heat exchangers, 202

effect of inert solids, 213 effect of nutrition, 169-170 effect of temperature, 145 end product of fermentation, 146 heat release, 145, 200 incomplete (see sluggish/stuck,) inoculations, 123

kinetics of, 141-146 mixed, 125 modeling, 207 monitoring, 206

aggregate measures, 207 point sampling, 206

natural, 124 non induced (see natural) rates of, 141, 144-145 sluggish/stuck, 134, 168

ethanol toxicity, 170-172 nutrient deficiency, 134, 169 temperature effect, 173 toxins as cause, 172-173

spontaneous (see natural) temperature rise, 200 tests, 114, 118 volume changes during, 203 (see also Malolactic)

Fermentors barrels as, 202-204 circulation patterns in, 211 cleaning, 210 expansion and contraction, 209 filling and emptying, 209 gas venting, 209 headspace (ullage), 210 rotary, 211 shapes, 210 upright, 210

Ferocious lactobacilli, 268, 371 Ferrocyanide (see Potassium ferrocyanide) Fertaric acid, 42 Ferulic acid, 42 Field crushing, 66 Fillers, sterile bottling, 437-438 Filters

cartridge, 302 charged-modified media, 431 crossflow, 303 diatomaceous earth, 295 lees, 78 membrane, 302 pad, 299, 300 plate and frame, 300 pressure leaf, 295 rotary vacuum, 78 sheet, 300

Filterability Exponential equation, 309 Crossflow equation, 312 indices of, 308 models for, 308 Power equation, 310 Sperry equation, 309 testing, 307, 312

Filtration crossflow, 303 diatomaceous earth, 295 pad or sheet, 299, 300 prediction of, 308 measures of capacity, 313 membrane, 428 sterile, 428

Fining adsorption models, 281 agents, 281, 282 levels of addition, 283

Fire, 11-12 Fission, yeast, 105 Fittings, 482 Flammability limits, 564-565 Flash point, 565 Flavan-3-01s (see Catechin) Flavonoid phenols, 42, 44, 45-46

Index 591

extraction during red fermentations, 225 from skin contact, 69, 212

Flavor, 383, 387-388, 392, 420, 422 malolactic fermentation, 248-250

Flavor production, by yeast strain, 118 Flavored wines, Special Natural, vermouths, 2 Flexible impeller pumps, 476 Fortified wines, 237

aging, 238 fermentation temperatures, 237 must handling, 237 selection of spirit, 237 spoilage, 371-372 timing of fortification, 237

Fraturia genera, 374-375 in juices, 374

Freezing of wine bottles, 441 Freons,514 Freundlich equation, 280 Frictional loss in pipelines, 478

expansions/contractions, 485 fi ttings, 482 length, 481 nomogram for predicting, 487 valves, 483

Frost, 27, 29 Fructophilic yeast, 140, 363 Fructose, 39, 41, 53, 158

malolactic, 271 metabolism (see Glycolysis) transport in yeast, 158

Fruit wines, 2 Fumaric acid, 434

malolactic, 259 Furfural, 423 Fusel alcohol(s) (see Higher alcohols) Fusel oil(s) (see Higher alcohols)

592 Index

G

Galacturonic acid, 41 (see Pectin) Gallic acid, gallates, 42, 43, 45, 408, 412-414 Gallotannins, 44 (see also Ellagitannins) Gas

inert handling, 70 pressure transfers of wine, 489 release during fermentation, 198, 207 solubility in wines

carbon dioxide, 204, 432 nitrogen, 432 oxygen, 432 temperature effects, 432

Gelatin combination with silica sol, 288, 289 properties, 283

Genus identification, yeast, 105 Geraniol, 50 (see also Terpenoids) Geranium off-odor, 363, 434 Gewurztraminer, 417 Glass, 422 Glossary, 574-583 ~Glucanase, 90, 346 ~Glucans, 90 Gluconic acid, 37, 41 Gluconobacter, 374-376 Glucophilic yeast, 140 Glucose, 39, 41, 53

binding kinetics, 461 binding with bisulfite, 460 Brettanomyces, 368 effect on free S02 determination, 461 inactivation by, 141 inhibition of fermentation, 171 metabolism (see Glycolysis) repression, 130, 140-141 transport in yeast, 158

Glutathione, 51, 408-409 effect on juice browning, 51 levels in juice, 51 reaction with caftaric acid, 42, 81

2-S-Glutathionyl caftaric acid, 42 Glycerol

formation during fermentation, 137, 146-148 Glycolysis, 126-128, 135-140

byproducts from, 138 enzymes of, 136 glycolytic pathway, 135-138 regulation of, 139-140

Glycosidases, 90, 347 anthocyanase, 90 terpene release, 90

Glyoxylate pathway, 131-132 Grafting, 15 Grape(s)

composition (see Berry composition)

cultivars for wine (see variety, Viticulture) harvesting, 4, 29

machine, 21, 59 manual,59 practices, 59-60

juice concentrate (see Concentrated juice) natural microflora, 122 pests, pesticides, 14, 15, 34-35 sampling, 55-57 size, weight, 35-37, 40, 53-54, 58 species, 14-16 spoilage microbes, 353 temperature, 34 tissue proportions, 40 variety, 16, 17-24, 39 (see also Variety, Varietal,

Hybrid) yeasts associated with, 103 yield,24

Grapegrower, 13-14 Grape juice(s), nutrients of, 125 Grapevine

buds, budding, 27, 29 dormancy, 29, 32

Gravity transfers, 488 Growing season, 27-29, 30-31 Growth factors (see Oxygen, Sterols, Vitamins)

survival factors, 171, 172 GRP (glutathione reaction product), 42, 43, 408,

409 (see also Browning, Glutathione)

H

Hansenula, higher alcohols, 153 Harvest (see also Grape, Ripeness)

logistics, 52 sampling for, 52-53, 55-58 timing, 29,52

Harvest criteria, 52-58 acidity, 53-54 Brix, 53-54 date, 53 other, 54 sugar, 53 weight, 54

Hausser chambers, 569-571 Hazards, 6, 7-12, Appendix E Haze protecting factor, 342, 345 Headspace (see Ullage) Heartwood, 403-404 (see also Wood) Heat, 389-390, 424 (see also Time-temperature) Heating

applications, 492 high-temperature short-time, 88, 343, 345 inactivation of PPO, laccase, 88, 89 release during fermentation, 200

Heat exchangers FT factor, 503 heat transfer units, 503

pressure loss, 504 selection, 502 transfer coefficients, 504-505 types, 505

Heat resistant bacteria, (see Bacilli) Heat transfer

fermentation cooling, 201 heat recovery, 502 high-temperature short-time, 493 juice cooling, 497, 499, 506 must cooling, 497, 499, 507 wine cooling, 497,499,506 wine to wine interchange, 502

Heat transfer calculations batch heating/cooling, 495 mixed fluid, 495 unmixed fluid, 500

Hemocytometer, 569-571 Heterolactic fermentation, 264,266 cis-3-Hexen-1-al, 50 Hexoses (see Fructose, Glucose) High-temperature short-time, 88, 343

plate heat exchanger for, 493, 507 stabilization of wine, 362

Higher alcohols, 150-153 amounts in wine, 152 control offormation, 152-153, 166 formation, 164-166 from amino acids, 152, 164-166 from glucose, 150-153 function, 166 Hansenula, 153 pathways of formation, 150-151, 165 Sake fermentation, 171 Schizosaccharomyces, 153 yeast

genus, 153 species, 150 strain, 150, 153

Histamine, malolactic, 250 Histidine, malolactic, 250 History, 15, 16, 383, 400 Homolactic fermentation, 264, 266 Horsey odor, Brettanomyces, 365 Hoses, friction loss in, 478, 486 Hot bottling, stabilization of wine, 362 HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography),

413-414 HSU, Heat summation units, 30 (see also Degree-

days) HTST (see High-temperature short-time) Hubach test, 288 Hybrid, 15, 23 Hydrogen acceptors, malolactic, 271 Hydrogen peroxide, 408, 410

from ascorbic acid oxidation, 469 from phenol oxidation, 408, 469

in catalase test, 568 reaction with ethanol, 408, 469 reaction with sulfite, 469

Hydrogen sulfide, 11, 35, 387 causes of, 173 removal, 289 role of

amino nitrogen, 175 elemental sulfur, 174 other factors, 176 pantothenic acid deficiency, 175 presence of sulfite, 175

Hydrometer scales, 193 Hydroquinones, 407-409

Index 593

regeneration of, 408-409 Hydroxybenzoates, 42-43 (see also Gallic acid) 3-Hydroxy-2-butanone, (see Acetoin) Hydroxycinnamates, 42 (see also Caftaric acid) Hydroxymethyl furfural, 97 Hyperoxidation, 87 Hypochlorite, 559

Identification Brettanomyces spoilage, 366-367 examples, yeast, 109 importance of, 357-358 yeast genera, 105,108 yeast races, 117 yeast species, 118 yeast strains, 118

Immobilized agents, 346 Immobilized enzymes, 346 Incomplete fermentation (see Fermentation) Indigenous yeast, 103 Inert gas handling, 70 Inert solids, 91,213 Inhibition of malolactic, 257-260 In-line additions, 71, 489

flow measurement, 490 mixing in pipeline, 490 suspension metering, 490

Inoculation alcoholic fermentation, 123 bacteria, 256-257 yeast, 197

Integrity testing (see Membrane filters) Ion exchange

acidity adjustment, 86 nutrient depletion by, 86 resin lifetime, 86

Ionization of acids activity coefficients, 532 effect of ethanol, 531 effect of ion strength, 533 effect of sugar, 531 estimation of pKas, 530, 533

594 Index

Iron, 338 Irrigation, 26, 33, 34, 57 Isinglass, 283 Isoamyl acetate, 178-180 Isoamyl alcohol, 150, 165 Isoelectric point

of fining proteins, 283 of protein-tannin complexes, 284 of wine proteins, 339

Isolation of wine microbes, 358-359 Isoprenoids (see Terpenoids)

Jackets, cooling, 511 Juice

K

and skin separation, 73 clarification (see Clarification) conditioning, 79

acidity,84 aeration, 87 enzyme additions, 88 high-temperature short-time, 88 inert solids, 91, 213 nutrient additions, 80 S02 additions, 82

cooling storage alternatives, 95

crossflow microfiltration, 78,96 evaporative concentration, 96 membrane concentration, 97 refrigeration, 96 sulfiting, 95

white, clarification, 75 centrifuging, 77 filtration, 78 flotation, 79 natural settling, 76

Karyogamic analysis malolactic bacteria, 269

Karyotype analysis yeast strain, 120

a-Keto glutaric acid, 147 binding with bisulfite, 460 effect on free S02 determination, 461 in amino acid metabolism, 147

Kieselsol (see Silica sol) Killer factor, 170 Kloeckera, 109-110, 112 Klosterneuburg scale, 195

L

Laccase, 37, 83, 218, 408 and ascorbic acid, 84 inactivation by sulfite, 83 substrates, 83

Lactic acid bacteria (see Malolactic bacteria) Lactic acid, efflux of, 272 D-Lactic acid end product, 265, 268-270 L-Lactic acid end product, 265, 268-270 Lactobacilli

ferocious, 268, 371 malolactic, 268

Lactobacillus bavaricus, 268 brevis,269 buchneri, 269 casei,268 conjusus, 265 curuatus, 268 fermenti, 268 fermentum, 269 jructivurans, 269

fortified wine, 372 surface growth, 355, 358

hilgardii, 268, 269 homohiochii, 268 kejrr,269 murinus, 268 plantarum, 268 sake,268 trichodes, 268 (see jructivurans) viridescens, 265

Lactococci malolactic, 272

Lambic beer Brettanomyces, 365, 368

Langmuir equation, 280 Lead,338 Lees filter, 78 Leucine-less mutant, higher alcohol production,

153, 165 Leuconostoc omos, defined, 265-266 Leuconostocs

ammonia, 264-265 arginine, 264-265 malolactic, 265-266

Levy-Hausser counting chambers, 569-571 Light, 394, 422 (see also Sunlight) Lignans, 402 Linalool, 50, 423 (see also Terpenoids, Muscat) Lipids, 48-49

bloom, 48 oil, seed, 48 ripening indicator, 49 wax, 48

Lobe pumps (see Rotary vane pumps)

M

Maderization, 390, 391 (see also Heat, Oxidation) Magnesium, 323

Malate carboxy lyase, 269,279 Malate-lactate transhydrogenase, 270 Malate oxidase, 270 Malic acid analyses, 261 Malic dehydrogenase, 270 Malolactic bacteria

ammonia, 264-265 cultivation, 263 descriptions, 262-263 flavor effects, 248-250 genus identification, 264-265 identification, 263-268 intermediary metabolism, 269-272 microaerophilic, 263-264 species identification, 265-268

Malolactic fermentation, 244-273 acidulation after, 246 ATP, 270-272 bacteriological stability, 247 control, 254 conversion, 245-247 deacidification, 245-247 detection of, 260-261 diacetyl, 248-250 dimethyl dicarbonate, 259, 369-370 enzyme, 269, 270 ethanol, 255 fumaric acid, 259 histamine, 250 induction, 270 inhibition, 257-260 interaction yeast/bacteria, 254 NAD + jNADH, 270-272 nutrients, 255-256 oxygen, 256 pH, 246, 255, 369-370 pyruvic acid, 270 red wine, 251-252 sparkling wines, 253 spoilage, 369-373 stability, bacteriological, 247 starter cultures, 256-257 sterile bottling, 258-259 stimulation, 254-256, 270 strain assessment, 543 strain identification, 268-269 sulfur dioxide, 255, 257 sur lies, 252 temperature, 255, 259 thermodynamics, 270 titratable acidity, 246-247 Vinhos Verdes, 251, 253 white wine, 252-253 wine style, 251-253

Malvidin-3-glucoside, 42, 44, 223-224, 407, 410, 412 Mannite (see Mannitol spoilage) Mannitol spoilage, 373

Index 595

Marketing, 4, 6, 385, 390, 424 (see also Consumer preferences)

Maturation, 382-424 (see also Aging) bulk,393 containers, 393-398 inevitability, 383, 385 objectives, 386-388 practices, 393-397, 390 rapid, 388, 424 reactions, 398 traditional, 383, 390-393 variables, 398-399

Mechanical harvesting, 21, 59 Media formulas, Appendix F Membrane filters, integrity testing, 430-431 Membrane filtration, quality control, 435-437 (see

also Filtration, Sterile filtration) Membrane fluidity

ethanol, 171 ethanol tolerance, 177

Membrane permeability, ethanol, 171 Membrane separations

juice concentration, 97, 307 ethanol removal, 306

Mercaptans (see Thiols) Metabisulfite (see Sulfur dioxide) Metafine (see Potassium ferrocyanide) Metal content, 338 Metal depletion methods, 288

chelating resins, 288 potassium ferrocyanide, 287

Metering, of juices, musts, 70-72 2-Methoxy-3-isobutyl pyrazine, 50 2-Methyl butanol, 150 3-Methyl butanol, 150 Methylene blue stain, cell counting, 569-571 Metschnikowia, 117

spoilage yeast, 361 Microaerophilic bacteria, 263 Microbes, wine, origins of, 353-354 (see also Wine

microbes and Spoilage microbes) Microbiological control, 352-378 Microbiological media, 566-567 Microbiological spoilage, 352-378

defined,353 diagnoses, 354-356 major classes, 357 names of, 356-357 origins of, 353 prevention, (see also Stabilization), 354 succession of microbes, 357

Microbiological stabilization, (see also Sterile filtra­tion, Sterile bottling)

physical means, 362 chemical means, 362-363

Microclimate, 24

596 Index

Microfiltration, 304 immobilized agents, enzymes, 305 recovery of bacteria, yeast, 305 sterile juice, 304

Microscope, requirements, 354 Microscopic methods, cell counting, 569-571 Mildew, 15, 34, 35 Minerals,

ash,40 in yeast, 134

Mitochondria, yeast, 126 MOG (material other than grapes), 59 Molds, 122 Mold spoilage, 360-369 Molecular S02

effects of pH on, 450 requirements for yeast, 455-457 requirements for bacteria, 456-457

Monitoring (see Fermentation) Montmorillonite (see Bentonite) Morphology, yeast, 105 Most probable number, of spoilage organisms, 356 Mousey

cider, 372-373 wine

Brettanomyces, 365, 372-373 Lactobacillus, 372-373

Mousiness, 417 MPN, (see Most probable number) Muscadine, 14, 15 Muscats, muscatel, 49, 387, 397, 417 (see also

Terpenoids) Must

cooling, 70 handling, 66, 68, 73 measurement, 70 pumps (see Pumps) transfer, 66

Mute, 2, 8-9 Mycelium, yeast, 116

N

NAD+ /NADH (see Nicotinamide dinucleotide) NADP+ /NADPH (see Nicotinamide dinucleotide,

phosphate) Natural fermentations, 124 Natural microflora, grapes and wineries, 122 Natural settling, 76, 289 Nicotiamide dinucleotide, 127

malolactic, 270-272 phosphate, 127

Nisin, malolactic, 259 Nitrate assimilation, 114 Nitrogen, 10, 394, 406

amino acid degradation, 154 amino acid metabolism, 155

content of grapes, 46-48 fertilization, 39, 46 free amino (FAN), 81 metabolism during fermentation, 153-167

effect on glycolysis, 167 higher alcohol formation, 164 intracellular pools, 160 preference, 159 transport, 153, 157 urea formation, 166 utilization pathway, 161

gas (see also Inert gas handling) sources, for bacteria, 255-256 sources, for yeast, 46, 48, 132, 169 transport in yeast, 153, 157

Nonfiltered wine, spoilage organisms in, 356 Nonspore formers, yeast, 115 Nucleation (see Crystallization, rate) Nutrient:{s)

o

deficiency, 169 malolactic, 255-256

Oak (see also Barrels, Staves, Tree, Wood) aging (see Maturation) chips, 403 composition, 401-402 extraction,402,403,406 flavor, 387, 391, 400-403 lactone, 402 phenols, 401, 402

Oechsle scale, 194 Off-flavors, 545 Oidium Operations, sequence of, 6, 8-9 Osmotic distillation, 97, 307 Overcropping, 32-34, 54 Oxidase enzymes

phenol oxidase (PPO), 82 laccase, 83, 218

Oxidation, 41, 43, 388, 391, 406-415 (see also Browning, Polyphenol oxidase)

capacity,410-411 chemistry,412-414 conditions, 410-411 desirable levels, 411-412 products, 413-415 reactions, 413-415 substrates, 407-410, 412-415

Oxidation-reduction potentials, 391, 408, 410, 4 Oxidative phosphorolation, 127, 130 Oxygen, 406-407

capacity, 407, 410-411 consumption, in wines, 465, 466 dissolved levels, in wine, 432 malolactic, 256

p

penetration of staves, cork, 405, 407, 422 saturation, 432 survival factors, 171 uptake by juices, 83 yeast requirements, 171 yeast viability, 171

Pad filtration (see Filtration) Paper chromatography, malolactic, 261 Pantothenic acid, 87 Pasteur

discovery of basis of fermentation, 152 effect, 134, 139, 141, 142 microscopic drawings, 357 naming of spoilages, 357 optical activity, higher alcohols, 152

Pectic enzymes, 89, 346 Pectin, 41, 89 Pediococci

malolactic, 266-268 nonmalolactic, 263

Pentose phosphate pathway, 133 Pentoses, 41 Petite mutants, yeast, 126 Petroff-Hausser counting chambers, 569-571 pH, 25, 39, 41, 44, 54, 55, 57, 410

changes in acidification, 534 deacidification, 534 malolactic, 255, 258 precipitation of tartrates, 535-537

effect on anthocyanin color, 233 ascorbic acid activity, 84 bacterial growth, 258 browning of wine, 410, 413 bitartrate ion form, 322 malolactic, 369-370 protein solubility, 339, 341-342 protein-tannin solubility, 346 sulfur dioxide activity, 449-451

Phage, (see Bacteriophage) Phenethyl alcohol, 150, 151 Phenols, 410, 411, (see also Anthocyanins, Caftaric

acid, Catechins, Flavonoids, Tannins) browning due to, 406-410 classification of, 41-46 levels in grapes, 40, 41-46 levels in press fractions, 93-94 oak, 401, 402 oxidation of, 407-415 peroxide formation from, 408, 469

Phenolase (see Polyphenol oxidase) Phloroglucinol, 408-409, 412 Phylwxera, 15

Pichia, 114, 115, 117 as spoilage yeast, 361

Pigment patterns, 223 Pinot noir, 225 Piperidines, mousey wine, 372-373 Piston pumps, 475 Planning, 3-6, 14 Planting, 14 Plasma membrane, 126 Plate heat exchanger, 507 Plating of microbes, 355 Plato scale, 195 Poisson distribution, 356

Index 597

Polyamine(s} synthesis pathway, 165 (see also Putrescine)

Polyphenol oxidase, (Phenolase) activity, in grapes, 83 browning of juices, 83, 409 inactivation by heat, 88 inhibition by bisulfite, 83 oxygen uptake in juices, 83, 408

Polysaccharides arabans, 345 arabinogalactans, 345 from fermentation, 345 f3-glucan, 345 in juices, 345 in wines, 344 mannan,345 removal during ultrafiltration, 345 rhamnogalacturans, 345 ropy wines, 371

Polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVPP), 286 Pomace contact, 388 (see also Skins, Seeds) Pomace handling, 95 Population distribution, 57-58 Port-type wines, 397

spoilage, 371-372 Positive displacement pumps, 475 Postmalolactic operations, 262 Potassium, 39, 40, 54, 55, 323 Potassium bitartrate, 25, 39, 54

concentration product, 322, 327 content, 321 instability, 321 saturation temperature tests, 331 seeded conductivity tests, 328, 330

Davis, 328-330 others, 331

solubility, 321 stability tests, 327, 330-331 stabilization processes, 331

Potassium ferrocyanide, 287 Potassium metabisulfite (see Sulfur dioxide) Potential alcohol, 195 Pousse spoilage, 357 PPO (see Polyphenol oxidase)

598 Index

Pre coating filters, 297 Preference (see Analysis, sensory, hedonic;

Consumer preference) Premeur wines, (see Vins nouveaux) Premium wines, 385-386, 390, 422 Preservation, 383 Presses

batch,91 basket, 92 bladder, 92 membrane, 92-93 moving-head, 92

continuous, 92 belt,94 impulse, 94 screw, 92, 94

Pressing composition during, 93, 95 direct, 219 role of, 91 samples 57 whole clusters, 67, 219

Pressure in bottled wine decrease in temperature, 440 during freezing, 441 increase in temperature, 440

Prevention acetic acid bacteria spoilage, 374 Brettanomyces spoilage, 365

Problem fermentations (see Fermentation) Procyanidins, 46 (see also Tannins) Progressive cavity pumps, 476 Proline, 25, 47-48

degradation pathway, 163 I-Propanol, 150 Propyl alcohol, 150, 165 Protease, immobilized, 346 Protective colloids, 344 Protein stability, 47

assays, 341 comparison of, 344

factors influencing solubility, 339 fining agents, 283 fractions in wine, 339-340 precipitation by tannin, 46 stability testing, 341

chemical tests, 341, 344 ethanol precipitation test, 342, 344 heat tests, 341, 344

stabilization methods, 343 Protein-tannin complexes, 289, 346 Proton motive force (see Lactic acid efflux), 272 Proton symport, 156-157, 158,272 Proton yield, 535-536 Pruning, 32, 33, 34 Pseudomycelium, yeast, 116 Pulsed-gel electrophoresis, yeast identification, 121

Pump(s) characteristics, 477 types, 474

Pumping and transfer calculations, 478 Pump-over operation, 229 Purification of wine microbes, 358-359 Putrescine, 51-52 PVPP (see Polyvinyl polypyrrolidone) Pyrazines, 46, 50 Pyridines, mousey wine, 372-373 Pyruvate carboxylase, 148 Pyruvic acid

Q

binding kinetics, 461 binding with bisulfite, 459 effect on free S02 determination, 461 formation during fermentation, 147-148 malolactic, 270

Quality, 33, 386, 410, 411, 422 (see also Analysis, sensory, hedonic; Consumer preference)

Quality control membrane filtration, 435-437 sterile bottling, 435-437

Quarter sawing, 403-404 Quercus, 400-401, 422 (see also Oak) Quick aging, 388, 424 Quinates

malolactic, 271,272 Quinone(s), 407-408, 410, 412, 414

bisulfite binding, 451 formation, 450 reduction of, 451

R

Racking arm, 77 Raisin, raisining, 21 Rates of

anthocyanin extraction, 225-227 anthocyanin polymerization, 233 browning, wine, 442, 463 cell growth, 142, 145 cell death, 144, 458 cell maintenance, 142 change in density, 144 crystallization, 325, 335 enzyme inactivation, 88, 89 ester hydrolysis, 178, 180 ethanol formation, 144 fermentation, 143-144 fermentation heat release, 145 filtration,309-312,313 flavonoid extraction, 225 oxygen consumption,juice, 83 oxygen consumption, wine, 442-443, 465

sugar consumption, 142-143 sulfur dioxide loss, wine, 442, 445 tannin extraction, 227-230 thiamin cleavage by sulfite, 462

Red color, pigments (see Anthocyanins) Red table wine, 386, 410-411, 423

aging, 233 carbonic maceration, 236 color extraction, 223-227 component extraction, 221-224

anthocyanins,223-224,225-227 flavonoids, 225 procyanidins, 223 tannins, 223, 227-230

extended maceration, 222 fermentation temperature, 228 fining, 235 malolactic fermentation, 232 malolactic style, 251-252 pump-over operation, 229 seed extraction, 227-230 skin contact during fermentation, 222 skin contact prior to fermentation, 222 styles, 221 thermovinification, 69, 236 timing of pressing, 231

Reducing sugars, in spoiled wine, 361 Refrigeration

direct expansion, 516 fermentation loads, 201 intermediate fluid, 516 load requirements, 516 off-peak generation, 519 refrigerant temperature, 515 refrigerants, 11, 514 systems, 514 temperature requirements, 515

Respiration, 127 Reverse osmosis

acetic acid removal, 307 ethanol removal, 306 juice concentration, 307

Regenerable fining agents, 285 Regulations, 3-4, 5, 7, 35, 385, 418, Appendix E

Pesticide, 35 Replication, 542 Research, 539-547 Retsina, 400 Rhodotorula, 115 Riesling, 423 Ripeness indices, 55 Ripening, ripeness, 29, 38, 43, 53-54, 58 Ropiness, (see Ropy wine) Ropy wine, 370-371 Rose wine, 411, 423 Rotary vacuum filters, 78 Rotary vane pumps, 476 Rootstock, 15,34

s

Saccharomyces as spoilage yeast, 361-362 bailii, 377-378 bayanus, 102 carbon metabolism, 126-141 cereuisiae, defined, 102, 118 dominance, 125 ethanol tolerance, 125 flavor production by, 181 growth profile, 134 mineral requirements, 134

Index 599

nitrogen metabolism, 155-167 phosphate metabolism, 134 production of off-characters, 173-176 species of, 117 substrate preference

carbon, 142 nitrogen, 154-159

sulfate metabolism, 167-169 sulfur volatiles, 173 vitamin requirements, 134

Saccharomycodes, as spoilage yeast, 361 S-Adenosyl methionine, 167 Sake fermentation, high ethanol production, 171 Samples, sampling, 52, 56

controls, 539, 543 fermentation, 206 grape loads, 70, 72 grapevines, 55-57 representative, 54, 55-58, 401, 541-542, 546

Sauvignon blanc, 417 Schizosaccharomyces, 102-104, 107

higher alcohols, 153 Scion, 15, 21 Scraped-surface heat exchanger, 509 Screw caps, 420-421 Second crop, 59 Seeds, 35, 37, 48

extraction from, 227 grape berry size and, 40 oil from, 48

Sensory effect, higher alcohols, 150, 153 Settling by gravity, 289 Settling aids, 288-290 Sequential contaminations, 370-371 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger, 506 Sherry, 391-393, 397, 411 (see also Solera) Shot berries, 28 Silica sol, 288-289 Shikimic acid, malolactic, 271 Skin contact

after red fermentation, 222 during red fermentation, 222 prior to red fermentation, 222 with white juice, 69, 212

600 Index

Skins, 47 (see also Pomace) Sluggish fennentations, ethanol toxicity, 170 Sodium, 323 Soil,24, 25-26 Solera systems, 391-393, 420, 423 Sorbic acid, 434

lactic acid bacteria, 363 microbial stabilization, 362-363 Zygosaccharomyces, 363

Sorbistat, (see Sorbic acid) Sparkling wine, 2, 21, 391

base wine preparation, 219 malolactic, 253

Sparkolloid (see Alginates) Species of yeast, identification of, 117 Specific gravity, 193 Sperry equation, 309 Spill-off, pyruvic acid, 270-272 Spiral heat exchanger, 507 Spoilage, (see also Spoilage microbes and

Microbiological spoilage) Acetobacter, 373-376 acrolein, 373 amertume, 373 bacilli, 377-378 Brettanomyces, 364-369 fortified wines, 371-372 malolactic, 368-373 mannite, 373 mannitol,373 microbiological, 352-378 Port-type wines, 371-372 molds, 360-369 Saccharomyces, 361-362 yeasts, 360-369 wild, 360-361 wine, 361-369

Spoilage microbes concentration, 356 identification, 357-358 nonfiltered wine, 356 on grapes, 353 odors, controversial, 352 origin of

Brettanomyces scenario, 353-354 Spoiled wine

role of sugars, 361 storage, 356, 357

Spontaneous fennentations (see Fennentation, natural)

Spores bacteria (see Bacilli) yeast, 104-1 05

Sporulation, yeast, 111-112 Stability testing, 320, 341 Stabilization, (see Microbiological stabilization)

Stainless steels, 390, 394-398, 557-558, Appendix C cleaning, 210 corrosion, 558 cross reference, 558 passivation, 557 types, 557

Standardization,417,419-420 Starter cultures

active dry yeast, 123 malolactic, 256-257 yeast, liquid, 124

Static drainers (see Drainers) Statistical evaluation, 543, 546, 547 Staves, 402-406 (see also Barrels, Oak, Wood) Stems, 59 Sterile bottling, 429-431, 435

bottling room, 437 Brettanomyces, 368 filling machines, 437-438 malolactic, 258-259 quality control, 435-437

Sterile filtration, 428-429 malolactic, 369-370

Sterilization, bottling equipment, 429-430 Sterols, survival factors, 171 Stimulation of malolactic, 254-256,270,271 Storage conditions

temperature, 389-390, 442 temperature variation, 442

Stratification in tanks, 388, 398 Streaking, of microbes, 359 Stuck fennentation (see Fennentation) Style, 2, 4, 390, 418, 424 Substrate level phosphorolation, 127 Succession of spoilage microbes, 370-371 Succinic acid, 41, 147 Succinyl-CoA, 127 Sugar(s), 35-37, 53 (see also Brix, Carbohydrates,

Glucose, Fructose) accumulation, 36, 39 (see also Ripening) effect of suspended solids on Brix, 193 effect on pKas, 531 measurement (see Density scales) metabolism (see Glycolysis) oak wood, 402 pentoses, 41 preference by yeast (see Glucophilic) transport by yeast, 158-159

Sulfate reduction pathway, 168 Sulfhydryl compounds (see Glutathione; Hydrogen

sulfide) Sulfides (see also Hydrogen sulfide)

disulfides, 463 thiols, 176

Sulfite reductase, 173 Sulfites (see Sulfur dioxide) Sulfur, 34-35, 174 Sulfur assimilation pathway, 167-169

Sulfur dioxide, 10-11, 60, 408 antimicrobial action, 84, 454

bacteria, 456 yeast, 455

binding equilibria, 459 binding kinetics, 461 chemical properties, 454 effect of pH on forms, 449 inactivation of phenol oxidase, 82-83, 459 inhibition of enzymes, 82, 459 ionization of, 449 loss after bottling, 442-443, 451, 467-468 malolactic, 255,257, 369-370 physical properties, 448 preparations, 453 reactions

with oxygen, 464, 468 with peroxide, 469 with thiamin, 462 with thiols, 463

sensory threshold, 452 solubility, 448 sulfate formation, 464 toxicity of, 10 volatile loss, 467 volatility, 451 Zygosaccharomyces, 363

Sulfur volatiles, 173 Sunburn, 29, 34 Sunlight, 34, 49, 51 Superoxide,568

dismutase,568 Sur lies

malolactic, 252 white table wine, 217

Survival factors active dry wine yeast, 124 ethanol tolerance, 177 growth factors, 172 sterols, 171 unsaturated fatty acids, 171

Suspended solids effect on Brix measurement, 193 effect on fermentation rate, 213

Sweet wines, 21 (see also Dessert wines, botrytis) Syruped fermentation, 217

T

Tangential filtration (see Crossflow filtration) Tanks (see Barrels, Containers, Stainless steel) Tannin(s), 44-46, 223-224, 227, 412 (see also

Ellagitannins, Phenols, Procyanidins) Tannin extraction, 227-228, 230 Tartaric acid, 38, 39 (see also Acids, Acidity)

Tartrate stability, 320, 335 cold holding test, 328 concentration products, 322, 335 freeze test, 328 rate approach, 325, 335

Index 601

seeded conductivity tests, 328, 336-337 solubility products, 322

Taste Testing (see Analysis, sensory) Taxonomic identification examples, yeast, 109 Taxonomic key, yeast genera, 105, 108 Taxonomy of yeasts, 104-121 TCA (see Tricarboxylic acid cycle) TCA (see Trichloroacetic acid test) TCA (see 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole) TDN (I,I,6-trimethyl-l,2-dihydronapthalene), 50,

423 Temperature, 46, 49, 51, 395-396

aging, 389-390 coefficient, QlO, 389 control during fermentation, 200-204 patterns in barrel fermentations, 202, 204 effect on malolactic, 255, 257, 259 effect on rates of reaction (see Rates) effect on viscosity, 482 effect on wine volume, 209-210 rate effects, reaction kinetics, 389-390

Terpenoids, 49-50, 387, 423 Thermodynamics, malolactic, 270 Thermovinification, 69, 88 Thiamin,

deficiency in juice, 82 reaction with sulfite, 462

Thinning, 33 Thiols

ethane thiol, 176 formation during fermentation, 176 formation from disulfides, 463 methane thiol, 176 sensory thresholds, 176

Tight bunging, 405-406 Time-temperature effects, 382, 389-390, 423-424 Titratable acidity, 523 Tomato juice factor, 263 Topping

barrels, 405, 407 vines, 34

Trmtiaspora, 114, 115 as spoilage yeast, 361

Tourne spoilage, 357 Toxicity (see Ethanol toxicity) Transport of bottled wine

temperature, 442 temperature variation, 442

Transport of substrates amino acids, 157-158 ammonia, 159 proton symport, 156-157 sugar, 158-159 systems, 155-156

602 Index

Tree (Oak), 400-402, 404 (see also Barrels, Oak, Staves, Wood)

Trellising, 34 Triazine, mousey wine, 372-373 Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, 127-131, 147, 149 Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) test, 341 2,4,6-Trichloroanisole, 422 2,4,6-Trimethyl-l ,3,5-triazine, mousey wine,

372-373 Tyloses, 400-401, 404

u

Ullage, 210 Ultrafiltration

protein removal, 306, 343 tannin removal, 306

Unfiltered, (see Nonfiltered) Unit conversion tables, 548-550 Unsaturated fatty acids, survival factors, 171 Urea, 46

and ethyl carbamate, 166 from arginine, 167 strain effect on, 167 temperature effect on, 167

Urease, hydrolysis of urea, 167, 347

v

Vacuoles in yeast, 126 Vanillin, 402, 412 Valves, 483 Vapor pressure

of sulfur dioxide solutions, 451-452 of wine, 441

Variety (of grape), varietal (see also Grape) characteristics of, 18-20, 30-32 flavor families, 18-20, 34, 46, 49 labeling, 16 recommended, 20-24,31 ripening, 29 selection of, 17-24

Velcorin, (see Dimethyl dicarbonate) Veraison, 35,44 Viability of microbes tests for, 355 Vin filant, 370-371 Vine(s) (see also Grape and Variety)

berry set, 28 development, 27-29 flowering, 27 pollination, 28 vigor, 34

Vinegar, 2, 405, 407 (see also Acetic acid bacteria, spoilage)

Vinegar bacteria, (see Acetic acid bacteria and Ace­tobacter)

Vineyard(s), 4 (see also Vine, Soil) area, 22 differences among, 37-39 light, 49, 51 (see also Sunlight, Trellising,

Exposure) location, 24-32 natural microflora, 122 regional classification, 30-32 (see also

Climatic regions) sampling, 52, 56-58, temperature, 27, 29, 30, 46, 49, 51

Vineyard management, 32-35 canopy management, 33, 34 general, 32 overcropping, 32-34, 54 pesticides, 34 sulfur, 34-35

Vinhos Verdes, malolactic, 251, 253 Vinifera, 15 Vins nouveaux, malolactic, 251 Vintage(s), 20, 24, 37-39, 46

labeling, 420 phenols among, 42

Vinyl-phenol reductase, Brettanomyces, 365-366 Viruses, 17, 33, 34 Viscosity

juice, 482 must, 482 water, 482 wine, 482

Vitaceae, 14 Vitamins, 52, 134

ascorbic acid, 82 biotin, 82 inositol, 82 pantothenic acid, 82 pyridoxine, 82 thiamin, 82

Viticulture, 13-16 classification of regions, 30 clones, 16 environmental conditions, 27 growing season, 27 heat summation, 30 land for vineyards, 25 recommended varieties, 20, 31 species of grapes, 14 variety selection, 16, 17 vineyard location, 24 viruses, 16 world, 24

Vitis, 14, 15 Vitis labrusca, 15 Vitis vinifera, 15 Vitispirane, 50, 423 Volatile acidity (see Acetic acid)

Volumetric expansion, 209-210 (see also Pressure in bottled wine)

w

Wallerstein media, Brettanomyces identification, 367 Wastewater

BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), 562 characteristics, 561-562 discharge limits, 562-563 COD (chemical oxygen demand), 562 SS (suspended solids), 562 volume generated, 561

Water, 26, 36, 40, 405-406 (see also Irrigation, Staves)

Water utilization annual, 560-561 harvest, 560-561

Weather, 24, 27, (see also Climate, Vintage) Weber-Fechner relationship, 417 Wet dog odor, Brettanomyces, 365 White table wines, 386, 410-411, 422, 423

aging, 216 base wine for distillation, 220

fermentation temperature, 220 lees retention, 220

base wine for sparkling wine, 219 primary fermentation, 219 secondary fermentation, 219

fermentation temperature, 215 late harvest style, 217

fermentation temperature, 218 laccase, 218 nutrient deficiencies, 218

malolactic fermentation, 215 malolactic style, 252-253 post fermentation handling, 216, 218 skin contact, 69, 212 sur lies, 216 suspended solids, 75, 213

Whole cluster handling, 67, 219 Wild yeast, 122

active dry, 123 characteristics of, 123 defined, 102-103

Wine aging (see Aging) blending (see Blending) extract, 138-139 stability (see Protein stability; Tartrate stability)

Winemaker, 13-14 Winemaking, operations, 6 (see also Red table wines;

White table wines) Wine microbes, cultivation, isolation, 358-359 Winery

arrangement, 4 natural microflora, 122

size, 2 type, 4

Index 603

Wood, 400-403 (see also Barrels, Oak, Staves, Trees) Wine-related yeast

defined, 102-103 genera, 108 listings, 102 origins, 103 species, 106-107

y

Yeast (see also Wine-related, Wild and Spoilage) active dry forms, 123-124 adaptation to ethanol, 178 autolysis, 391, 392 Brettanomyces, 103, 104, 107, 112-114 carbon metabolism, 126, 135 cellular organization, 126 chromosomes, 120 culture 391, 392 Debaryomyces, 103-104, 107, 112-113 effect of ethanol, 172 ethanol inhibition, 170-1 72 ethanol toxicity, 170-172 genera, taxonomy of, 105, 108 growth

characteristics, 126-135 effect of ethanol, 172

higher alcohol formation, 150, 153 identification, 104-122 indigenous, 103 inoculation, 197 Kloeckera, 109-110, 112 Metschnikowia, 117, 361 morphology, 126 multilateral budding, 112-117 natural, indigenous, 122-123 nutrition, carbon and noncarbon, 126-135 oxygen requirements, 70 races, identification of, 117 Saccharomyces (see Saccharomyces) Schizosaccharomyces, 102-104, 107 species, identification of, 117 specific growth rate, 142 specific maintenance rate, 142 sporulation, 111-112 starter cultures, 123 strain(s), 119-122

assessment, 543 flavor production from, 118 gel electrophoresis, 121 identification, 118 karyotype analysis, 120

taxonomy, 105, 108 wild, 122 wine-related, 102-103 winery flora, 122

604 Index

Yeast/bacteria interaction, malolactic, 254 Yeast spoilage, (see also 360-369) Yield, 24, 31, 33

ethanol, 195

z

Zeta potential, 295 Zinc, 338 Zinfandel, 386

Zygosaccharomyces, 103-104, 114, 140 bailii, 364 bisporus, 364 described, 363-364 grape juice concentrate, 363 presumptive identification, 363 sorbic acid, 363 spoilage, 361,363-364 sulfur dioxide, 363

Zymomonas, 378