Principal Satisfaction

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Job Satisfaction and the

Secondary Headteacher: The

creation of a model of jobsatisfactionDavid Mercer

Published online: 25 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: David Mercer (1997): Job Satisfaction and the SecondaryHeadteacher: The creation of a model of job satisfaction, School Leadership &

Management: Formerly School Organisation, 17:1, 57-68

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School Leadership & Management, Vol. 17, N o. 1, pp. 5767, 1997

Job Satisfaction and the Secondary

Headteacher: the creation of amodel of job satisfaction

DAVID MERCERD ep ar tm en t o f C ur ricu lu m S tu die s, U n iv er sit y o f H o ng K o ng , P ok fu la m R oa d,

Hong Kong

ABSTRACT The research described in this paper identies those aspects of the work of the

headteacher in secondary schools which make for job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. It then

considers the relationship of those aspects and, building upon the work of other researchers in

this eld, offers a model of job satisfaction which is unique. In view of the current difculties

experienced in attracting applications for headship and in retaining experienced headteachers,

such an understanding of what makes for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction is of paramount

importance. The paper ends with a brief consideration of how this model might be used as the

basis for further research efforts aimed at deepening our understanding of headship.

Introduction

Jo b sa tis fact ion is co nce rn ed w ith th e af fect ive re act io n of an in divid ual to his or her

work. There can be little doubt that it is an aspect of the work situation which is

worthy of study:

What happens to people during the work day has profound effects both on

the individual employees life and on the society as a whole, and thus these

events cannot be ignored if the quality of life in society is to be high.

(Lawler, 1973, p. 63)

What is true of employees generally is true of the group which is the subject of this

paper. Within the microcosm of society which is the school, the headteachers

inuence can be profound and consequently it is of interest to all concerned that

that individual obtains satisfaction from the work situation. The indication that this

might not be the case is indicated by Howson (1995) in England and Wales andWhitaker (1996) in the United States, who note early retirement rates of almost 30

and 25% respectively. At the same time, the perception of less senior staff that the

headship is not an attractive proposition is suggested by How son, who no tes that the

number of applications for deputy headships and headships is generally low. If this

is the case there would appear to be an urgent need to consider the job satisfaction

of this group of individuals.

1363-2434 /97/010057-11 $7.00 1997 Journals Oxford Ltd




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58 D. Mercer

Satisfaction in an Educational Context

Although job satisfaction has long been an area of interest in individual situations

(see, for example, Locke 1976), in education it has rarely been a prime focus of

interest. Rather, it has tended to have been subsumed within a wider consideration

of lives and careers (Poppleton, 1988). In the case of the work situation faced by the

headteacher, much of the published material deals with aspects which might impact

on job satisfaction but without referring to the concept specically. For example, in

a discussion of the process by which mixed ability grouping in the rst years at

Beachside Com prehensive came about, B all (1981) writes about the place of the

headteacher in making this happen.

The headmaster wanted it and appointed people who were sympathetic to

it and who he thought would support him and he manipulated things so

it happened. (p. 170)

an d

It was a desire of the staff, the desire willingness of the headmaster. He

pushed the school, he bent over backwards so the staff would want it too.

(p. 171)

The fact that the move away from banding to a mixed ability grouping `worked

in Beachside Comprehensive was presumably a source of satisfaction to the head-

teacher. The problem is that it was never specically mentioned as such and this

failure to consider many of the aspects of the headship in terms of job satisfaction

app ears to b e t he n or m in m o st o th er p u blicat io n s b y in d ivid u als r es earch in g

headship. However, there have been some developments in the U nited Kingdom

(Hardy, 1977; N ias, 1981; Jones, 1987; Hill, 1994) and abroad (Friesen et al., 1983,

1984; Smilansky, 1984; Gunn & Holdaway, 1985; Borg & Riding, 1993; Johnson &

Holdaway, 1994) which would suggest that there is a growing body of literature on

the topic.What this work appears to be highlighting is the view that the individuals

affective reaction to work is largely dependent on an interaction between that

individual and his or her environment. T hus, G unn & Holdaway (1985) identify

teachers and sources outside the school as the major dissatisers, with superordi-

nates, school trustees, Department of Education ofcials and their policies also

adding to this dissatisfaction. Similarly, Leithwood et al . (1990) offer such factors as

th e q uality o f t each er s w it h w ho m th ey h ave t o w o rk, ro le am bigu it y an d r ole

complexity, the school system in w hich they have to operate and aspects such asinterest of parents and the pressure of special interest groups. In both cases the

research dealt with Canadian principals, but similarities can be seen in the situation

faced by headteachers in England and Wales.

O ne d ev elo pm e nt w hic h h as a ls o c om e fr om C an ad a is th e m od el o f jo b

satisfaction proposed by Johnson & Holdaway (1994). This is interesting because

these researchers have drawn on a number of formulations of job satisfaction, such




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Jo b Sa tis fa ctio n 59

FIG. 1. The JohnsonHoldaway model of job satisfaction.

as the comprehensive value approach (Locke, 1976) and facet satisfaction theory

(Lawler, 1973). The end result is the model illustrated in Figure 1.

It should be noted that the theoretical framework shown in Figure 1 is an

adaptation of w hat is contained in the Johnson & Holdaway article in that in the

research undertaken with headteachers in the North East of England, no evidence

was found for the need for a separate consideration of the importance of job facets

for overall job satisfaction. For this reason, that feature was removed from the

diagram shown.This theoretical framework guided research undertaken with 195 elementary

and junior high school principals. The authors found that satisfaction with job facets

such as relationships with staff and students were of particular importance in terms

of overall job satisfaction. On the negative side, the least satisfying job facets were

conict, bureaucratic procedures, powerlessness, funding and workload. However,

th e chief in terest o f t his w o rk lies n ot s o m u ch in t he act ual nd in gs as in t he

theoretical model which Johnson & Holdaway have produced. By drawing together

various aspects of the work situation faced by school principals they have made us

more fully aware of what makes for job satisfaction. However, because the situation

faced by the Canadian principal differs from that faced by the headteacher in

England and Wales it is suggested that the model as it stands could be developed in

such a way as to make it more closely describe features of headship as they exist in

these countries.

The Development of a New Model of Job Satisfaction

A na ly sin g th e D ata

The new model of job satisfaction is based on interview data with 39 secondary

headteachers located in the North East of England conducted during a 13 month

period ending March 1993. Methodologically a grounded theory approach (Glaser

& Strauss, 1967) was used and the actual data were obtained by making use of the

critical incident technique developed by Flanagan (1954). Specically, the head-




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60 D. Mercer

J ob sa ti sf acti on Jo b D is sa ti sfa cti on

S en se o f p ri de i n o ve rc om in g d if cu ltie s L ac k o f c ol le gial ity

Seeing oneself as a teacher So cietal chan ge s

C ollegiality, pro tectio n of staff W ork pressure on staff

Lo cal M anage m ent of Schoo ls W ork pressure on headteachers

Q uality of education Bureaucracy

C om parison w ith other schools M esopolitics

Staff developm ent Individual/organisatio n m ism atch

Self-esteem , personal w orth Individual/com munity m ism atch

H eadteach er as chan ge agen t Attitud e o f signicant othe rs

V iew of signicant oth ers Personality/role m ism atch

Relations w ith pup ils G overnors

Relations w ith parents M icropolitics

Relations w ith staff M acrop olitics

Relations w ith go vernors L ocal M an age m ent of S chools

R elations w ith head teachers Interpersonal relations (including w ith staff)

C ontro l Self esteem

Pow er L ack of self efcacy, im po tence

C urriculum developm ent C om petition (including for reso urces)

Sense of m ission L eading professional to chief executive

Seeing oneself as a m an age r Insecurity

Role t E ffect on hom e life

Relations w ith the com munity Failure to ach ieve m ission

M icropolitical activity L ack of reso urces

Professional isolation

Lack of control

Reduction in teaching role

FIG. 2. Concepts of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

teachers were asked `Can you think of a time when you felt really good/bad about

your job? Tell me about it. The response to this question was considered and the

interview then took the form of an exploration of aspects, or concepts, whichemerged. Throughout, use was made of what Glaser & Strauss refer to as the constant

comparison of data, which meant that while some concepts were accepted as valid

features of job satisfaction, others were rejected as being an anomaly, important only

to a single individual. In this way, a total of 23 satisers and 26 dissatisers were

identied. These are shown in Figure 2.

These concepts were then grouped by using what Ball refers to as `a literal

manipulation of the data (B all, 1991, p. 182) to create the general categories shown

in Figure 3.These categories were measured for relative importance by undertaking a word

count of the concepts which were identied in the interview data. For example,

when a headteacher made a comment which was deemed to relate to a particular

concept, the relevant piece of the transcript was electronically transferred to a

separate le under the heading `Local Management of Schools or whatever. The

computer automatically counted this wordage and this p rovided a comparison of the




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FIG. 3. Categories of job sa tisfaction/dissatisfaction.

relative importance of the various categories. For example, the dissatisfaction con-

cept `macropolitics is approximately six times that of the concept `micropolitics.

Fairly obviously, such quantication of data should be treated with caution. How-

ever, the approach should be welcomed on two grounds. In the rst place it alerts

th e r es earch er t o th e f act th at th e h eadteachers h ad a gr eat d eal t o s ay abo u t

dissatisfaction when it came to the impact of political inuences and changes at a

national level and this could well be an indication of the importance of this concept.

Secondly, this approach adds a quantitative dimension to the normal approach used

by qualitative researchers. While the importance of `macropolitics or any other

concept could be indicated by the normal process of selective quotations, the

inclusion of a word count gives weight to such a selection. T o return to Ball, in his

book The Micropolitics of the School (1987) he writes about identifying `data-bits

which are then sorted into categories. When this process had been carried out it was

found that `some categories fail to develop much analytical bulk and they may be

abandoned. In effect, what has been described in this article is an electronic version

of what Ball did in his research. The result of this analysis is as shown in Figures 4and 5.

What can be seen from this information is the very great importance of the

FIG. 4. The constituents of job satisfaction.




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62 D. Mercer

FIG. 5. The constituents of job dissatisfaction.

categories which involve how much in control of the situation the headteacher feels

him/herself to be. O n the satisfaction side, `control of ones environment is the most

important, while on the dissatisfaction side `contexts within which schools operate

and `ability to function as s/he sees as being important are the most important by

far. In fact, by bringing together satisfaction and dissatisfaction it is possible to

further condense the data, based upon degrees of similarity, to suggest that we can

group the categories listed in Figure 2 into `sense of efcacy, `perception of self and

`relationships. In this way we have identied the major elements with which we can

develop the JohnsonHoldaway model.

Developing the Model

The new model differs from the JohnsonHoldaway model in a number of important

ways, as can be seen by comparing Figures 1 and 6.

In the rst place, it is suggested that central to any model of job satisfaction

should be `personal needs and values. This is in contrast to the JohnsonHoldaway

model which has `personal needs and values as apparently having similar import-

ance to `personal and organizational characteristics and `job facets. While there is

little doubt that all these aspects of the job situation are important, it is proposed

FIG. 6. The new model of job satisfaction.




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that `personal needs and values are more central than Johnson & Holdaway would

seem to suggest. Certainly, there is substantial support from the literature on job

satisfaction for the centrality of needs and values. Researchers such as Lawler

(1973), Herzberg (1966) and Locke (1976) all point to the importance of need and

value satisfaction with regard to the work situation. As Locke points out:

Jo b satisfactio n results from th e ap pr ais al of ones job as attain in g or

allowing the attainment of ones important job values providing these

values are congruent with or help to full ones basic needs. (Locke, 1976,

p. 1319)

In the research under consideration there w ere certainly a number of concepts

`sense of mission, `seeing oneself as a teacher, `quality of education on the positive

side and `societal changes, `personality/role mismatch, `macropolitics, `lack of

collegiality on the negative sidewhich related directly to need and value satisfac-

tion. To take one example relating to `macropolitics:

I t hin k M r P at ten is s er vin g h is o w n en ds , an d I w o uld s ay th at q uit e

openly. I dont think he has the interests of the kids any person who says

schools should be treating the clients and those clients are parents and not

children is a man whom I couldnt communicate with.

It would seem that the actions of the Secretary of State are such as to challenge

a deeply held personal belief on the part of this headteacher about the prim acy of the

child.

By stressing the importance of `personal needs and values, the question is

raised regarding which features of headship impinge upon such needs and values.

The answer is the grouped categories of `sense of efcacy, `perception of self and

`relationships.

If the overall centrality of `personal needs and values is accepted, it follows that

there are aspects of headship which impinge upon those personal needs and values,mediated through these grouped categories. Johnson & Holdaway suggested that the

important characteristics in this respect are `organisational and `personal (see

Figure 1). By `organisational they mean such aspects as size of school, location of

school (rural/urban), prom otion prospects, job challenge, relationships with superi-

ors and, related to this last, autonomy. By `personal they mean gender, age, time in

post, self-esteem and educational qualications. However, the situation faced by

headteachers in England in the last decade or so is sufciently different from that

faced by Canadian principals as to require the inclusion of a further characteristic ofthe work situationthe wider `contextual features. The argument for the inclusion

of this dimension centres around the idea that while the notion of organisational and

personal characteristics are acceptable, these do not operate in limbo. Instead, based

on the interview data, it has to be accepted that government policy has had, and

continues to have, a major impact on the job satisfaction of headteachers. In terms

of this research, the Education Act (1986) and the Education Reform Act (1988)




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64 D. Mercer

w ere o f p ar ticu lar im p o rt an ce. T hu s w h ile Jo hn so n & Ho ld aw ay s u gg est t hat

`organisational characteristics and `personal characteristics are sufcient to cover

the situation as faced by principals in Canada, in order to take account of the

situation in England and Wales it is necessary to add a third aspect`contextual

characteristics. Certainly, a consideration of Figures 4 and 5 would conrm the

pre-eminence of those categories which make up the `context group.Given that we have a number of characteristics impacting on personal needs

and values and mediated through the characteristic groupings of `self perception,

`relationships and `sense of efcacy, how does this affect overall job satisfaction?

To answer this it is necessary to c onsider the idea that an indviduals perception

of his/her work situation relates to the thought processes which this perception calls

into play. It is this which provides the link between the main part of the model and

the nal outcome.

Of p art icu lar im p o rtan ce in th is resp ect are L aw lers d is crepan cy t heor y

(Lawler, 1973), Argyris efcacy theory (Argyris, 1964) and the various equity

theories which have been proposed (Lawler, 1971; Locke, 1976). It would appear

from the literature that discrepancy theory and efcacy theory are closely linked in

that both deal with the perception of the worker as to how the returns s/he obtains

from employment match what s/he feels ought to be obtained. It is the extent to

which a match occurs that leads to the perception of job satisfaction. The extent to

which the two approaches are linked is suggested by Locke (1976), who proposes

that the theories involve two different levels of explanation of the same thing, with

discrepancy theory positing a model of job satisfaction with equity theory providing

the content for that model (p. 1321). As far as efcacy theory is concerned, Argyris

is of the opinion that job satisfaction is a direct result of a sense of pride in the

workers own achievements (Argyris, 1964). In each case, the theoretical rationale

for the job perception/job satisfaction relationship is that job perceptions mediate

relations between environmental events (in the widest sense) and affective reactions

to these events. Certainly, a consideration of the interview data collected for this

research would appear to support the view that the extent to which personal needs

and values are perceived to be satised is the key constituent of job satisfaction.Thus for example, in situations where the concept `control is not perceived as being

obtainable, job dissatisfaction is a consequence. This is illustrated in the words of

one headteacher:

I t hin k m o s t h eads w ou ld s ay th at t here h ave b een m o re d is satis fyin g

incidents than satisfying ones. Simply because, from talking to other heads,

they hate this feeling about being out of control of the situation. A nd thats

how so many of us have felt over the last few years, through no fault of our

own.

Referring to the confusion surrounding the inclusion of Technology in the National

Curriculum, he continues

I fee l that I h ave n o c on tro l over w hat is h app enin g in the are a o f

technology. Its all being dictated by the DfE anyway, and its such a




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muddle, its such a confusion. I hate to work like that. I hate to be in a

position where I have to have a meeting with parents next month to discuss

options and I cant tell them whats going to be there! I hate that feeling of

b ein g o u t o f con tro l and I m afr aid t hats h ap p en in g m o re and m o re,

simply because of the outside factors. I often liken my job to the old plate

spinner on television, going around starting plates up and then keepingthem spinning and rushing back. And now weve reached the point where

half a dozen of them are crashing to the ground, almost because I just

havent got the time to go and check that theyre spinning still. That feeling

of helplessness almost and I know that other heads have felt this they

just dont feel totally in control of whats happening.

It is as though the personal need to be in control of ones life is under attack and

consequently this particular facet of headship is a source of dissatisfaction. The other

concepts which make up the various facets of headship could be treated in a similar

manner and the relationship between job facet and overall job satisfaction greatly

strengthened. In this way, the overall logic of the model illustrated in Figure 6 can

be demonstrated.

The Value of the Model of Job Satisfaction

The research described in this paper can be viewed as a starting point for a number

of developments which, if carried through, would extend our knowledge of both job

satisfaction and headship. The words of Van Dalen are particularly relevant to this

notion. In his comparison of models and theories he states:

In summary, some scholars argue that models are judged by their useful-

ness and theories by their truthfulness; models are not theories but tools

that are used as a basis for formal and rigorous theory construction. (Van

Dalen, 1979, p. 5556)

By using the model developed in this paper it would be possible to focus on avariety of research areas, an understanding of which would allow the creation of

formal and rigorous theories, as suggested by Van Dalen. Examples of such areas

include job satisfaction and time in post, job satisfaction and career, the characteris-

tics of headship, the growing gap between headteachers and other staff, autonomy

and job satisfaction, job satisfaction and gender and job satisfaction and school

effectiveness. Some of these have already been touched upon by researchers, but

there are still rich opportunities for us to deepen our understanding of headteachers

and the job they do.

Applying the Model of Job Satisfaction

An important feature of headteacher development in England and Wales in recent

months has been the introduction of a National Professional Qualication for

H e ad sh ip ( N PQ H ). A s ha s be en p oin te d o ut b y H u ft on ( 199 6) , w ith in t his




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66 D. Mercer

qualication there are a total of 45 identiable tasks, 18 of which are related to

leadership, 19 to managerial aspects, with the remaining eight being a crossover

between the two. H owever, the research described in this article indicates that much

of the concerns of the headteacher relate to managerial rather than educational

aspects of the job they do. If it is correct that these individuals are more manager

th an edu cato r, m ig ht it b e t he cas e th at th e T eacher T rain in g A gen cy h as g otits p lan s w ro n g? Has it m is ju dg ed th e s it uat io n and is it p reparin g p ot en tial

headteachers for a job which no longer exists? With the emphasis in England and

Wales on self-management of schools, it may be that an overemphasis on leadership

aspects will leave new headteachers w ithout the m anagerial skills they so badly need.

On t he o th er h an d , it m ay b e th at as h eadteachers s et u p ef cien t m anagerial

systems within their schools they may nd themselves with the opportunity to revert

to the traditional role of headteacher as leading professional (Hughes, 1972). It will

be interesting to see how this tension works itself out and how individuals who go

through the proposed program me feel about the job they do in terms of the key

aspects of the model contained in this paper`sense of efcacy, `relationships and

`self-perception.

Conclusion

T h e o verall eff ect o f th e chan ges id en ti ed in th is p ap er is t o o ffer a m o d el o f

job satisfaction which more closely mirrors the situation faced by secondary head-

teachers in England than either the variety of generic models which have been

d ev elo pe d in th e b us in es s eld o r t he s pe ci c m od el of fe re d b y Jo hn son &

Holdaway. This increase in accuracy is important because it allows educationalists

and policy makers to identify features of headship which can be developed in such

a way as to increase the job satisfaction of headteachers.

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Principal Satisfaction