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Self-regulationisknowntoplayanimportantroleinpreventingmaladjustment(e.g.,externalizingprob-lems:Gilliom,Shaw,Beck,Schonberg,&Lukon,2002;internalizingproblems:Silk,Steinberg,&Morris,2003)andpromotingwell-beingacrossthelifespan(e.g.,Mischel,Shoda,&Rodriguez,1989).Anearlyformofself-regulationisinhibitorycontrol(IC),whichinvolvesyoungchildren’sabilitiestopreventorinhibitbehaviorsinresponsetoadults’instructions(Rothbart,Ahadi,Hershey,&Fisher,2001).Relativelyfewstudieshaveexaminedthelongitudinalstabilityandgrowthofanydimensionofself-regulation,butthisisparticularlytruefortheelementofICduringearlychildhood.Additionally,existingresearchonthedevelopmentofself-regulationpointstoparent-ingasanimportantcorrelateduringearlychildhood(e.g.,Kopp,1987);however,themajorityoflongitudi-nalresearchhasbeenconductedoverashortertimespanandhasincludedjusttwoassessmentsofself-regulation.Inaddition,fewstudieshaveexaminedthecourseofICinearlychildhoodusingsamplesofchildrenathighriskforpoorsocioemotionalout-comes.Informationonlonger-termchangeduringearlychildhoodisessentialtoadvanceourunder-standingofhowdimensionsofbothpositive(e.g.,responsive)andnegative(e.g.,rejecting)aspectsof

Predictors of Longitudinal Growth in Inhibitory Control in Early Childhood

KRISTIN L. MoILANEN, DANIEL S. ShAW, ThoMAS J. DIShIoN, FRANCES GARDNER, MELVIN WILSoN

AbstrAct

In the current study, we examined latent growth in young children’s inhibitory control (IC) from ages 2 to 4, and whether demographic characteristics or parenting behaviors were related to intercept and growth in IC. As part of an ongoing longitudinal evaluation of the Family Check-Up (FCU), children’s inhibitory control was assessed yearly at ages 2, 3, and 4. Children’s growth started low and increased linearly to age 4. high levels of harsh parenting and male gender were associated with low initial status in IC. high levels of supportive parenting were associated with faster growth in IC. African-American children’s growth in IC was slower than White children’s growth. Results suggest that different factors predict initial status and longitudinal change in IC during early childhood. Keywords: inhibitory control, self-regulation, latent growth modeling, parenting, early childhood

parentingmaycontributetoinitiallevelsandgrowthinIC.Thus,thecurrentstudysoughttoadvanceourcurrentunderstandingofICandspecificallyforchil-drenathighriskforearlyproblembehaviorbyexam-iningitsstabilityandgrowthfromages2to4yearswithalargesampleofchildrenscreenedonthebasisofsociodemographic,family,andchildriskfactors.AsecondgoalwastoinvestigatethecontributionsofsupportiveandharshparentingtoinitiallevelsandgrowthinIC.

Researchersandtheoristsagreethatoptimallevelsofself-regulationaredesirableforsuccessinmultipledomainsoffunctioningacrossthelifespan.However,asthereislittleconsensusonhowbesttodefineandmeasureself-regulationwithinanygivendevelop-mentalperiod,belowwereviewtheliteratureonthegrowthandthecorrelatesofseveraldimensionsofself-regulationinearlychildhood,includingIC.

the Development of Inhibitory controlTheoreticalandempiricalworksillustratethetim-ingandappearanceofspecificchangesinchildren’semergingregulatoryabilities(e.g.,Bronson,2000;Kopp,1982)thatprecedeoraccompanytheemergenceofIC(Rothbart,1989).Abodyofliteratureidentifiesmanysubstantialchangesinself-regulatorystrate-

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giesandabilitiesthatoccurbetweenachild’sbirthandtheirsecondbirthday.Infantsinitiallyrelyuponcaregiverstophysicallymodulatetheirinternalstatesandenvironmenttomeettheirneeds(e.g.,bysooth-ingtheinfantinresponsetoemotionalupsets:Kopp,1982;CommitteeonIntegratingtheScienceofEarlyChildhoodDevelopment,Shonkoff,&Phillips,2000).Internally-basedco-regulationbeginsintoddlerhood(Kopp,1987)whentoddlersbecomecapableofcom-plyingwithcaretakerinstructions(Stifter,Spinrad,&Braungart-Rieker,1999)andofexercisinginde-pendentself-controlwithparentalsupervisionandsupport(Maccoby,1984).ICbeginstoemergeafterthesecondbirthday(Rothbart,1989)andcontinuestodevelopthroughouttoddlerhoodandthepreschoolyears.Aschildren’sabilitiesimprove(i.e.,byusinglanguagetoregulatethemselvesindependentlyandtoobtaincaretakerregulatorysupport:Diaz&Berk,1992),caretakersgraduallydecreasetheiractivepar-ticipationintheco-regulationprocess(Kopp,1987).Thisleavesthechildincreasinglyresponsibletoregu-lateinresponsetodirectionfrominternalcues,situ-ationaldemands,environmentalstimuli,andfeed-backfromothers(Kochanska,Coy&Murray,2001;Kopp,1982).Theseandotherchangessetthestageforcontinueddevelopmentbeyondearlychildhood.

Suchdiscontinuityinthedevelopmentofself-regu-lationduringearlychildhoodundoubtedlychallengeseffortstostudyitslatentgrowth.Forexample,itisnotpossibletomodellatentgrowthwithfewerthanthreelongitudinalassessmentsusingthesamemeasure(Singer&Willett,2003),whichcanbeentirelyunfea-siblewhenexaminingaspectsofdevelopmentthatarefullytransformedoverashortperiodoftime.Perhapsduelargelytothisreason,muchofwhatisknownaboutchangeinself-regulationabilitiesduringearlychildhoodisbasedonstudieswithtwotimepointsand/orshorter-termlongitudinaldesigns.Forexam-ple,inasmall,middle-classsampleofyoungchil-dren,Kochanskaandcolleagues(Kochanska,Murray,Jacques,Koenig,&Vandegeest,1996)revealedlongi-tudinalstabilityinICfromapproximateages2-3.5to3.5-4.5years.Inanothershort-termlongitudinalstudy,preschoolers’effortfulcontrolimproveddur-ingthe6-monthperiodbetweenstudyvisits(Lengua,Honorado,&Bush,2007).Furthermore,initialeffort-fulcontrolwasthestrongestpredictorofsubsequenteffortfulcontrolinthesamestudy.Individualchil-dren’sabilitiestodelaygratificationimprovedbetweenages2-4andthe16-monthfollow-upassessmentcon-ductedinalarge,low-SESsample(Li-Grining,2007).Theseandotherstudiesindicatethatpositivegrowthistypicalduringearlychildhood.Similarfindingsofimprovementsinselfregulationalsoareevidentinthefewstudieshavetrackedchangeinself-regulation

acrossthreeormoretimepoints.Onesuchstudyusingalarge,socioeconomically-diversenationaldatasetrevealedimprovementsinregulationbetweenchil-dren’sages4-5and8-9,butnosubsequentincreasesbetweenages8-9and12-13(Raffaelli,Crockett,&Shen,2005).Anotherstudyconductedwithamid-sized,predominantlymiddle-classsamplerevealedsignificantlineargrowthineffortfulcontrolbetweenchildren’sages9-11and12-14(Lengua,2006).Theoneknownstudyconductedinearlychildhoodrevealedpositive,linearlatentgrowthinHeadStarttoddlers’regulationbetween14and36months(Raikes,Rob-inson,Bradley,Raikes,&Ayoub,2007).Thesestud-iesfocusedondifferentdevelopmentalperiodsanddimensionsofregulationthanthoseexaminedinthecurrentstudyandwiththeexceptionoftheRaikesandcolleagues’(2007)study,tendedtouselower-riskmiddle-classsamples.Althoughthesestudiesdoindi-catethatICimprovesduringearlychildhood,clearlymoreresearchisneededonthistopic,particularlyforchildrenathighriskfordemonstratingpoorsocio-emotionalfunctioningduringtheschool-ageyears.Thus,thefirstgoalofthestudywastoexaminethedevelopmentalcourseofICatthreeassessmentpointsfromages2to4usingasampleofchildrenidentifiedonthebasisofmultipledomainsofrisk.

the role of ParentingAsevidencedbythedescriptionofinitialself-regula-torydevelopmentintheprevioussection,children’searlyabilitiestoself-regulatearelimited.Consequent-ly,researchandtheoryonthedevelopmentofself-reg-ulationemphasizetheroleofcaregivinginfosteringindividualdifferencesinself-regulatoryabilitiesandstrategies(seeCassidy,1994;Thompson,1994).Thesefundamentaldyadicregulatoryprocessesininfancyarethoughttounderlieindividualdifferencesinself-regulationinthetoddleryearsandearlychildhood(e.g.,Stansbury&Zimmerman,1999).Parent-childco-regulationisonecontextofparentalsocialization,whichistheprocessthroughwhichindividualsadoptandinternalizeagroup’ssharedbeliefs,worldviews,andbehaviorsconsistentwiththesevalues(Jones&Gerard,1967).Theco-regulatoryprocessgraduallyincreaseschildren’sawarenessoftheneedtoadjustinaccordancewiththeexpectationsofparentsandotheradultcaregivers.

Avarietyofparentingdimensionsarebelievedtosupportthedevelopmentofself-regulationduringchildhood.Unfortunately,muchofwhatisknownaboutassociationsbetweendimensionsofparent-ingandself-regulationisbasedoncross-sectionalorshort-termlongitudinalstudies(e.g.,Dennis,2006),inreferencetoglobaldimensionsofparentingstyle(e.g.,observed“teaching-based”v.s.“power-based”

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limit-setting:LeCuyer&Houck,2006),generalchar-acteristicsofparentalbehavior(e.g.,parentandchildquestionnaire-basedreportsofrejectionandincon-sistency:Lengua,2006),orspecificparentingprac-tices(e.g.,observedredirectionofattention:Grolnick,Kurowski,McMenamy,Rivkin,&Bridges,1998).Inthecurrentstudy,ICwasexaminedinlightofoverallsupportiveandharshparenting,usingmulti-dimen-sionalobservation-basedindicesofbothpositiveandnegativeparentingbehaviors.MechanismsandempiricalevidenceforassociationsbetweenthesebroaddimensionsofparentinganddevelopmentalchangeinICarepresentedinturnbelow.

Supportive parenting.Conceptually,supportivepar-entingisanextensionofco-regulation,encompassingparentingqualitiessuchaswarmthandacceptance,andparentingbehaviorssuchasresponsivity,involve-ment,andproactivesupport.Aswithco-regulation,thesedimensionsofparentingarethoughttopromotethedevelopmentofself-regulationbyreducingchil-dren’snegativeaffect(e.g.,Kochanska&Aksan,1995).Supportiveparentsaresensitivetotheirchildren’semotionalstatesandareabletopromptlyrespondtothechildreninamannerthateffectivelydown-regu-latestheirchildren’sexpressionofnegativeemotionspriortoanoverwhelmingfloodoffeelings(Sroufe,1996).Byrespondingearlyandeffectively,parentscanpreventepisodesofhighlevelsofemotionalarousalandalsofacilitatechildrenlearningstrategiesforcon-trollingemotionsandbehavior(Kochanska&Aksan,1995).Likewise,parentalprovisionofdevelopmen-tally-appropriatestructuremayhelpchildrenlearntoidentifycircumstancesinwhichICisnecessary(Olson,Bates,&Bayles,1990).Actingthroughanyofthesemechanisms,supportiveparentingappearstopromotethedevelopmentofself-regulationintheearlyyearsofdevelopment.

Substantialevidence fromcross-sectionalandshort-termlongitudinalstudiessupportsassociationsbetweenvariousdimensionsofsupportiveparentingandself-regulationduringearlyandmiddlechild-hood.Forexample,inacross-sectionalstudycon-ductedwithasmallsampleofmiddle-classchildrenages6-8years,DavidovandGrusec(2006)revealedthatmaternalandpaternalresponsivitytochildren’sdistresswaspredictiveofchildren’sbetterregulationofnegativeemotions,andthatmaternalwarmthwasrelatedtochildren’sregulationofpositiveemotions.Inalongitudinalstudyofchildrencloseinagetofam-iliesinthecurrentinvestigation,priormaternalsen-sitivityandstimulationwasrelatedtochildren’slateraffectdysregulationat24and36months(NICHDEarlyChildCareResearchNetwork,2004).Anotherstudysuggestedthathighlevelsof“dyadicconnect-edness”atchildren’sages2-4predictedbetterdelay

ofgratification16monthslater(Li-Grining,2007).Finally,ameta-analysisofcross-sectionalstudiesonparentingandself-regulationinpreschool-agedchil-drenrevealedsmalleffectsofpositiveparentalcon-trol(i.e.,behavioralsupport)onchildren’scompliance(Karreman,vanTuijl,vanAken,&Deković,2006).Overall,highlevelsofparentalsupporthavebeencorrelatedwithhighlevelsofchildren’sregulation,althoughresearchusingsamplesofchildrenathigher-riskofearlysocioemotionaladjustmentiswanting.

Thesamecontentionhasbeensupportedinlongi-tudinalstudiesonsupportiveparentingwithrespecttochangeorgrowthinchildself-regulation,althoughthesestudiesareevenfewerinnumber.Oneshort-termlongitudinalstudyrevealedthatparentallimit-settingandscaffolding(butnotparentalwarmth)atchildren’sages33to40monthswererelatedtoimprovementsineffortfulcontrolobservedsixmonthslater(Lenguaetal.,2007).Inanotherstudy,whilecontrollingforchildren’sinitiallevelsofobservedeffortfulcontrol,highlevelsofmaternalresponsive-nessat22monthspredictedhighlevelsofeffortfulcontrolobservedat33months(Kochanska,Murray,&Harlan,2000).Likewise,anotherstudyindicatedthathighlevelsofmaternalresponsivenessat13and24monthswereassociatedwithchildren’sbetterdelayofgratificationandtask-focusingat24months(Olsonetal.,1990).Overall,thereissomeinitialsupportforthenotionthatsupportiveparentingpromotesthegrowthofself-regulationinearlychildhood,butagainthesestudieshavebeenprimarilyconductedwithlower-risk,predominantlymiddle-classsamples.

Harsh parenting.Empiricalevidencealsoindicatesthatharshparentingservestounderminethedevelop-mentofself-regulation.Inkeepingwithourconcep-tualizationofsupportiveparenting,harshparentingwasoperationalizedasamulti-dimensionalfactorthattappedbothgeneralparentingqualities(i.e.,overallharshness)andspecificparentalbehaviors(i.e.,par-ents’negativeverbalcomments,physicalbehaviors,andtheuseofnegativedirectivesduringparent-childinteractions).Harshparentalbehaviormayfrightenchildrenintosuppressingdisplaysofnegativeemo-tion(Sroufe,1996)andintheshort-termquicklystopchildren’smisbehavior(Coplan,Hastings,Lagacé-Séguin,&Moulton,2002).However,demandingandobtaininginstantcompliancehasitscosts.Asspeci-fiedbytheEarlyChildhoodCoercionModel(e.g.,Scaramella&Leve,2004),suchunpleasantinterac-tionsarethoughttodeprivechildrenofopportuni-tiestopracticecontrollingemotionorbehaviorinasupportivecontext(Colman,Hardy,Albert,Raffaelli,&Crockett,2006).Simultaneously,harshparentingispostulatedtoelevatechildren’slevelsofnegativeaffect,whichalsoincreasestheneedforeffectiveregu-

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lation(Scaramella&Leve,2004).Finally,harshnessmayalsoshiftchildren’sattentionfromtheparentingmessagetotheirfeelings,whichreducesthelikeli-hoodthatchildrenwillinternalizeparentalexpecta-tionsandchildren’ssubsequentwillingnesstocomplywithparentaldirections(Grusec&Goodnow,1994).

Infact,thereisempiricalevidencetosupportnega-tiveassociationsbetweenhighlevelsofharshparent-ingandlowerlevelsofselfregulation;however,boththenumberofstudiesonthistopicandeffectsizesofharshparentingtendtobemodest.Forexample,ameta-analysisofcross-sectionalstudiesonparent-ingandself-regulationinpreschool-agedchildrenrevealedsmallnegativeeffectsofnegativeparentalcontrol(e.g.,parentalhostility,criticism)onchildren’scompliancewithadultdirectives(Karremanetal.,2006).Anotherstudylinkingparentingprocessesandself-regulationinearlyadolescencerevealedmodest,negativeassociationsbetweenhighlevelsofconflict-ed-harshparentingandchildren’scontemporaneousself-regulation(Brody&Ge,2001).Thefewlongitu-dinalstudiesexploringchangeinselfregulationinrelationtoharshparentingshowasimilarpattern,althoughitshouldbepointedoutthatmostofthesestudieswereconductedusingsamplesofolderchil-dren.Inonestudyexaminingparallelgrowthmodelsofparentingandeffortfulcontrolduringthetransi-tiontoadolescence,initiallevelsofparentalrejectionandinconsistencywerelinkedonlytoinitiallevelsandnotgrowthofchildren’seffortfulcontrol(Len-gua,2006).Inanotherstudy,physicallypunitivedis-ciplineinearlychildhoodmadeasmall,negativecon-tributiontochangeinself-regulationbetweenearlyandmiddlechildhood(Colmanetal.,2006).Insum,thereislimitedevidencetosuggestthatharshparent-ingunderminesself-regulatorydevelopmentduringchildhood.Aswithsupportiveparenting,however,moreinformationisneededabouttheroleofharshparentinginthedevelopmentofICinearlychild-hood,especiallyforchildrenatriskforpoordevelop-mentaltrajectoriesofsocioemotionaladjustment.

Influences of children’s Other characteristics on Inhibitory controlWealsoconsideredtheinfluenceofchildren’ssexandethnicityonIC.Thebroaderliteratureonself-regulationhasrepeatedlyrevealedeffectsofchildsexonself-regulation,indicatingthatgirlsdemon-stratebetterregulationthanboysduringandafterinfancy(Li-Grining,2007;Raikesetal.,2007;Wein-berg,Tronick,Cohn,&Olson,1999).Conversely,littleresearchhassatisfactorilyexploredorrevealedmeaningfulethnicdifferencesinself-regulationatanypointinchildhood(Li-Grining,2007;Raver,2004),anissueweexploredinthecurrentstudybut

withoutanyapriorihypotheses.Wealsoconsideredthepossibilitythatassociations

betweenparentingandICmaybemoderatedbyeth-nicity.Manystudieshavedocumenteddistinctassoci-ationsbetweenparentingandchildbehaviorforspe-cificethnicgroups.Forexample,highlevelsofharshparentinghavepreviouslybeenlinkedtolowlevelsofchildcomplianceinEuropeanAmerican(EA)butnotAfricanAmerican(AA)children(Whiteside-Man-sell,Bradley,Owen,Randolph,&Cauce,2003).Con-sequently,weexaminedwhetherethnicdifferencesinself-regulationmaybeattributabletovariationsinearlyparenting,specificallywhetherlowlevelsofharshparentingweremorestronglyassociatedwithhigherlevelsofICamongEAversusAAchildren.

the current studyThecurrentstudywasexecutedwiththreegoalsinmind.First,wesoughttoexaminethestabilityandgrowthinICduringthetransitionfromthetoddlertopreschoolperiodamongalargesampleoffami-liesfacinghighlevelsofsocioeconomic,family,andchildrisk.Second,wealsoexaminedtheassocia-tionsbetweenobservedparentingandinitiallevelsandgrowthinIC.Finally,weinvestigatedpotentialinteractiveeffectsbetweenchildethnicityandharshparentingonobservedIC,specificallywhethernega-tiveassociationsbetweenharshparentingandICwouldbestrongerinEAversusAAfamilies.

Incomparisontopriorstudies,thisstudyispartic-ularlywell-situatedforexamininglatentgrowthandparentingcorrelatesofICinearlychildhood.DataforthecurrentstudywerecollectedaspartoftheEarlyStepsMultisiteProject,whichincludesalarge,ethni-callydiversesampleofchildrenathighriskforclini-cally-meaningfullevelsofproblembehavior.Thisisanimprovementoverexistingstudiesnotspecificallydesignedtoexaminechangeinself-regulation(e.g.,byhavingtwoorfewertimepoints,orbynotcontrol-lingforpriorself-regulationwhenmultipleassess-mentswereavailable),and/ortheuseofsmall-sized,predominantlymiddle-classsamples.Furthermore,thisstudyalsoemployedtwomulti-factorobserva-tion-basedindicesofparentingandawidely-usedmaternal-reportquestionnaireofchildren’sIC(i.e.,theinhibitorycontrolsubscalefromtheChildBehav-iorQuestionnaire;Rothbartetal.,2001).

Intermsofspecifichypotheses,weanticipatedthatchildren’sICwouldincreasebetweenages2and4basedonpriorstudies’resultsindicatingpositivechangeorgrowthinotherdimensionsofself-regula-tionduringchildhood(e.g.,Raikesetal.,2007).Alsoinkeepingwithpreviousstudies,weanticipatedthathighlevelsofsupportiveparenting(e.g.,Kochanskaetal.,2000)andlowlevelsofharshparenting(e.g.,

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Colmanetal.,2006)wouldberelatedtohighinitialstatusandfastergrowthinIC.

Methods

Participants Participantsincluded731familiesrecruitedbetween2002and2003fromWICProgramsinthemetro-politanareasofPittsburgh,PA,andEugene,OR,andwithinandoutsidethetownofCharlottesville,VA(formoredetailsaboutrecruitmentprocedures,pleaseseeDishionetal.,2007).FamilieswereapproachedatWICsitesandinvitedtoparticipateiftheyhadasonordaughterbetween2years0monthsand2years11monthsofage,followingascreentoensurethattheymetthestudycriteriabyhavingsocioeconomic,family,and/orchildriskfactorsforfuturebehaviorproblems.Ofthe1666parentswhowereapproachedatWICsitesandhadchildrenintheappropriateagerange,731ofthesefamilies(83.2%)mettheeligibil-ityrequirementsandagreedtoparticipate(88%inPittsburgh,84%inEugene,76%inCharlottesville).Thefinalstudysampleconsistedof272(37%)familiesinPittsburgh,271(37%)inEugene,and188(26%)inCharlottesville.MoreparticipantswererecruitedinPittsburghandEugenebecauseofthelargerpopu-lationofeligiblefamiliesintheseregionsrelativetoCharlottesville.

Childreninthesample(49%female)hadameanageof29.9months(SD=3.2)atthetimeoftheage2assessment.Acrosssites,thechildrenwerereportedtobelongtothefollowingracialgroups:27.9%Afri-canAmerican(AA),50.1%EuropeanAmerican(EA),13.0%Biracial,and8.9%otherraces(e.g.AmericanIndian,NativeHawaiian).Intermsofethnicity,13.4%ofthesamplereportedbeingHispanicAmerican(HA).Duringtheperiodofscreeningfrom2002to2003,morethantwo-thirdsofthosefamiliesenrolledintheprojecthadanannualincomeoflessthan$20,000,andtheaveragenumberoffamilymembersperhouseholdwas4.5(SD=1.63).Mostchildrenlivedwithtwobiologicalparents(37%),orwithacohab-itingsingleparent(21%).Forty-onepercentofthepopulationhadahighschooldiplomaorGEDequiva-lency,andanadditional32%hadonetotwoyearsofpost–highschooltraining.Foramoredetailedbreak-downofrecruitmentandparticipationdemographicdatabysite,pleaseseeDishionetal.(2007).

Retention. Ofthe731familieswhoinitiallypartici-pated,659(090%)wereavailableattheone-yearfol-low-upand619(85%)participatedatthetwo-yearfol-low-upwhenchildrenwerebetween4and4years11monthsold.Atages3and4,selectiveattritionanaly-sesrevealednosignificantdifferencesinprojectsite,children’srace,ethnicity,orgender,levelsofmaternal

depression,orchildren’sexternalizingbehaviors(par-entreports).Furthermore,nodifferenceswerefoundinthenumberofparticipantswhowerenotretainedinthecontrolversustheinterventiongroupsatbothages3(n=40andn=32,respectively)and4(n=58andn=53),respectively.720childrenhadsufficientdatatobeincludedingrowthmodelinganalyses(i.e.,theparticipatingchildhadatleastonereportofICatanytimepoint).

Design and ProcedureMothersand,ifavailable,ACssuchasfathersorgrandmothers,whoagreedtoparticipateinthestudywerescheduledfora2.5-hourhomevisitwhenchil-drenwerebetween2yearsand2years11monthsold.Caregiverscompletedseveralquestionnairesateachassessment,whichalsoinvolvedaseriesofinteractivetasks.Thehomevisitprotocolwasrepeatedatages3and4forboththecontrolandinterventiongroups.

Familiesreceived$100,$120,and$140fortheirparticipationintheage2,3and4assessments,respec-tively.Familiesrandomlyassignedtotheinterven-tionconditionreceivedadditionalremunerationaftereachstudy-relatedvisit.Randomizationtotreatmentwasbalancedongendertoassureanequalnumberofmalesandfemalesinthecontrolandinterven-tionsub-sample.Toensureblindness,theexamineropenedasealedenvelope,revealingthefamily’sgroupassignmentonlyaftertheassessmentwascompleted,andsharedthisinformationwiththefamily.Exam-inerscarryingoutfollow-upassessmentswerenotinformedofthefamily’sassignedcondition.Foradetaileddescriptionoftheintervention,seeDishionetal.(2007).Forthepurposesofthecurrentstudy,treatmentgroupstatuswasusedasacovariateinallanalyses.

MeasuresForallstudyvariables,descriptivestatisticsandcor-relationsarepresentedinTable1.

Inhibitory control.The13-iteminhibitorycontrolsubscaleoftheChildBehaviorQuestionnaire(CBQ;Rothbartet.al.,2001)wasusedtoassessbehavioralself-regulationatchildren’sages2,3and4.Thissub-scaleincludesitemssuchas,“Hasdifficultywaitinginlineforsomething,”and“Caneasilystopanactivitywhens/heistold‘no.’”Mothersrespondedtoeachitemona7-pointscale,rangingfrom1(extremelyuntrueofchild)to7(extremelytrueofchild).Thescaledemonstratedadequateinternalconsistencyateachtimepoint,withCronbach’salphasrangingfrom.59to.75.

Supportive parenting. Fourobservationalmeasuresofparentinginthehomewereusedtocreateasup-portiveparentingcompositeatage2(formoredetail,

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pleaseseeDishionetal.,2007;Lunkenheimeretal.,2007).Thesefourmeasuresincludedtheinvolve-mentsubscaleoftheInfant/ToddlerHOMEInven-tory(Caldwell&Bradley,1978),observeddurationproportionsofparentalpositivebehaviorsupportandengagementintheparent-childinteractionfromtheRelationshipProcessCode(RPC;Jabson,Dishion,Gardner,&Burton,2004),andtheproactivepar-entingindexfromtheCoderImpressionsInventory(COIMP).Confirmatoryfactoranalysesindicatedthatthesefourindicesformasinglelatentfactor(Luken-heimeretal.,2007).Consequently,thesescoreswerestandardizedandsummedinordertoformthesup-portiveparentingcompositeusedinthecurrentstudy(Cronbach’sα=.61).

Harsh parenting.FiveitemsfromtheCOIMPandthreedurationproportionsfromtheRPC(Jabsonetal.,2004)wereusedtocreateacompositeindexofobservedharshparentingatage2.COIMPitemstappedparents’provisionofdevelopmentally-inap-propriatereasonsforchildren’sbehaviorchange,dis-playsofangerorannoyancewiththechild,criticiz-ingorblamingthechildforfamilyproblems,useofphysicaldiscipline,ignoring/rejectingthechild,andmessagesaboutthechild’sworthlessness.RPCcodesincludeddurationproportionsofparentalnegativeverbal,directive,andphysicalbehavior.Theseindi-vidualitemswerestandardizedandsummedinordertocreateacompositeindexofparentalharshness(α=.75).

Missing DataWeexaminedpatternsofmissingdatabeforeaddress-ingsubstantiveresearchquestions.Thisrevealedthatbetween10to16%ofcasesweremissingICdataatanystudywave.FurtherexaminationrevealedthatAAchildrenweredisproportionatelymorelikelythannon-AAchildren(13%v.s.8%)tobemissingage2ICdata.Conversely,Hispanicchildrenwerelesslikelythannon-Hispanicchildren(2%v.s.10%)tobemissingICdataatage2.Childrenmissingage4ICdataalsotendedtocomefromfamiliesreport-inglowerannualincomesatage2(M=3.39,SD=2.10,whichcorrespondstoannualincomesrangingfrom$10,000to$14,999)thanchildrenwithICdata

atage4(M=3.95,SD=2.12,whichcorrespondstoannualincomesrangingfrom$15,000to$19,999).Nootherstudyvariablesor sample characteris-ticswereassociatedwithmissing IC data at anywave.As this suggesteddataweremissingatran-

dom(MAR),weemployedfullinformationmaximumlikelihoodinmodelestimationprocedures(Enders,2001).

Analysis PlanThecurrentstudy’sanalysestestedaseriesoflatentgrowthmodels.Theseanalyseswerebasedonthemultilevelmodelforchangeappliedwithinastruc-turalequationmodeling(SEM)framework(foramoredetailedexplanation,seeBollen&Curran,2006).Thisinvolvesadaptingconfirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA)sothatindividuals’scoresonavari-ableassessedrepeatedlyovertimeareusedtocon-structlatentvariablesforinterceptandslopeinIC.AllanalyseswereconductedinM-Plusversion4.0(Muthén&Muthén,2004).

FollowingtheproceduresrecommendedbySing-erandWillett(2003),weperformedthreedistinctphasesofmodeling.Anunconditionalmodel(i.e.,agrowthmodelwithoutanypredictors)wasestimatedinitiallytodeterminewhetheralinearmodelfitthedata.Preliminaryconditionalmodelswerecomputednext(i.e.,growthmodelswithpredictors),inwhicheachpredictorvariablewasconsideredseparatelywithanyotherpredictors.A“full”conditionalmodelwasestimated,inwhichtheinterceptandslopetermswereregressedsimultaneouslyuponallofthepredictorssimultaneously.Twofinalconditionalmodelswereestimated,includingonlytheparentingvariablesandtheir interac-tionswithrace/ethnicity. Al lcontinuouspre-dictorvariablesw e r e m e a n -centered priorto their inclu-sioninallcon-ditionalmodelstofacilitatetheinterpretationof t heir est i-mated effects.Centeredtermswerealsoused

Figure 1. Estimated linear growth inIC.

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tocalculateinteractions.Theminimalrequirementsforadequatemodel

fitwereanon-significantchi-squarestatistic(χ2),andaRootMeanSquaredErrorofApproximation(RMSEA)rangingfrom.05to.10,andsmaller-sizedAkaikeInformationCriterion(AIC)andsample-sizedadjustedBayesianInformationCriterion(BIC)values(Bollen&Curran,2006;Singer&Willett,2003).

results

Estimating Unconditional Growth in Inhibitory controlThefirstresearchquestion,whethertherewasgrowthinIC,wasaddressedthroughtheestimationandexaminationofalinearunconditionallatentgrowthmodel.Fitstatisticssuggestedthatthelinearmodelprovidedacceptablefittothedata,χ2fit(3)=2.22,

p > .05, RMSEA =.00, R MSEA 90%C.I.=.00-.06,AIC= 4058.21, BIC =4066.63.

MeansestimatedinthelinearmodelaredepictedinFig-ure 1. On average,initial status in ICwas relatively low(intercept = 3.94,p< .001).Thiswasfollowedbygradualand positive lineargrowth in IC fromages2to4(slope=.24,p<.001).Therewassignificantindi-v idual variabi l ityinintercepts(σ2i=.34,p<.001)andinslopes(σ2s=.05,p<.01),whichsuggeststhatchildrendifferedintermsoftheirage-2levelsofICandintheirratesofgrowthovertime.Intercepta nd s lop e ter m swerenegativelycor-related(r=-.31,p<.05),indicatingthathigherlevelsofICatage2werepredictiveofslowergrowthtoage4.

Fac tors Associated with Initial Levels and Growth in Inhibitory control In this section, wefocus on the pat-ternsofassociationsbetween predictorsandgrowthparam-e t e r s , w h ic h a reevaluated incondi-tionallatentgrowthmodels(i.e.,modelswithpredictors).Asaconsequenceofusingcentered predictorvariables,theunstan-dardizedregressionweightswereusedtointerprettheresultsof these ana lyses.In any conditionalmodel,withallotherpred ic tors in t hemodelheldconstant,every1-unitchangeinthepredictorcor-respondstoachangeinICequaltotheunstandardizedregressionweightforthatpredictor.

Eachofthefollowingpredictorvariableswasini-tiallyexaminedwithinaunivariateframeworktoexamineassociationswithinitialstatus(i.e.,ICatage2)andgrowthofICfromages2to4:treatmentgroupstatus,childgender,ethnicity,familyincome,posi-tiveparenting,andnegativeparenting.Whenanalysesrevealedassociationsbetweenagrowthparameterandapredictor,weplottedtheregressionlineforgrowthinICatonestandarddeviationaboveandbelowthatpredictor’smean.

Univariate conditional analyses.Preliminarycon-ditionalanalysesrevealedsignificantassociationsbetweensomepredictorsandmodelgrowthcompo-nents(seeTable2forregressionweights).Twofactorswereindependentlylinkedtointercept.Initialstatuswasassociatedwithgender,suchthatgirls’levelsofICwerereportedlyhigherthanboys’levelsatage2(seeFigure2a).Negativeparentingwasalsopredictiveofinitialstatus,suchthathighlevelsofnegativeparent-ingwerelinkedtolowlevelsofICatage2(seeFigure2d).ThreefactorswerelinkedtolineargrowthinIC.Specifically,ethnicitywasassociatedwithslope,suchthatAfricanAmericanchildren’sgrowthinICwasslowerthanotherchildren’sgrowth(seeFigure2b).Familyincomewaspredictiveofgrowth,indicating

Figure 2a. Conditional growthinIC:childgender.Figure 2b. Conditional growthinIC:childrace.Figure 2c. Conditional growthinIC:Supportiveparenting.

Figure 2d. Conditional growthinIC:harshparenting.Figure 2e. Conditional growthinIC:familyannualincome.

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thatICincreasedfasterforchildrenlivinginhigher-SESfamilies(Figure2e).Finally,positiveparentingwasalsolinkedtogrowth,suchthathighlevelsofpositiveparentingcorrespondedtofastergrowthinIC(seeFigure2c).

Multivariate conditional analysis.Inthemulti-variatecontext,alleffectsobservedintheunivariatemodelswerestillpresent,exceptforfamilyincome(seeTable2forregressionweights).Highinitialstatuscontinuedtobeassociatedwithfemalegenderandlowlevelsofnegativeparenting,AfricanAmericanstatuscontinuedtobelinkedtolessrapidlineargrowth,andpositiveparentingwasstillrelatedtomorerapidlineargrowthinIC.

Conditional analyses of moderation.Twofinalcon-ditionalmodelswereestimatedinordertoexplorewhethertheeffectsofparentingonICweremoder-atedbyethnicity(seeTable3).Inbothmodels,theindependenteffectofAAracewasmaintained,suchthatregardlessoflevelsofsupportiveorharshparent-ing,AAchildren’sgrowthinICwasslowerthanthegrowthexhibitedbychildrenofEAorotherraces.

DiscussionThecurrentstudywasexecutedtoaddressthreeresearchgoals.First,weexaminedgrowthinyoungchildren’sICbetweenages2and4.Ourresultsindi-catedthatgrowthinICduringearlychildhoodislin-earandpositive,suchthatchildren’simprovementsinICoccurredatconsistentspeedsbetweenages2and3andages3and4.Second,wealsoexamined

therolesofdemographiccharac-teristicsandobservedparentingatage2.Resultsrevealedthatgirlsandchildrenexperiencing lowlevelsofharshparentinghadhighinitiallevelsofIC.Furthermore,fastergrowthinICbetweenages2and4waslinkedtohighlevelsofobservedsupportiveparentingat age2. Inaddition,AAchil-dren evidenced slower growththannon-AAchildren.Third,wealsoexploredwhetherchildrace/ethnicitymoderatedparenting’sassociations with initial statusandgrowthininhibitorycontrol.Nosupportformoderationwasfound.

contributionsDescribing growth in inhibitory

control during early childhood.ThisisthefirstknownstudytoexaminelatentgrowthinICduringearly

childhood.Consistentwithpriorresearchongrowthinotherdimensionsofself-regulation(e.g.,Raikesetal.,2007),theunconditionalmodelofICrevealedthattherewassignificantlinearchangefromages2to4.Onaverage,children’sinitiallevelsofICweremoderatelylowandincreasedgraduallyovertime.Thecurrentstudy’sfindingsprovidefurtherempiricalsupportforthenotionthatself-regulationimprovesgraduallythroughoutchildhood(e.g.,Lenguaetal.,2007;Li-Grining,2007),andthatthecomponentofICinparticularimprovesduringchildren’searlyyears(e.g.,Kochanskaetal.,1996).

Child gender and ethnicity. Consistentwithhypoth-esesandexistingresearch,childgendercovariedsig-nificantlywithinitialstatusinIC.Asdemonstratedbypreviousstudies,girlshadhigherinitiallevelsofICthanboys(Li-Grining,2007),butdidnotdifferfromboysintermsofgrowthrates(Raikesetal.,2007).Thisprovidesadditionalevidencethatgenderdif-ferencesinlevelofself-regulationaremaintainedintheinterimbetweeninfancy(Weinbergetal.,1999)andmiddlechildhood(Colmanetal.,2006),butthatgenderdoesisnotassociatedwiththespeedatwhichself-regulationdevelops.

InadditiontodifferencesininitiallevelsofICforchildgender,AAchildren’sgrowthinICwasfoundtooccurataslowerratethanEAchildren’sgrowth.Racial/ethnicdifferencesinself-regulationhaverarelybeenexamined,particularlyinthefewstudiesusingsamplesappropriateforstudyingtheconfoundedeffectsofrace/ethnicityandsocioeconomicstatus

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(Raver,2004).Whenrace/ethnicityhasbeenexam-ined,fewifanydifferenceshavebeenfound(Li-Grin-ing,2007;NICHDEarlyChildCareResearchNet-work,2004).Weexploredthisunexpectedfindinginsubsequentanalysesevaluatingwhethertheeffectsofparentingweremediatedbyrace,butrevealednoevi-denceformediation.Threepossibleexplanationsfortheseresultsarepossible,tworelatedtohowICwasmeasuredinthecurrentstudy.Intermsofmeasure-ment,firstitispossiblethattheinhibitorycontrolscaleoftheCBQmaynotfunctionequivalentlyacrossethnicgroups,andthisscale’smeasurementequiva-lenceshouldbeexaminedbeforethiseffectisacceptedatfacevalue.Onarelatednote,parents’perceptionsoforexpectationsfortheirchildren’sICmayvaryacrossethnicgroups.Eitherway,nodefinitiveconclusionaboutthisresult’svaliditycanbemadeatthistime,andweencourageresearcherstoconsidertheroleofrace/ethnicityinfuturestudiesonthedevelopmentofself-regulation.ThirdandunrelatedtomeasurementbutdifferencesinthelivingconditionsofAAversusotherchildreninthesample,pastresearchusingsimi-larsamplesoflow-incomeAAandEAchildrenrevealthatAAfamiliesliveinsignificantlymoreadverseneighborhoodsthanEAfamiliesevenwithinastudiesofpredominantlylow-incomechildren(Shaw,Criss,Schonberg,&Beck,2004).Forexample,inapreviousstudyusingWICparticipantsatthePittsburghsite,duringthefirstsixyearsofsamplechildren’slives,therewasa40%versusa0.7%probabilityoflivinginprojectcommunitiesforAAandEAfamilies,respec-tively,with98%offamilieslivinginprojectneighbor-hoodsAA(Winslow,2001).Thus,ethnicdifferencesinratesofgrowthinICmayalsobeatleastpartiallyattributabletodifferencesinratesofneighborhoodadversity.Neighborhoodeffectsmighttaketheirtolldirectlyonchildren’sdevelopingICgraduallyandcumulativelyratherthaninitially(i.e.,noeffectsatage2)withchildren’sincreasingexposuretoextra-familialcontexts,orindirectlyastheycompromiseparentalwellbeingandcaregivingqualityduringthetoddlerandpreschoolperiods.

Effects of parenting.Consistentwithhypotheses,supportiveparentingwasassociatedwithgrowthinIC,suchthathighlevelsofobservedpositiveparentingatchild’sage2wereindicativeofsubsequentgrowthinICbetweenages2and4.Thisprovidesdirectsup-portforthehypothesisthatsupportive,involvedpar-entingpromotesthedevelopmentofself-regulationinearlychildhood(Kochanska&Aksan,1995;Kopp,1989).Theseresultsconfirmandreplicatepreviousfindingsofsupportiveparenting’sassociationwithself-regulation(Davidov&Grusec,2006;Murry&Brody,1999)andextendexistingknowledgeaboutshorter-termchangeinchildren’sregulatorycapaci-

ties(Kochanskaetal.,2000;Lenguaetal.,2007).Somewhatcontrarytoexpectations,harshpar-

entingwasassociatedonlywithinitiallevelsbutnotgrowthinIC.Inthiscase,highlevelsofharshpar-entingobservedatage2wereassociatedwithlowinitiallevelsofIC.Previousstudiesinvolvingharshparenting(e.g.,Brody&Ge,2001;Lengua,2006)havereportedconflictingresults,withnoclearpatternacrossstudies.Ononehand,thisfindingisconsis-tentwithoneexistingstudy,inwhichhighlevelsofparentalrejectionandinconsistencywerelinkedtoinitialstatusbutnotgrowthineffortfulcontroldur-ingthetransitiontoadolescence(Lengua,2006).Ontheotherhand,however,anotherstudyexaminingchangeinself-regulationbetweenearlyandmiddlechildhoodsuggestedthatearlyphysically-punitivedisciplineimpededsubsequentchangeinself-regu-lation(Colmanetal.,2006).

IntheabsenceofdirectsupportfortheinfluenceofharshparentingongrowthinIC,twocomplexexpla-nationsdeserveinvestigationinfuturelongitudinalinvestigations.Oneexplanationisthatparentingandself-regulationaretransactionalprocesses,asspeci-fiedintheECCM(Scaramella&Leve,2004).Spe-cifically,children’sdysregulatedbehaviororemotionmayelicitharshparenting,whichincreaseschildren’slevelsofhard-to-managenegativeaffect,andsoon.Coercivecyclessuchasthesemayslowchildren’sdevelopmentofself-regulatoryskills(Kopp,1989).Anotherexplanationisthattheexperienceofharshparentingdelayschildren’searlyICdevelopment,assuggestedbytheassociationwithinitialstatusinthisstudy.Regardlessofthestabilityofparentalharsh-ness,earlydevelopmentaldelaysmightpersistovertimeunlessdelayedchildrenmanageto“catchup.”Thecurrentresultsareconsistentwiththisexpla-nation,asonaveragechildrenatlowerinitiallevelsofICgrewmorerapidlybetweenages2and4thanchildrenathigherinitiallevels.Fullunderstandingoftheroleofparentalharshnesswillnotbereachedwithoutadditionalresearch,andastheseeffectsaregenerallyquitesmallinsize(Karremanetal.,2006),itisimperativethattheseexplorationsuselargesampleswheneverpossible.

Limitations & Future DirectionsDespiteadvancingourunderstandingofthecourseofICduringtheearlychildhoodandprovidingnoveldataonprecursorsofsuchpatterns,thestudyhassev-eralnotablemethodologicallimitations.First,asingleinformantprovidedquestionnaire-basedreportsofchildren’sIC.TheCBQ(Rothbartetal.,2001)isawell-validatedandwidely-usedquestionnaire(e.g.,Komsietal.,2006;Murphy,Eisenberg,Fabes,Shepard,&Guthrie,1999);however,confidenceinthesefindings

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couldbeincreasedifadditionalinformantshadcom-pletedthisquestionnaire.Likewise,observedindicesofchildren’sICisalsodesirable.Futurestudiesshouldincludemultipleinformantsandmethodologiesforassessingchildren’sIC.

Anotherlimitationwasinregardtothebroadpar-entingfactorsincludedaspredictors.Althoughthisstudywasstrengthenedbytheuseofobservationalmeasuresofparenting,includingrelativelyexpansivedimensionsprohibitedtheidentificationofprecisemechanismsbywhichparentalharshnessandsup-portmayinfluencethedevelopmentofIC.Research-ersmaywishtostudyonmorespecificelementsofparentinginordertoelucidatethesemechanismsinfuturestudiesoflongitudinalgrowthinIC.

Finally,thisstudyisalsolimitedinthatitincludedonlythreetimepointsandcouldthusconsideronlylinearmodelsofICgrowthduringearlychildhood.Researchersinterestedinlongitudinalgrowthshouldconsiderexamininggrowthspanningmorethan3timepointsandbeyondage4,aswasthecaseinthisstudy.Fromapracticalstandpoint,includingagreaternumberoftimepointswouldpermitexplorationsofnon-lineargrowth.ItispossiblethatthespeedofgrowthinICchangesovertime,andanyaccelerationsordecelerationsinspeedcannotbecapturedbylinearmodels.Additionally,fromaconceptualstandpoint,ICcontinuestogrowthroughmid-childhood.Asthisstudyfocusedonlyonearlychildhood,thecourseandinfluencesoncontinuedgrowthbeyondage4remainunknown.

Thecurrent findings indicatedthatgrowthinself-regulationevidencedinolder,morenormative,middle-classsampleswasalsoevidentinayounger,at-risk,morediversesample.Furthermore,thisstudyalsorevealednovelinformationregardingtherolesofsupportiveandharshparenting,supportingtheo-reticalassertionsthataspectsofpositiveparentingsupportpositivegrowth(Kochanska&Aksan,1995)andparentalharshnessimpedesgrowthinregulation(Scaramella&Leve,2004).Informationgleanedfromthesepursuitsmayhighlighttargetsforearlyinterven-tionsfocusedonparenting,inthehopesofpromotingearlygainsinIC,andconsequently,decreasedriskofadverseoutcomes.

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