Polynesia is a Subregion of Oceania

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Polynesia

This article is about the wider region in the Pacific. Forthe French collectivity, seeFrench Polynesia. For otheruses, seePolynesian (disambiguation).

Polynesia (UK: /plnizi/; US: /plni/, from

Polynesia is the largest of three major cultural areas in the Pacific

Ocean. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the

Polynesian triangle.

Geographic definition of Polynesia

Greek: poly many+ Greek: nsosis-land) is asubregionofOceania, made up of over 1,000islands scattered over the central and southern PacificOcean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islandsof Polynesia are termedPolynesiansand they share many

similar traits including language, cultureand beliefs.[1]Historically, they were experienced sailors and used starsto navigate during the night.

The term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by Frenchwriter Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all theislands of the Pacific. In 1831,Jules Dumont d'Urvilleproposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to theGeographical Society of Paris. Historically, these islandshave also been referred to as theSouth Sea Islands.[2]

1 Geography

1.1 Geology

Polynesia is characterized by a small amount of landspread over a very large portion of the mid and southernPacific Ocean. Most Polynesian islands and archipela-gos, including theHawaiian IslandsandSamoa, are com-posed of volcanic islands built by hotspots.New Zealand,Norfolk Island, andOuva, the Polynesian outlier nearNew Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of thelargely sunken continent ofZealandia. Zealandia is be-lieved to have mostly sunk by 23 m.y.a. and resurfacedgeologically recently due to a change in the movementsof the Pacific Plate in relation to the Indo-Australianplate, which served to uplift the New Zealand portion. Atfirst, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australianplate. TheAlpine Fault that traverses the South Islandis currently atransform faultwhile the convergent plateboundary from the North Island northwards is a subduc-tion zone called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone.The volcanism associated with thissubduction zoneis theorigin of theKermadecandTonganisland archipelagos.

Out of about 117,000 or 118,000 square miles of land,over 103,000 square miles are withinNew Zealand; theHawaiian archipelago comprises about half the remain-der. The Zealandia continent has approximately 1.4 mil-lion square miles of continental shelf. The oldest rocksin the region are found in New Zealand and are believedto be about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesianrocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawai-ian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million yearsold.

1.2 Geographic area

Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the

Polynesian Triangle, although there are some islands thatare inhabited by Polynesian people situated outside thePolynesian Triangle. Geographically, the Polynesian Tri-

1
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2 2 HISTORY OF THE POLYNESIAN PEOPLE

angle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii,NewZealandandEaster Island. The other main island groupslocated within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa,Tonga,theCook Islands,Tuvalu,Tokelau,Niue,Wallis and Fu-tunaandFrench Polynesia.

There are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua NewGuinea, theSolomon Islands, theCaroline Islands, and inVanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian culturaltraits outside of this great triangle is Rotuma, situatednorth ofFiji. The people of Rotuma have many com-mon Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian lan-guage. Some of theLau Islandsto the southeast of Fijihave strong historic and cultural links with Tonga.

However, in essence, Polynesia is a cultural term refer-ring to one of the three parts ofOceania(the others be-ing Micronesia and Melanesia). DNA studies suggest thatthe indigenous Pacific Islands population migrated from

Taiwan thousands of years ago and dispersed throughoutthe region into three distinct cultural groups.

1.3 Island groups

Mokolii Isle nearOahu,Hawaii

Cooks BayonMoorea,French Polynesia

The following are the islands and island groups, either

nations or overseas territories of former colonial powers,that are of native Polynesian culture or where archae-ological evidence indicates Polynesian settlement in the

past.[3] Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside thegeneral triangle that geographically defines the region.

1.3.1 Main Polynesia

ThePhoenix IslandsandLine Islands, most of which arepart of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands,but they had no permanent settlements until Europeancolonization.

1.3.2 Polynesian outliers

In Melanesia

Anuta(in theSolomon Islands)

Bellona Island(in the Solomon Islands)

Emae(in Vanuatu)

Fiji

Mele(inVanuatu)

Nuguria(inPapua New Guinea)

Nukumanu(in Papua New Guinea)

Ontong Java(in the Solomon Islands)

Pileni(in the Solomon Islands)

Rennell(in the Solomon Islands)

Sikaiana(in the Solomon Islands)

Takuu(in Papua New Guinea)

Tikopia(in the Solomon Islands)

TheUnited States Minor Outlying Islands

In Micronesia

Kapingamarangi (in the Federated States of Mi-cronesia)

Nukuoro(in the Federated States of Micronesia)

Subantarctic Islands

Auckland Islands (the most southerly known evi-dence of Polynesian settlement)[4][5][6][7]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auckland_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukuorohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapingamarangihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikopiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takuuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikaianahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennell_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilenihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontong_Javahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukumanuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuguriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mele,_Vanuatuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emaehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellona_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anutahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiribatihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mooreahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorea#Physical_descriptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oahuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lau_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotumahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Polynesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futunahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futunahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niuehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii


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2.1 Origins and expansion 3

Austronesians expansion map (French)

Moaiat Ahu Tongariki onRapa Nui

2 History of the Polynesian people

2.1 Origins and expansion

The Polynesian people are considered by linguistic, ar-chaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of thesea-faring Austronesian peopleand tracing Polynesianlanguages places their prehistoric origins in Taiwan.These people, the Taiwanese aborigines, are thought tohave arrived in Taiwan through South China about 8000years ago. They were a different people and linguisti-cally unrelated to the Han Chinesewho now form themajority of people in China and Taiwan. Taiwan, previ-

ously inhabited mostly by these non-Han aborigines, wasSinicizedvia large-scale Han immigration accompaniedwith assimilation during the 17th century.

After about 2000 BC speakers of Austronesian lan-guagesbegan spreading from Taiwan intoIsland South-east Asia,.[8][9][10]

By about 1500 BC they found the western edges ofMicronesiawere moving intoMelanesiathrough a routefurther south by way of the Birds Head of New Guinea.

There are three theories regarding the spread of humansacross the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well

by Kayseret al. (2000)[11]

and are as follows:

Express Train model: A recent (c. 30001000

BC) expansion out of Taiwan, via the Philippinesand eastern Indonesia and from the northwest( extquotedblBirds Head extquotedbl) of NewGuinea, on to Island Melanesia by roughly 1400 BC,reaching western Polynesian islands right about 900BC. This theory is supported by the majority of cur-

rent genetic,linguistic, and archaeological data.

Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long his-tory of Austronesian speakers cultural and geneticinteractions with indigenous Island Southeast Asiansand Melanesians along the way to becoming the firstPolynesians.

Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train modelbut with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with ad-mixture, both genetically, culturally and linguisti-cally with the local population. This is supportedby the Y-chromosome data of Kayseret al. (2000),which shows that all threehaplotypesof PolynesianY chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.[12]

In the archaeological record there are well-defined tracesof this expansion which allow the path it took to befollowed and dated with some certainty. It is thoughtthat by roughly 1400 BC,[13] extquotedblLapitaPeoples,so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in theBismarck Archipelagoof northwestMelanesia. This cul-ture is seen as having adapted and evolved through timeand space since its emergence Out of Taiwanextquot-edbl. They had given up rice production, for instance, af-ter encountering and adapting to breadfruit in the BirdsHead area of New Guinea. In the end, the most east-ern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered sofar has been through work on thearchaeology in Samoa.The site is atMulifanuaon Upolu. The Mulifanua site,where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied,has a true age of c. 1000 BC based on C14 dating. [14]

A 2010 study places the beginning of the human archae-ological sequences of Polynesia inTongaat 900 B.C.,[15]

the small differences in dates with Samoa being due todifferences in radiocarbon dating technologies between1989 and 2010, the Tongan site apparently predating the

Samoan site by some few decades in real time.

Within a mere three or four centuries between about1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita archaeological culturespread 6,000 km further to the east from the BismarckArchipelago, until it reached as far as Fiji, Tonga, andSamoa which were first populated around 3,000 yearsago as mentioned previously.[16] A cultural divide beganto develop between Fiji to the west, and the distinctivePolynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga andSamoa to the east. Where there was once faint evidenceof uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polyne-sian speech, most of this is now called borrowing and

is thought to have occurred in those and later years morethan as a result of continuing unity of their earliest di-alects on those far flung lands. Contacts were mediated
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especially through the easternLau Islandsof Fiji and thisis where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interaction oc-curred.

Grinding stones discovered fromarchaeology in Samoa

Tiny populations seem to have been involved at first.[15]

2.2 Culture

They were matrilineal and matrilocal peoples upon ar-

rival to Fiji, Tonga and Samoa and had been throughat least some goodly portion of their time in the Bis-marck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians, in theirprofound isolation from the world beyond, still showthe human genetic results of a culture, when their an-cestors were still in Melanesia, that allowed indigenousmen, but not women, to marry in useful evidence formatrilocality.[8][9][17][18]

Matrilocality and matrilineality went by-the-bye at someearly time but Polynesians and most other Austronesianspeakers in the Pacific Islands were/are still highly matri-centric in their traditional jurisprudence.[17] The Lapita

pottery for which the general archaeological complex ofthe earliest Oceanic Austronesian speakers in the Pa-cific Islands are named also went by-the-bye in West-ern Polynesia and language, social life and material cul-turewere very distinctly Polynesian by the timeEasternPolynesia began to be settled after a pause of 1000years or perhaps well more in Western Polynesia.

The dating of the settlement of Eastern Polynesia includ-ing Hawai'i,Easter Island, and New Zealand is not agreedupon in every instance. Most recently a 2010 study us-ingmeta-analysisof the most reliableradiocarbon datesavailable suggested that the colonization of Eastern Poly-

nesia (including Hawaii and New Zealand) proceeded intwo short episodes: in theSociety Islandsfrom 10251120 AD and further afield from 11901290 AD, [19]

with Easter Island being settled around 1200.[20][21] Otherarcheological models developed in recent decades, whichare challenged by that recent set of radiocarbon dating in-terpretations, have pointed to dates of between 300 and500 AD, or alternatively 800 AD (as supported byJaredDiamond) for the settlement of Easter Island, and simi-

larly, a date of 500 AD has been suggested for Hawaii.Linguistically, there is a very distinct East Polynesiansubgroup with many shared innovations not seen in otherPolynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are per-haps the source of the oldest Hawaiian speech whichis overlaid by Tahitian variety speech, as Hawaiian oralhistories would suggest. The earliest varieties of NewZealand Maori speech may have had multiple sourcesfrom around central Eastern Polynesia as Maori oral his-tories would suggest.

2.3 Political history of PolynesiaPerhaps the oldest extensive political entity was that ofthe Samoa-basedTu'i Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by theholders of the Tu'i Manu'a title, which may well be theoldest chieftain title in Polynesia. This confederacy likelyincluded much of Western Polynesia and some outliersat the height of its power in the 10th and 11th centuries;most notably: the Samoa, Tonga, Lau Islands and perhapsthe main islands of Fiji. The Tongans revolted around1000 years ago and formed their ownTu'i Tongaempirethat came to dominate Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, with aninfluence stretching from Nauru in the Northwest, to Niue

in the East. The empire ruled for much of the Medievalperiod, until the Samoan revolt and subsequent rise ofthe Malietoa dynasties in Samoa, and ended with theircapitulation to the TonganTu'i Ha'atakalauadynasty inthe 15th century.

2.3.1 Tonga 1500spresent

After a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga even-tually fell under theTu'i Kanokupoludynasty in the 16thcentury.

In 1845 the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and or-ator Tufahau united Tonga into more Western-stylekingdom. He held the chiefly title of Tui Kanokupolu,but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji (George)in 1831. In 1875, with the help of missionaryShirleyWaldemar Baker, he declared Tonga a constitutionalmonarchy, formally adopted the western royal style,emancipated the serfs, enshrined a code of law, landtenure, and freedom of the press, and limited the powerof the chiefs.

Tonga became a British-protected state under a Treaty ofFriendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and

rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Withinthe British Empire, which posted no higher permanentrepresentative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Waldemar_Bakerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Waldemar_Bakerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Tupou_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu%27i_Kanokupoluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu%27i_Ha%27atakalauahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malietoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_periodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_periodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niuehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauruhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu%27i_Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lau_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu%27i_Manu%27a_Elisalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Diamondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Diamondhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_datinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawai%27ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Polynesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Polynesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilocal_residencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrilinealityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_in_Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lau_Islands


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2.3 Political history of Polynesia 5

1970), Tonga formed part of theBritish Western PacificTerritories(under a colonial High Commissioner, resid-ing on Fiji) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being underthe protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without in-terruption.

On June 4, 1970 theKingdom of Tongareceived inde-pendence from the British protectorate.

2.3.2 Samoa Malietoapresent

Samoa remained under Malietoa chieftains until its East-West division by Tripartite Convention (1899) subse-quent annexation by theGerman Empireand the UnitedStates. The German-controlled Western portion ofSamoa (the consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory)was occupied by New Zealand in WWI, and administeredby it under a Class CLeague of Nations Mandate until

receiving independence on January 1, 1962. The new In-dependent State of Samoa was not a monarchy, thoughthe Malietoa title-holder remained very influential. It of-ficially ended, however with the death of Malietoa Tanu-mafili II on May 11, 2007.

2.3.3 Tahiti

See:Pomare Dynasty

2.3.4 Hawaii

See:Kingdom of Hawaii

Outrigger canoesat Waikiki beach, late 1800s

2.3.5 New Zealand Maori

On October 28, 1835 members of theNg Puhiand sur-roundingiwiissued a declaration of independence, asa confederation of tribes to resist potential French col-

onization efforts and to prevent the ships and cargo ofMaori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. Theyreceived recognition from the British monarch in 1836.

(SeeUnited Tribes of New Zealand,New Zealand Dec-laration of Independence,James Busby.)

Using theTreaty of Waitangiandright of discoveryasa basis, theUnited Kingdomannexed New Zealand as apart ofNew South Walesin 1840.

In response to the actions of the colonial government,Maori looked to form monarchy inclusive of all Maoritribes in order to reduce vulnerability to the Britishdivide-and-conquer strategy. Ptatau Te Wherowherohigh priest and chief of the Ngti Mahuta tribe of theWaikatoiwi was crowned as the Maori king in 1858. Thekings territory consisted primarily of the lands in the cen-ter of the North Island, and the iwi constituted from themost powerful non-signatories of the Treaty of Waitangi,with Te Wherowhero also never having signed it.[22] (SeeKingitanga.)

All tribes were incorporated into rule under the colonial

government by the late 19th century. Although Maoriwere given the privilege of being legally enfranchised sub-jects of the British Empire under the Treaty, Maori cul-ture and language were actively suppressed by the colonialgovernment and by economic and social pressures fromthePakehasociety until efforts were made to preserve in-digenous culture starting in the late 1950s and culminat-ing in theWaitangi Tribunal's interpretation of languageand culture being included in the treasures set to be pre-served under the Treaty of Waitangi. Moving from a lowpoint of 15,000 speakers in the 1970s, there are now over157,000 people who have some proficiency in the stan-

dardMori languageaccording to the 2006 census

[23]

inNew Zealand, due in large part to government recognitionand promotion of the language.

Maori are very much integrated into New Zealand soci-ety, and many are of mixed Maori and European, Asian,or Pacific Islander heritage. The New Zealand Defenceforces are over half Maori, and the New Zealand SpecialForces are 2/3 Maori. Jerry Mateparae, the former chiefof the armed forces, now serves asGovernor-General ofNew Zealand. However, despite major achievements to-wards equality, Maori are still under-represented in manyfields.

2.3.6 Fiji

(See:History of Fiji,Seru Epenisa Cakobau,Fiji duringthe time of Cakobau.)

The Lau islands had after the Tu'i Mana'u dynasty weresubject to periods of Tongan and then Fijian control un-til their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau ofthe Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tonganprince,Enele Ma'afu, proclaimed the Lau islands as hiskingdom, and took the titleTui Lau.

Fiji itself had been ruled by numerous divided chieftainsuntil Cakobau unified the landmass. The Lapita culture,the ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from3500
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tui_Lauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enele_Ma%27afuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji_during_the_time_of_Cakobauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiji_during_the_time_of_Cakobauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seru_Epenisa_Cakobauhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Fijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Mateparaehttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakehahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingitangahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waikatohttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Waleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_nulliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Busbyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Independence_of_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Independence_of_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Tribes_of_New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwihttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outrigger_canoehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hawaiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomare_Dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations_Mandatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_Convention_(1899)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Western_Pacific_Territories


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BCE until they were displaced by the Melanesians about athousand years later. (Interestingly, Samoans and subse-quent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian face paint-ing methods.)

In 1873, Cakobau ceded a Fiji heavily indebted to foreign

creditors to the United Kingdom. It became indepen-dent on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September1987.

2.3.7 Cook Islands

See:Kingdom of Rarotonga.

2.3.8 Tuvalu

See:History of Tuvalu.

Canoe carving onNanumeaatoll, Tuvalu

Thereefislands andatollsofTuvaluare identified as be-ing part of West Polynesia. The pattern of settlement thatis believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spreadout from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls,with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration intothe Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia andMicronesia.[24][25][26]

The stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans varyfrom island to island. On Niutao,[27] Funafuti andVaituputhe founding ancestor is described as being from

Samoa;[28][29] whereas onNanumeathe founding ances-tor is described as being from Tonga.[28] These storiescan be linked to what is known about the Samoa-basedTu'i Manu'a Confederacy, ruled by the holders of the Tu'iManu'a title, which confederacy likely included much ofWestern Polynesia and some outliers at the height of its

power in the 10th and 11th centuries.

The extent of influence of theTui Tongaline of Tongankings, which originated in the 10th century is understoodto have extended to some of the islands of Tuvalu in themid-13th century.[29] However the existence of the TuiTonga Empireis disputed.

The oral history ofNiutaorecalls that in the 15th centuryTongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef ofNiutao, Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourthTongan invasion of Niutao occurred in the late 16th cen-

tury, again with the Tongans being defeated.

[27]

Fishing was the primary source of protein, with thecuisine of Tuvalureflecting the food that could be grownon low-lying atolls. Navigation between the islands ofTuvalu was carried out using outrigger canoes. The pop-ulation levels of the low-lying islands of Tuvalu had to bemanaged because of the effects of periodic droughts andthe risk of severe famine if the gardens were poisoned bythe salt from the storm-surge of atropical cyclone.

2.4 Polynesian links to the Americas

See also: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact Possi-ble Polynesian trans-oceanic contact

Thesweet potato, calledkmarain Mori, which is na-tive to the Americas, was widespread in Polynesia whenEuropeans first reached the Pacific. Remains of the planthave been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to centralPolynesia circa 700 AD and spread across Polynesia fromthere, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to SouthAmerica and back.[30]

Thor Heyerdahl proposed in the mid-20th century thatthe Polynesians had migrated from South America onbalsa-log boats.[31][32] Many anthropologists have criti-cised Heyerdahls theory, includingWade Davis in hisbook The Wayfinders. Davis says that Heyerdahl ig-nored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic,and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by geneticand archaeological data, indicating that he was patentlywrong.[33]

3 Cultures of Polynesia

Main article:Polynesian culturePolynesia divides into two distinct cultural groups, East
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade_Davishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahlhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipomoea_batatashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact#Possible_Polynesian_trans-oceanic_contacthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact#Possible_Polynesian_trans-oceanic_contacthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisine_of_Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niutaohttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu%27i_Manu%27a_Elisalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanumeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaitupuhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funafutihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niutaohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_outliershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reefhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanumeahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rarotonga


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Painting ofTahitian Women on the Beach by Paul GauguinMuse d'Orsay

Polynesia and West Polynesia. The culture of West Poly-nesia is conditioned to high populations. It has strong in-stitutions of marriage and well-developed judicial, mon-etary and trading traditions. It comprises the groups ofTonga, Niue, Samoaand extended to the atolls of Tu-valu to the north. The pattern of settlement that is be-lieved to have occurred is that the Polynesians spreadout from the Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls,withTuvaluproviding a stepping stone to migration intothe Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia andMicronesia.[24][25][26]

Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller

islands and atolls, principally the Cook Islands, Tahiti, theTuamotus, theMarquesas,Hawaii,Rapa Nuiand smallercentral-pacific groups. The large islands ofNew Zealandwere first settled by Eastern Polynesians who adaptedtheir culture to a non-tropical environment.

Unlike in Melanesia, leaders were chosen in Polynesiabased on their hereditary bloodline. Samoa however, hadanother system of government that combines elements ofheredity and real-world skills to choose leaders. This sys-tem is calledFa'amatai.[34] According to Ben R. Finneyand Eric M. Jones, On Tahiti, for example, the 35,000Polynesiansliving there at the time of European discovery

were divided between high-status persons with full accessto food and other resources, and low-status persons withlimited access.[35]

Religion, farming, fishing, weather prediction, out-riggercanoe (similar to modern catamarans) construction andnavigationwere highly developed skills because the pop-ulation of an entire island depended on them. Tradingof both luxuries and mundane items was important to allgroups. Periodic droughts and subsequent famines oftenled to war.[35] Many low-lying islands could suffer severefamine if their gardens were poisoned by the salt from thestorm-surge of atropical cyclone. In these cases fishing,

the primary source of protein, would not ease loss of foodenergy. Navigators, in particular, were highly respectedand each island maintained a house of navigation with a

Carvingfrom the ridgepole of aMorihouse, ca 1840

canoe-building area.

Settlements by the Polynesians were of two categories:the hamlet and the village. Size of the island inhabiteddetermined whether or a not a hamlet would be built.The largervolcanicislands usually had hamlets becauseof the many zones that could be divided across the island.Food and resources were more plentiful and so these set-tlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) wereestablished so that there would be no overlap betweenthe zones. Villages, on the other hand, were built on thecoasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more

housesin the case of atolls, on only one of the groupso that food cultivation was on the others. Usually thesevillages were fortified with walls and palisades made ofstone and wood.[36]

However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite: largevolcanic islands with fortified villages.

As well as being great navigators these people were artistsand artisansof great skill. Simple objects, such as fish-hooks would be manufactured to exacting standards fordifferent catches and decorated even when the decorationwas not part of the function. Stone and wooden weaponswere considered to be more powerful the better they were

made and decorated. In some island groups weaving wasa strong part of the culture and gifting woven articles aningrained practice. Dwellings were imbued with charac-
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_arthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanichttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_carvinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catamaranhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%27amataihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapa_Nuihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquesashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuamotushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahitihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_outliershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niuehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongahttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_10/%EE%BF%80https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Gauguin


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ter by the skill of their building. Body decoration andjewellery is of international standard to this day.

The religious attributes of Polynesians were commonover the whole Pacific region. While there are some dif-ferences in their spoken languages they largely have the

same explanation for the creation of the earth and sky,for the gods that rule aspects of life and for the religiouspractices of everyday life. People travelled thousands ofmiles to celebrations that they all owned communally.

Beginning in the 1820s large numbers of missionar-ies worked in the islands, converting many groups toChristianity. Polynesia, argues Ian Breward, is nowone of the most strongly Christian regions in theworld....Christianity was rapidly and successfully in-corporated into Polynesian culture. War and slaverydisappeared. [37]

4 Polynesian languages

Main article:Polynesian languages

Polynesian languages are all members of the family ofOceanic languages, a sub-branch of theAustronesianlan-guage family. Polynesian languages show a consider-able degree of similarity. Thevowelsare generally thesamea, e, i, o, and u, pronounced as inItalian,Spanish,andGermanand the consonants are always followed bya vowel. The languages of various island groups show

changes in consonants. Rand v are used in central andeastern Polynesia whereas l and v are used in westernPolynesia. Theglottal stop is increasingly representedby an inverted comma or'okina. In theSociety Islands,the original Proto-Polynesian*kand *ng have mergedas glottal stop; so the name for the ancestral homeland,deriving from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian*sawaiki,[38] be-comes Havai'i. In New Zealand, where the original *wis used instead ofv, the ancient home isHawaiki. In theCook Islands, where the glottal stop replaces the original*s(with a likely intermediate stage of *h), it is Avaiki.In the Hawaiian islands, where the glottal stop replaces

the original k, the largest island of the group is namedHawaii. In Samoa, where the originalsis used instead ofh,v replacesw, and the glottal stop replaces the originalk, the largest island is calledSavai'i.[1]

5 Economy

With the exception of New Zealand, the majority of in-dependent Polynesian islands derive much of their in-come from foreign aid and remittances from those wholive in other countries. Some encourage their young peo-

ple to go where they can earn good money to remit totheir stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations,such asEaster Island, supplement this with tourism in-

come. Some have more unusual sources of income, suchasTuvaluwhich marketed its '.tv' internet top-level do-main name or the Cooks that relied onstampsales.

Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi,Prime Minister of Samoa, who ini-

tiated thePolynesian Leaders Groupin late 2011.

6 Political union

After several years of discussing a potential regionalgrouping, three sovereign states (Samoa, Tonga and Tu-valu) and five self-governing but non-sovereign territoriesformally launched, in November 2011, the PolynesianLeaders Group, intended to cooperate on a variety ofissues including culture and language, education, re-sponses to climate change, and trade and investment.

It does not, however, constitute a political or monetaryunion.[39][40][41]

7 Polynesian navigation

Main article:Polynesian navigation

Polynesia comprised islands diffused throughout a trian-gular area with sides of four thousand miles. The areafrom the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to Easter Island

in the east and to New Zealand in the south were all set-tled by Polynesians.

Navigatorstraveled to small inhabited islands using onlytheir own senses and knowledge passed by oral traditionfrom navigator to apprentice. In order to locate direc-tions at various times of day and year, navigators in East-ern Polynesia memorized important facts: the motion ofspecificstars, and where they would rise on thehorizonof the ocean; weather; times of travel; wildlife species(which congregate at particular positions); directions ofswells on the ocean, and how the crew would feel theirmotion; colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds

would cluster at the locations of some islands; and anglesfor approaching harbors.

Thesewayfindingtechniques, along withoutrigger canoe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canoehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outriggerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayfindinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatherhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigatorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_navigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_Leaders_Grouphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_Leaders_Grouphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_Leaders_Grouphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuilaepa_Sailele_Malielegaoihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.tvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvaluhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Islandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savai%27ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaikihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Polynesian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27okinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonanthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowelshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_languageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_languageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_languages


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Polynesian (Hawaiian) navigators sailing multi-hulledcanoe, ca

1781

A common fishing canoe va'a with outrigger in Savai'i island,Samoa, 2009

construction methods, were kept as guildsecrets. Gen-erally each island maintained a guild of navigators whohad very high status; in times of famine or difficulty thesenavigators could trade for aid or evacuate people to neigh-boring islands. On his first voyage of Pacific explorationCook had the services of a Polynesian navigator,Tupaia,who drew a hand-drawn Chart of the islands within 2,000miles (3,200 km) radius (to the north and west) of hishome island ofRa'iatea. Tupaia had knowledge of 130islands and named 74 on his Chart.[42] Tupaia had nav-

igated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. Hehad not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfa-thers time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans has di-minished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grand-father and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge asto the location of the major islands of western Polyne-sia and the navigation information necessary to voyagetoFiji, SamoaandTonga.[43] As the Admiralty ordersdirected Cook to search for the Great Southern Con-tinent, Cook ignored Tupaias Chart and his skills as anavigator. To this day, original traditional methods ofPolynesian Navigation are still taught in the Polynesian

outlierofTaumako Islandin theSolomon Islands.From a single chicken bone recovered from the archae-ological site of El Arenal-1, on the Arauco Peninsula,

Chile, a 2007 research report looking at radiocarbon dat-ing and an ancient DNA sequence indicate that Polyne-sian navigators may have reached the Americas at least100 years before Columbus (who arrived 1492 AD), in-troducing chickens to South America.[44][45] A later re-port looking at the same specimens concluded:

A published, apparently pre-Columbian,Chilean specimen and six pre-European Poly-nesian specimens also cluster with the sameEuropean/Indian subcontinental/SoutheastAsian sequences, providing no support for aPolynesian introduction of chickens to SouthAmerica. In contrast, sequences from two ar-chaeological sites on Easter Island group withan uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia,Japan, and China and may represent a geneticsignature of an early Polynesian dispersal.

Modeling of the potential marine carboncontribution to the Chilean archaeologicalspecimen casts further doubt on claims forpre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proofwill require further analyses of ancient DNAsequences and radiocarbon and stable isotopedata from archaeological excavations withinboth Chile and Polynesia.[46]

Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of nav-igation were largely lost after contact with and coloniza-tion by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting

for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated andscattered parts of the Pacific. By the late 19th century tothe early 20th century a more generous view of Polyne-sian navigation had come into favor, perhaps creating aromantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and naviga-tional expertise.

In the mid to late 1960s, scholars began testing sailingand paddling experiments related to Polynesian naviga-tion: David Lewis sailed his catamaran from Tahiti toNew Zealand usingstellar navigationwithout instrumentsand Ben Finney built a 40-foot replica of a Hawaiian dou-ble canoe Nalehia and tested it in Hawaii.[47] Mean-

while, Micronesian ethnographic research in the CarolineIslands revealed that traditional stellar navigational meth-ods were still in every day use. Recent re-creations ofPolynesian voyaging have used methods based largely onMicronesian methods and the teachings of a Micronesiannavigator,Mau Piailug.

It is probable that the Polynesian navigators employed awhole range of techniques including use of the stars, themovement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the airand sea interference patterns caused by islands andatolls,the flight of birds, the winds and the weather. Scientiststhink that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the

seasonal paths of birds. There are some references intheir oral traditions to the flight of birds and some say thatthere were range marks onshorepointing to distant islands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atollhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mau_Piailughttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Finneyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_navigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Henry_Lewishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arauco_Peninsulahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islands_of_the_Solomon_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duff_Islandshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_outlierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_outlierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_Australishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_Australishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fijihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%27iateahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupaia_(navigator)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guildhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savai%27ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canoe


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10 9 REFERENCES

in line with theseflyways. One theory is that they wouldhave taken afrigatebirdwith them. These birds refuseto land on the water as their feathers will become water-logged making it impossible to fly. When the voyagersthought they were close to land they may have releasedthe bird, which would either fly towards land or else re-

turn to thecanoe. It is likely that the Polynesians also usedwave and swell formations to navigate. It is thought thatthe Polynesian navigators may have measured the time ittook to sail between islands in canoe-days or a similartype of expression.

Also, people of the Marshall Islands used special de-vices calledstick charts, showing the places and direc-tions of swells and wave-breaks, with tiny seashells af-fixed to them to mark the positions of islands along theway. Materials for these maps were readily available onbeaches, and their making was simple; however, their ef-fective use needed years and years of study.[48]

8 See also

List of Polynesians

Polynesian mythology

Polynesian Society

Polynesian Voyaging Society

9 References

[1] Hiroa, Te Rangi (Sir Peter Henry Buck) (1964). Vikingsof the Sunrise. NZ Electronic Text Centre, Victoria Univer-sity, NZ Licence CC-BY-SA 3.0(reprint ed.) (Whitcombeand Tombs Ltd). p. 67. Retrieved 2 March 2010.

[2] Michael Russell, Polynesia: A History of the South SeaIslands, Including New Zealand(1849).

[3] Islands that were uninhabited at contact but which havearchaeological evidence of Polynesian settlement includeNorfolk Island, Pitcairn, New Zealands KermadecIslands

and some small islands near Hawaii.

[4] O'Connor, TomPolynesians in the Southern Ocean: Oc-cupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory in NewZealand Geographic 69 (SeptemberOctober 2004): 68)

[5] Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'ReganTo the FinalShore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands

in South Polynesiain Australian Archaeologist: CollectedPapers in Honour of Jim Allen Canberra: Australian Na-tional University, 2000. 440454.

[6] Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'ReganThe Polyne-

sian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An InitialReport on Enderby IslandSouthern Margins Project Re-port. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report, 1999

[7] Anderson, Atholl J. Subpolar Settlement in South PolynesiaAntiquity 79.306 (2005): 791800

[8] Hage, P.; Marck, J. (2003). Matrilineality and Melane-sian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes. Current An-thropology44(S5): S121.doi:10.1086/379272.

[9] Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Cordaux, R.; Casto, A.; Lao, O.;Zhivotovsky, L. A.; Moyse-Faurie, C.; Rutledge, R. B. etal. (2006). Melanesian and Asian origins of Polynesians:mtDNA and Y chromosome gradients across the Pacific.Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (11): 22342244.doi:10.1093/molbev/msl093. PMID 16923821. |first10=missing |last10= in Authors list (help); |first11= missing|last11= in Authors list (help); |first12= missing |last12= inAuthors list (help); |first13= missing |last13= in Authorslist (help); |first14= missing |last14= in Authors list (help);|first15= missing |last15= in Authors list (help)

[10] Su, B.; Jin, L.; Underhill, P.; Martinson, J.; Saha, N.;

McGarvey, S.T.; Shriver, M.D.; Chu, J.; Oefner, P.;Chakraborty, R.; Deka, R. (2000). Polynesian origins:Insights from the Y chromosome. PNAS97(15): 82258228.doi:10.1073/pnas.97.15.8225.

[11] Kayser, M.; Brauer, S.; Weiss, G.; Underhill, P. A.;Roewer, L.; Schiefenhvel, W.; Stoneking, M. (2000).Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes.Cur-rent Biology 10 (20): 12371246. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00734-X.PMID 11069104.

[12] Melanesian and Asian Origins of Polynesians: mtDNAand Y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific. An-throcivitas.net. October 2009. Retrieved 23 January

2014.

[13] Kirch, P. V. (2000). On the road of the wings: an ar-chaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European

contact. London: University of California Press. ISBN0520234618. Quoted in Kayser, M.;et al. (2006).

[14] Green, Roger C.; Leach, Helen M. (1989). New In-formation for the Ferry Berth Site, Mulifanua, WesternSamoa. Journal of the Polynesian Society 98 (3). Re-trieved 1 November 2009.

[15] Burley, David V.; Barton, Andrew; Dickinson, WilliamR.; Connaughton, Sean P.; Tach, Karine (2010).Nukuleka as a Founder Colony for West Polynesian Set-tlement: New Insights from Recent Excavations. Journalof Pacific Archaeology1(2): 128144.

[16] Bellwood, Peter (1987). The Polynesians Prehistory ofan Island People. Thames and Hudson. pp. 4565.ISBN0500274509.

[17] Hage, P. (1998). Was Proto Oceanic Society matrilin-eal? extquotedbl. Journal of the Polynesian Society 107(4): 365379.JSTOR 20706828.

[18] Marck, J. (2008). Proto Oceanic Society was matrilin-eal.Journal of the Polynesian Society117(4): 345382.JSTOR 20707458.

[19] Wilmshurst, J. M.; Hunt, T. L.; Lipo, C. P.; Anderson,A. J. (2010). High-precision radiocarbon dating shows
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20707458https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/20706828https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500274509https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_98_1989/Volume_98,_No._3/New_information_for_the_Ferry_Berth_site,_Mulifanua,_Western_Samoa,_by_H._M._Leach,_p_319-330/p1?page=0&action=searchresult&target=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_98_1989/Volume_98,_No._3/New_information_for_the_Ferry_Berth_site,_Mulifanua,_Western_Samoa,_by_H._M._Leach,_p_319-330/p1?page=0&action=searchresult&target=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_98_1989/Volume_98,_No._3/New_information_for_the_Ferry_Berth_site,_Mulifanua,_Western_Samoa,_by_H._M._Leach,_p_319-330/p1?page=0&action=searchresult&target=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520234618https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://anthrocivitas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=5420http://anthrocivitas.net/forum/showthread.php?t=5420https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11069104https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2800%2900734-Xhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-9822%2800%2900734-Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.15.8225https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Scienceshttp://www.pnas.org/content/97/15/8225.abstracthttp://www.pnas.org/content/97/15/8225.abstracthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#first_missing_lasthttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16923821https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsl093https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F379272https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermadec_Islandshttp://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BucViki-t1-body-d1-d7.htmlhttp://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BucViki-t1-body-d1-d7.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_Voyaging_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_Societyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesian_mythologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polynesianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_charthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frigatebirdhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyway


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recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Poly-nesia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences108(5): 1815.doi:10.1073/pnas.1015876108.

[20] Hunt, T. L.; Lipo, C. P. (2006). Late Colonizationof Easter Island. Science 311 (5767): 16031606.doi:10.1126/science.1121879.PMID 16527931.

[21] Hunt, Terry; Lipo, Carl (2011). The Statues that Walked:Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island. Free Press.ISBN1-4391-5031-1.

[22] The Treaty of Waitangi. The colonisation of NewZealand. Retrieved 20 September 2011.

[23] Mori language speakers, msd.govt.nz

[24] Bellwood, Peter (1987). The Polynesians Prehistory ofan Island People. Thames and Hudson. pp. 29, 54. ISBN0500274509.

[25] Bayard, D.T. (1976). The Cultural Relationships of thePolynesian Outiers. Otago University, Studies in Prehis-toric Anthropology, Vol. 9.

[26] Kirch, P.V. (1984). The Polynesian Outiers.Journal of Pacific History 95 (4): 224238.doi:10.1080/00223348408572496.

[27] Sogivalu, Pulekau A. (1992). A Brief History of Niutao.Institute of Pacific Studies, Universityof the South Pacific.ISBN 982-02-0058-X.

[28] OBrien, Talakatoa (1983). Tuvalu: A History, Chapter1, Genesis. Institute of Pacific Studies, University of theSouth Pacific and Government of Tuvalu.

[29] Kennedy, Donald G. (1929).Field Notes on the Cultureof Vaitupu, Ellice Islands. Journal of the Polynesian So-ciety38: 25.

[30] Van Tilburg, Jo Anne (1994). Easter Island: Archaeol-ogy, Ecology and Culture. Washington, DC: SmithsonianInstitution Press.

[31] Sharp, Andrew (1963). Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia,Longman Paul Ltd. pp. 122128.

[32] Finney, Ben R. (1976) New, Non-Armchair Research.In Ben R. Finney , Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The

Polynesian Society Inc. p. 5.

[33] Davis, Wade (2010)The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wis-dom Matters in the Modern World, Crawley: University ofWestern Australia Publishing, p. 46.

[34] Peoples of the World by National Geographic

[35] Finney, Ben R. and Jones, Eric M. (1986).extquotedblInterstellar Migration and the HumanExperienceextquotedbl. University of California Press.p.176.ISBN 0-520-05898-4

[36] Encyclopdia Britannica, 1995

[37] Ian Breward in Farhadian, Charles E.; Hefner, Robert W.(2012). Introducing World Christianity. John Wiley &Sons. pp. 21829.; quote at p 228

[38] Polynesian Lexicon Project Online. Pollex.org.nz.

[39] NZ may be invited to join proposed Polynesian Triangleginger group, Pacific Scoop, 19 September 2011

[40] New Polynesian Leaders Group formed in Samoa, Ra-dio New Zealand International, 18 November 2011

[41] American Samoa joins Polynesian Leaders Group, MOUsigned,Savali, 19 November 2011

[42] Druett, Joan (1987). Tupaia The Remarkable Story ofCaptain Cooks Polynesian Navigator. Random House,New Zealand. pp. 226227. ISBN 0313387486.

[43] Druett, Joan (1987). Tupaia The Remarkable Story ofCaptain Cooks Polynesian Navigator. Random House,New Zealand. pp. 218233. ISBN 0313387486.

[44] Wilford, John Noble (June 5, 2007). First Chickensin Americas Were Brought From Polynesia. New York

Times.

[45] Storey, A.A. et al. (2007). Radiocarbon and DNAevidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polyne-sian chickens to Chile. PNAS104 (25): 1033510339.doi:10.1073/pnas.0703993104. PMC 1965514. PMID17556540.

[46] Gongora, Jaime; Rawlence, Nicolas J.; Mobegi, Vic-tor A.; Jianlin, Han; Alcalde, Jose A.; Matus, JoseT.; Hanotte, Olivier; Moran, Chris; Austin, Jeremy J.;Ulm, Sean; Anderson, Atholl J.; Larson, Greger; Cooper,Alan (2008). Indo-European and Asian origins forChilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA. PNAS

105(30): 1030810313.doi:10.1073/pnas.0801991105.PMC 2492461.PMID 18663216.

[47] Lewis, David. A Return Voyage Between Puluwat andSaipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques. InBen R. Finney (1976), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging,The Polynesian Society Inc.

[48] Bryan, E.H. (1938).Marshall Islands Stick Chart. Par-adise of the Pacific50 (7): 1213.

10 Further reading

Gatty, Harold (1999). Finding Your Ways WithoutMap or Compass. Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN0-486-40613-X.

11 External links

History of Easter Island illustrated by stamps

Interview with David Lewis

Lewis commenting onSpirits of the Voyage

PhotogalleryFrench Polynesia (Tahiti, Moorea,Motu Tiahura)
http://www.tropic-island.net/gallery/album.php?id_album=12http://www.tropic-island.net/gallery/album.php?id_album=12http://www.tritonfilms.com/lewisreview.htmhttp://www.abc.net.au/gnt/history/Transcripts/s1066068.htmhttp://www.jeanhervedaude.com/Ile%20de%20Paques%20histoire%20par%20les%20timbres.htmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-40613-Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.ethnomath.org/resources/bryan1938.pdfhttp://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=4479http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=4479https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18663216https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492461https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0801991105https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492461https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492461https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17556540https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0703993104https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1965514http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/science/05chic.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/science/05chic.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313387486https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0313387486https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.samoanews.com/viewstory.php?storyid=32376http://www.samoanews.com/viewstory.php?storyid=32376http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=64516http://pacific.scoop.co.nz/2011/09/nz-may-be-invited-to-join-proposed-polynesian-triangle-ginger-group/http://pacific.scoop.co.nz/2011/09/nz-may-be-invited-to-join-proposed-polynesian-triangle-ginger-group/http://pollex.org.nz/entry/sawaiki/http://books.google.com/books?id=6qjCRE85QjYC&pg=PA228https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520058984https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Presshttp://books.google.com/books?id=iKnaLbRtQasC&pg=PA176http://books.google.com/books?id=iKnaLbRtQasC&pg=PA176http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_38_1929/Field_notes_on_the_culture_of_Vaitupu%2C_Ellice_Islands%2C_by_Donald_Gilbert_Kennedy%2C_p_1-99/p1?action=nullhttp://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_38_1929/Field_notes_on_the_culture_of_Vaitupu%2C_Ellice_Islands%2C_by_Donald_Gilbert_Kennedy%2C_p_1-99/p1?action=nullhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/982-02-0058-Xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00223348408572496https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0500274509https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.socialreport.msd.govt.nz/cultural-identity/maori-language-speakers.htmlhttp://www.history-nz.org/colonisation2.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4391-5031-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16527931https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1121879https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1015876108https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier


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12 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

Useful introduction to Maori society, including ca-noe voyages

Obituary: David Henry Lewisincluding how hecame to rediscover Pacific Ocean navigation meth-ods
http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/15/1037080913844.htmlhttp://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/15/1037080913844.htmlhttp://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/15/1037080913844.htmlhttp://www.maori.info/http://www.maori.info/


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12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text

Polynesia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia?oldid=628955851Contributors:Tobias Hoevekamp, Jeronimo, Alex.tan, An-dre Engels, Fredbauder, Rmhermen, SimonP, Olrick, D, Tim Starling, Wapcaplet, Ahoerstemeier, TUF-KAT, Den fjttrade ankan, Ineuw,John K, Dwo, Wik, Timc, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Joseaperez, Topbanana, Renato Caniatti, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Vardion, Altenmann,Babbage, Postdlf, Merovingian, Cholling, Conrad Leviston, Wantok, Radagast, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Robin Patterson, Jpta, Lupin,Yak, Aoi, Maclyn611, OldakQuill, Gadfium, Ebear422, Knutux, Lockeownzj00, Beland, HistoryBA, Roisterer, DenisMoskowitz, SamHocevar, Talrias, Avihu, Robin klein, Trevor MacInnis, Chrisjwmartin, Perey, Jayjg, Discospinster, Deirdre, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce,Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Mani1, Bender235, ESkog, Fenice, QuartierLatin1968, Shanes, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Circeus, Smalljim, Virid-itas, Giraffedata, Jakew, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Duffman, Buaidh, Arthena, Mr Adequate, Andrewpmk, Linmhall, Mailer diablo, Avenue,Gene Nygaard, TShilo12, Sterio, Woohookitty, Squidley, Steinbach, Julo, Eras-mus, Marudubshinki, Gettingtoit, Graham87, Cuchullain,BD2412, Reisio, ZanderSchubert, Nandesuka, Fred Bradstadt, Gringer, FayssalF, Falphin, FlaBot, Gringo300, Doc glasgow, MacRusgail,Avaiki, Thecurran, CJLL Wright, Chobot, DaGizza, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, NTBot, Kcferret, Zafiroblue05, Pigman, GaiusCornelius, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Rhythm, Joel7687, Rjensen, BirgitteSB, Waqas1987, Emersoni, Bucketsofg, IslandGyrl, Bark, Jhin-man, Martinwilke1980, Crisco 1492, Sumanthk, Phgao, KGasso, 4shizzal, ThunderBird, GrinBot, DVD R W, That Guy, FromThat Show!,Vanka5, Attilios, SmackBot, Dweller, Milkncookie, Zazaban, Zephyre, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, WildElf, Devanampriya, Kintetsubuffalo,Aksi great, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Honbicot, Keegan, ViperXGT, MK8, Thumperward, Snori, MalafayaBot, RayAYang,Chastacosta, Nbarth, Aridd, Tsca.bot, Chlewbot, ReeseM, Krsont, Bardsandwarriors, Khoikhoi, MrRadioGuy, Magore, Kahuroa, AgentX, SimonGreenhill, JohnI, Breno, NongBot, Nevers, Gandalfxviv, Metao, Geologyguy, Jose77, Peyre, Purenoni, JoeBot, ArchonMeld,Anak 1, Tawkerbot2, Roxi2, Mak Thorpe, Lurlock, Richard Keatinge, Ntsimp, Kanags, Sighrik, ArgentTurquoise, Gogo Dodo, Doug-

weller, Starionwolf, Saintrain, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, 23prootie, Teh tennisman, Tapa.co.nz, Marek69, Bobblehead, Dawnseeker2000, Es-carbot, Seaphoto, Wing Nut, Spencer, RuED, Ingolfson, DIEGO RICARDO, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Kon-stableBot, Awien, Hut 8.5, Ophion, Akuyume, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Dentren, Ling.Nut, ClovisPt, JLuc, Daarznieks, JaGa, Bakert,MartinBot, Dythy, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, EdBever, Tgeairn, Jasper33, Antarcticwik, Abhijitsathe, Naniwako, Chileuropride, Oleg-wiki, Juliancolton, Kvdveer, Huzzad, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Alifshinobi, Elmo40, Hugo999, VolkovBot, AlnoktaBOT, Soliloquial,Station1, Henaff, TXiKiBoT, Hobe, Quentin Poulsen, Quizimodo, Someguy1221, Anna Lincoln, JhsBot, VonRichthofen, Cremepuff222,Shakkuri, Falcon8765, Mallerd, Insanity Incarnate, AlleborgoBot, Kehrbykid, EmxBot, Omarpeppy, SieBot, DerbyCountyinNZ, RichardYe, Tiddly Tom, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, XxPeteWentzluverxX, Caltas, Oda Mari, Momo san, AAR analysis, Mimihitam,Alex.muller, RemoTheDog, Nick145276, Kentynet, Anchor Link Bot, Samkava, Martarius, ClueBot, Shaunheath, Rumping, Philip Sut-ton, Hongthay, Baemoana, Der Golem, Razimantv, AirdishStraus, Luvedthemost, Pras, Thisglad, Jusdafax, Peter L Marsh, Lartoven,Cenarium, M.O.X, Audaciter, IamNotU, NJGW, MelonBot, Life of Riley, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, BodhisattvaBot, Ursutraide, Feinoha,Avoided, ZooFari, Spiridon MANOLIU, Addbot, DOI bot, AkhtaBot, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Aboctok, Ccacsmss, Omnipedian,Blaylockjam10, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Jarble, Peko, Megaman en m, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cflm001, Newportm, Ojay123, KamikazeBot,Backtothemacman32, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Jim1138, Galoubet, JackieBot, Dinesh smita, Materialscientist, Citation bot,Xqbot, Joyjoy90, Stars4change, Gap9551, J04n, GrouchoBot, ProtectionTaggingBot, RibotBOT, M0tty, FrescoBot, Tobby72, ScottyMull,D'ohBot, MGA73bot, Gafarelmuzaffar, Teinesavaii, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, DrilBot, Gautier lebon, Pinethicket, I

dream of horses, Tamariki, HRoestBot, TobeBot, Jonkerz, FrederickYocum, Andrew Revender, RjwilmsiBot, Chipmunkdavis, Emaus-Bot, Dscottdonaldson, Sp33dyphil, Nothing149, AsceticRose, Antigrandiose, F, Tominator893, 10narnia, Cobaltcigs, Bella Boo!0!,H3llBot, Nanib, Aidarzver, Peter Karlsen, NTox, RaunakR, ClueBot NG, Ninjabell, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, MozzazzoM, BG19bot,M0rphzone, Gomada, Nickg181, Heresakiwi, WarriorsPride6565, MRSIMPLIFIER, Hamish59, Hashmisahib48, Van Gulik, Caitlin1128,BattyBot, Liam987, Arcandam, Baileybrooks.5, Dexbot, Hakilon, Grumpity, Lugia2453, BDE1982, The Anonymouse, Calebharding, An-drodin, Tentinator, Danielmeme, Zenibus, Quenhitran, NisJrgensen, Dr. Isaiah, Davidlaainaalisi, Marianas670671, Loraof, Shima67 andAnonymous: 409

12.2 Images

File:AhuTongariki.jpgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/AhuTongariki.jpgLicense:CC-BY-SA-3.0Con-tributors:Own workOriginal artist:MakemakeatGerman Wikipedia

File:Canoe_carving_on_Nanumea.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Canoe_carving_on_Nanumea.jpgLicense:Public domain Contributors: http://www.pbif.org/WebGallery/Gallery/Culture/Crafts/AKK_3008.jpgOriginal artist:Angela

K. Kepler File:Commons-logo.svgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svgLicense:? Contributors:? Original

artist:?

File:F_2_070_182_Uk_Uni_grinding_stone_1957_Myer{}s_plantation,_Samoa.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/F_2_070_182_Uk_Uni_grinding_stone_1957_Myer%27s_plantation%2C_Samoa.jpg License:Public domainContributors:Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland, New Zealand [1]Original artist:Unknown

File:Flag_of_American_Samoa.svgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svgLi-cense:Public domain Contributors:It is fromopenclipart.org, specificallyamerican_samoa.svg. Original artist:by Tobias Jakobs

File:Flag_of_France.svgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svgLicense:? Contributors:? Originalartist:?

File:Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svgLi-cense:? Contributors:From theOpen Clip ArtwebsiteOriginal artist:User:Nightstallion

File:Flag_of_Hawaii.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svgLicense: Public domainContributors: http://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/america/united_states/usa_hawaii.svgOriginal artist:

File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License:Public domainContributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPGOriginal artist: Zscout370,Hugh Jassand many others
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Hugh_Jasshttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Zscout370http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPGhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svghttp://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/america/united_states/usa_hawaii.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Flag_of_Hawaii.svghttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nightstallionhttp://openclipart.org/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Flag_of_French_Polynesia.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svghttp://openclipart.org/clipart/signs_and_symbols/flags/oceania/polynesia/american_samoa.svghttp://openclipart.org/cgi-bin/navigate/signs_and_symbols/flags/oceania/polynesiahttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Flag_of_American_Samoa.svghttp://magic.lbr.auckland.ac.nz/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/F_2_070_182_Uk_Uni_grinding_stone_1957_Myer%27s_plantation%2C_Samoa.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/F_2_070_182_Uk_Uni_grinding_stone_1957_Myer%27s_plantation%2C_Samoa.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svghttp://www.pbif.org/WebGallery/Gallery/Culture/Crafts/AKK_3008.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Canoe_carving_on_Nanumea.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Canoe_carving_on_Nanumea.jpghttps://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Makemakehttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/AhuTongariki.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia?oldid=628955851


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14 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Niue.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Niue.svgLicense:Public domain Con-tributors:Own workOriginal artist:Thisvector imagewas created withInkscapebySKopp, and thenmanuallyedited

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File:Flag_of_Rapa_Nui,_Chile.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Flag_of_Rapa_Nui%2C_Chile.svgLicense: Public domainContributors: http://www.fotw.net/flags/cl_rapa.htmlOriginal artist:Mario Fuente Cid, Done on Inkscape FreeSoftware

File:Flag_of_Samoa.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Samoa.svgLicense: Public domainContributors:? Original artist:?

File:Flag_of_Tokelau.svgSource: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Flag_of_Tokelau.svgLicense:Public domainContributors:self-made, using[1] as a visual guide. Confirmed by the Flag Research Center on 18 June 2008 (Flag Inform No. 238).Finalversion by the College of Arms Original artist:SVG image created byUser:Andrwsc

File:Flag_of_Tonga.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Tonga.svgLicense: ? Contributors: ?Original artist:?

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Polynesia is a Subregion of Oceania