Principles of Life, 2e - Launchpad · 2014. 3. 19. · chapter 1| Principles of life 5 FIGURE 1.5 Life Consists of Organized Systems at a Hierarchy of Scales(continued) POL 2e Sinauer

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1 Principles of Life

POL 2e Sinauer AssociatesMorales Studio POL2e_01.01.ai Date 06-18-13

27

First life?

12

6

39

27 28 29 30

Each “day” represents about 150 million years.

Homo sapiens (modern humans) arose in the last 5 minutes of day 30 (around 500,000 years ago).

Recorded historycovers the last fewseconds of day 30.

Life appeared some time around day 5, a little less than 4 billion years ago.

FIGURE 1.1 Life’s Calendar (Page 3)

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chapter 1 | Principles of life 3

POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 01.02 Date 11-03-10

Membrane

This prokaryotic organism synthesizes and stores molecules that nourish and maintain it in harsh environments.

Haloferax mediterranei

FIGURE 1.2 The Basic Unit of Life Is the Cell (Page 3)


(A)

(B)

FIGURE 1.3 Photosynthetic Organisms Changed Earth’s Atmosphere (Page 4)




Color blind note:changed colors to new spec colors

Endosymbiotic bacteriabecame the mitochondriaof eukaryotes.

Endosymbiotic, photosynthetic bacteriabecame chloroplasts.

Plants

Mitochondria

Chloroplasts

Life

Protists

Protists

Protists

Protists

Protists

Protists

Animals

Fungi

270,000

80,000

1,300,000

100,000

260

10,000

Number of known(described)

species

400,000–500,000

500,000–1 million

10 million–100 million

1–2 million

1,000–1 million

Millions

Estimated total number of living

species

ARCHAEA

BACTERIA

EUKARYA

FIGURE 1.4 The Tree of Life (Page 5)


Large molecules,proteins, nucleic acids

Cells

DNA

Organism

Cell specialization

Tissues

Organs

Organ systemsMulticellular organism

(leopard frog)

Water

AtomsSmall molecules

MethaneColonial organisms

Unicellular organisms

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen

PopulationCommunity

Landscape

Biosphere

Carbon dioxide

(A) Atoms to organisms

(B) Organisms to ecosystems

FIGURE 1.5 Life Consists of Organized Systems at a Hierarchy of Scales (Pages 6 and 7)



FIGURE 1.5 Life Consists of Organized Systems at a Hierarchy of Scales (continued)


Large molecules,proteins, nucleic acids

Cells

DNA

Organism

Cell specialization

Tissues

Organs

Organ systemsMulticellular organism

(leopard frog)

Water

AtomsSmall molecules

MethaneColonial organisms

Unicellular organisms

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen

PopulationCommunity

Landscape

Biosphere

Carbon dioxide

(A) Atoms to organisms

(B) Organisms to ecosystems


Boxes represent components.

Arrows represent processesby which components interact.

Component AInteractionbetweenA and B

Component BInteractionbetweenB and C

Component C

FIGURE 1.6 A Generalized System (Page 7)




Synthesis of Protein Tincreases the amount of Protein T.

Breakdown of Protein Tdecreases the amount of Protein T.

Amount offree aminoacids in cell

(A) A cellular-level system

Synthesisof Protein T

Amount ofProtein T incell

Breakdownof Protein T

Amount ofbreakdownproductsin cell

Amount ofNa+ in gutfrom foods

(B) An organismal-level system

Absorptionof Na+ fromgut by gut cells

Amount ofNa+ in bodyfluids

Amount ofNa+ leavingthe bodyin urine

Excretionof Na+ bykidney cells

Abundanceof grass

(C) A community-level system

Consumptionof grass byvoles

Number ofvoles

Number offoxes and owls

Consumptionof voles as food

FIGURE 1.7 Organized Systems Exist at Many Levels (Page 8)


Wouldn’t an arrow be better than a ball at the endof the positive feedback?

Positive feedback speeds up an earlier process in a system.

Feedback occurs when the rate of an early process is affected by the amount of alater product (C in this case).

Negative feedbackslows down theprocess.

Component ARate ofconversionof A to B

+ –

Rate ofconversionof B to C

Component B Component C

FIGURE 1.8 Feedback Can Be Positive or Negative (Page 8)




T

A

C

G

Four distinct nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA. The nucleotides differ in the base they contain (C, G, T, or A).

DNA is made up of two strands of linked sequences of nucleotides.

A gene consists of a specificsequence of nucleotides.

The nucleotide sequence in a gene contains the informationto build a specific protein.

DNA

DNA

Protein

One nucleotide

Gene

Strand 1

Strand 2

FIGURE 1.9 DNA Is Life’s Blueprint (Page 9)

POL 2e Sinauer AssociatesMorales Studio POL2e_01.UN1.ai Date 06-18-13

In a quantified system, A, B, and C are quantified measures of the amounts or concentrations of the components of the system.

AEquation 1(describes rateof conversionof A to B)

Equation 2(describes rateof conversionof B to C)

B C

In-Text Art (Page 9)



This ground-living frogwalks across the groundusing its short legs and peglike digits (toes).

Webbed rear feet are evident in this highly aquatic species of frog.

A different tree frog species has extended webbing between the toes, which increases surface area and allows the frog to glide from tree to tree.

This tree frog has toe pads, which are adaptations for climbing.


Phyllomedusa bicolor Rhacophorus nigropalmatus

Dyscophus guineti Pelophylax sp.

FIGURE 1.10 Adaptations to the Environment (Page 11)




1. Make observations.

2. Speculate, ask a question.

4. Make a prediction: What else would be true if your hypothesis is correct?

5. Design and conduct an experiment that uses quantifiable data to test your prediction.

Reexamine theexperiment foruncontrolledvariables.

Ask newquestions.

Use statistical tests to evaluatethe significance of your results.

Significant resultssupport hypothesis.

Experiment repeated and results verified by other researchers.

Results do notsupport hypothesis.

3. Form a hypothesis to answer the question.

Revise yourhypothesis.

FIGURE 1.11 Scientific Methodology (Page 12)

FIGURE 1.12 Controlled Experiments Manipulate a Variable

HyPotHesis

Exposure to atrazine during larval development causes abnormalities in the reproductive tissues of male frogs.

MetHod

1. Establish 9 tanks in which all attributes are held constant except the water’s atrazine concentration. Establish 3 atrazine conditions (3 replicate tanks per condition): 0 ppb (control condition), 0.1 ppb, and 25 ppb.

2. Place Rana pipiens tadpoles from laboratory-reared eggs in the 9 tanks (30 tadpoles per replicate).

3. When tadpoles have transitioned into adults, sacrifice the ani-mals and evaluate their reproductive tissues.

4. Test for correlation of degree of atrazine exposure with the presence of abnormalities in the gonads (testes) of male frogs.

ResuLts

ConCLusion

Exposure to atrazine at concentrations as low as 0.1 ppb induces abnormalities in the gonads of male frogs. The effect is not pro-portional to the level of exposure.

Go to LaunchPad for discussion and relevant links for all INVESTIGATION figures.

INVESTIGATION



In the control condition, only one male had abnormalities.

Atrophiedtestes

Testicularoocytes

Mal

e fro

gsw

ith g

onad

al

abno

rmal

ities

(%)

0.0Control

0.1 25

Atrazine (ppb)

20

40

0

Oocytes (eggs) in normal-size testis (sex reversal)

(Page 14)



FIGURE 1.13 Comparative Experiments Look for Differences among Groups

HyPotHesis

Presence of the herbicide atrazine in environmental water correlates with gonadal abnormalities in frog populations.

MetHod

1. Based on commercial sales of atrazine, select 4 sites (sites 1–4) less likely and 4 sites (sites 5–8) more likely to be contaminated with atrazine.

2. Visit all sites in the spring (i.e., when frogs have transitioned from tadpoles into adults); collect frogs and water samples.

3. In the laboratory, sacrifice frogs and examine their reproductive tissues, documenting abnormalities.

4. Analyze the water samples for atrazine concentration (the sample for site 7 was not tested).

5. Quantify and correlate the incidence of reproductive abnormalities with environmental atrazine concentrations.

ResuLts

ConCLusion

Reproductive abnormalities exist in frogs from environments in which aqueous atrazine con-centration is 0.2 ppb or above. The incidence of abnormalities does not appear to be propor-tional to atrazine concentration at the time of transition to adulthood.

Go to LaunchPad for discussion and relevant links for all INVESTIGATION figures.

INVESTIGATION



In the seven sites where atrazine was present, abnormalities, including testicular oocytes and atrophied testes, were observed.

Nottested

Atrophied testes

Testicular oocytes

Atrazine level

Mal

e fro

gs w

ith g

onad

al

abno

rmal

ities

(%) A

trazine (ppb)

21 3 4 5 6 7 8Site

200.2

0

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

6.6

6.8

7.0

0

40

60

80

100

(Page 15)

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Principles of Life, 2e - Launchpad · 2014. 3. 19. · chapter 1| Principles of life 5 FIGURE 1.5 Life Consists of Organized Systems at a Hierarchy of Scales(continued) POL 2e Sinauer