Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Changing Directions in the Study of Conditioning

Observational Learning

Adaptation to the Environment

Learning—any process

through which

experience at one time

can alter an individual’s

behavior at a future time

Adaptation to the Environment

Conditioning—the process of

learning the associations

between environmental events

and behavioral responses

Learning Processes

• Classical conditioning

• Behaviorism

• Operant conditioning

• Social learning/modeling

Pavlov’s

Classical

Conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov

• Terminology

– Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

– Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

– Unconditioned Response (UCR)

– Conditioned Response (CR)

Unconditioned Stimulus eg. Food

Always elicits a reflex

action: an unconditioned

response food

blast of air

•noise

Unconditioned Response— eg.

Salivation

A response to an unconditioned

stimulus—naturally occurring

Salivation at smell of food

Eye blinks at blast of air

Startle reaction in babies

Conditioned Stimulus—eg. Bell

The stimulus that was originally neutral

becomes conditioned after

it has been paired with the unconditioned

stimulus

•Will eventually elicit the

unconditioned response by itself

Conditioned Response

The original unconditioned

response becomes conditioned

after it has been elicited by the

neutral stimulus

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

(NS)

Neutral Stimulus

(NR)

No Response

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

(UCS)

Unconditioned

Stimulus

(UCR)

Unconditioned

Response

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

No response

(NS)

Neutral

Stimulus

(UCR)

Unconditioned

Response

(UCS)

Unconditioned

Stimulus

Repeated

pairings

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

(CS)

Conditioned

Stimulus

(CR)

Conditioned

Response

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

at BGSU

Video courtesy of David Johnson

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Acquisition

(CS-US pairings)

0

15

10

5

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Extinction

(CS alone)

0

15

10

5

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Extinction

(CS alone)

0

15

10

5

24-hour

rest

Spontaneous Recovery

(CS alone)

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning

Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response

Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition

• Extinction

• Spontaneous recovery

• Stimulus generalization

• Stimulus discrimination

• Higher-order conditioning

Figure 6.6 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

Figure 6.8 Higher-order conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

John

Watson

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

John B. Watson and Little Albert

Conditioned

emotional responses

•Generalization

•Extinction

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

(CR)

(UR) Fear

(CS) White Rat

(US) Loud Gong

Little

Albert

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

CS CR

Skinner’s

Operant

Conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

•Interested in emitted behaviors

•Operant—voluntary response that

acts on the environment to

produce consequences

B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement—the

occurrence of a stimulus

following a response that

increases the likelihood

of the response being

repeated

Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning

• Acquisition

• Shaping

• Extinction

• Stimulus Control

– Generalization

– Discrimination

Behavior

Consequence

Patronize

Elmo’s Diner

Response Rewarding

Stimulus Presented

Tendency to tell

jokes increases

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Speaker Signal lights

Lever To food dispenser

Food pellet

Electric grid

To shock generator

Skinner

Box

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Cumulative

Recorder Drum

Pen Series

of rapid

responses

Reinforcement

slash Not

responding

One

response

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Rat in a

Skinner box

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement:

Consequences that Strengthen Responses

• Primary Reinforcers

– Satisfy biological needs

• Secondary Reinforcers

– Conditioned reinforcement (ex. Money,

good grades, praise, etc.)

Priscilla

the Pig

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Shaping – the reinforcement of closer

and closer approximations to the

desired behavior

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Cum

ula

tive R

esponses

Time

Response

extinguished High rate

Rate decreasing

Rate increasing

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous—every correct response

is reinforced; good way to get a low-

frequency behavior to occur

Partial—only some correct responses

are reinforced; good way to make a

behavior resistant to extinction

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Continuous Reinforcement Intermittent Reinforcement

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response Reinforcer

Response

Response

Response Reinforcer

Response

Response

Response Reinforcer

Partial Schedules—Ratio

Ratio schedules are based on number of responses emitted

Fixed ratio (FR)—a reinforcer is delivered after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses

Variable ratio (VR)—a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, but varies from trial to trial

Cum

ula

tive R

esponses

Time

Fixed-ratio (FR) Lower resistance

to extinction Rapid responding

Short pause after

reinforcement

Note: Higher ratios generate

higher response rates

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Cum

ula

tive R

esponses

Time

Variable-ratio (VR) Higher resistance

to extinction

High, steady rate

without pauses

Note: Higher ratios generate

higher response rates

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Partial Schedules—Interval

Interval schedules are based on time.

Fixed interval (FI)—reinforcer is delivered for

the first response after a fixed period of time

has elapsed

Variable interval (VI)—reinforcer is delivered

for the first response after an average time has

elapsed, differs between trials

Cum

ula

tive R

esponses

Time

Fixed-interval (FI) Lower resistance

to extinction

Long pause

after reinforcement

yields “scalloping” effect

Note: Short intervals generate

higher rates overall

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Cum

ula

tive R

esponses

Time

Variable-interval (VI) Higher resistance

to extinction

Low, steady rate

without pauses

Note: Short intervals generate

higher rates overall

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Operant Conditioning positive and

negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement –

following an operant with the

addition of a reinforcing stimulus

Negative reinforcement –

Following an operant with the

avoidance or removal of an aversive

stimulus

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Tendency to press

lever increases

Behavior

Response

Press lever

Consequence

Rewarding Stimulus Presented

Food delivered

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Tendency to press

lever increases

Behavior

Response

Press lever

Consequence

Aversive Stimulus Removed

Shock turned off

Positive or Negative Reinforcement?

A toddler begins to cry in a toy store.

The toddler’s mother gives her a toy

to quiet her down.

Next time they go to the store,

the child starts crying again. Positive

Reinforcement

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Escape

(CR)

(UR) Fear

(CS) Light

(US) Shock

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Avoidance

Consequences:

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Increasing a response:

– Positive reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus

– Negative reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus

• Escape learning

• Avoidance learning

• Decreasing a response:

– Punishment

– Problems with punishment

Punishment

• Type I (Positive) Punishment -Presentation of an aversive stimulus following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

• Type II (Negative) Punishment – Removal of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

*Problems with Punishment*

1. Does not teach or promote alternative,

acceptable behavior

2. May produce undesirable results such as

hostility, passivity, fear

3. Likely to be temporary

4. May model aggression

Figure 6.16 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

Changing Directions in the Study

of Conditioning

• Biological Constraints on Conditioning

– Instinctive Drift

– Conditioned Taste Aversion

– Arbitrary vs. ecological conditioned stimuli

• Cognitive Influences on Conditioning

– Latent learning

– Signal relations

– Response-outcome relations

Figure 6.19 Latent learning

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Observational

Learning

(CR)

(UR) Nausea

Conditioned Stimulus

(Taste of Berries)

Unconditioned

Stimulus

(Illness)

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Snake

Phobia

Changing

Directions

in the Study

of Conditioning

Classical

Conditioning

Operant

Conditioning

Observational

Learning

Albert

Bandura

Observational Learning

• Albert Bandura

– Observational learning

• Basic processes

– attention

– retention

– reproduction

– motivation

Figure 6.20 Observational learning

Do as I say, not as I do.

This will teach you to hit your

brother!

Why do you do that? You know you

get in trouble for it.

Famous Last Words???