PLANTS OF THE GODS

Richard Evans Schultes

Albert Hofmann

Christian Ratsch

PLANTS OF THE GODSTheir Sacred, Healing,

and Hallucinogenic Pow ers

"The more you go inside the world of Teonanacatl, the more things are seen.And you also see our past and our future, which are there together as a single thing already achieved,

already happened: ... I saw stolen horses and buried cities, the existence of which was unknown,and they are going to be brought to light. Millions of things I saw and knew. I knew and saw God:

an immense clock that ticks, the spheres that go slowly around, and inside the stars, the earth,the entire universe, the day and the night, the cry and the smile, the happiness and the pain.He who knows to the end the secret of Teonanacatl can even see that infinite clockwork."

-Marfa Sabina

Healing Arts PressRochester, Vermont

Caution: This bookis not intended asa guideto the use ofhallucinogenic plants. Its purpose is to offer scientific, his­torical, andcultural documentationconcerning a group ofplantsthatare or have beenof importancetomanysocieties.Ingestionof someof these plants or plant products maybedangerous. The remedies, approaches, and techniques de­scribed hereinare meant to supplement,and not be a sub­stitute for, professional medicalcare or treatment. Theyshouldnot beused to treat a serious ailment withoutpriorconsultation with a qualifiedhealthcare professional.

Healing Arts PressOne Park StreetRochester, Vermont 05767www.lnnerTraditions.com

First published byHealingArts Press in 1992

A productionof EMB-Service forPublishers,Lucerne, Switzerland

Copyright© 1998 (updated version) EMB-Service forPublishers, Lucerne, SwitzerlandEnglish translation second edition Copyright © 2001

All rightsreserved. Nopart of thisbookmaybe reproducedorutilized in anyform orbyanymeans, electronic or me­chanical,includingphotocopying, recording,or byany infor­mationstorage and retrieval system,without permissioninwritingfrom the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSchultes,Richard Evans.

Plants of the gods : their sacred, healing, and hallucino­genicpowers I Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann,Christian Ratsch.-2nd ed.

p.cm.Includesbibliographical references

ISBN0-89281-979-01. Hallucinogenic plants. 2. Hallucinogenic plants- Uti­

lization. 3. Ethnobotany. I. Hofmann, Albert, 1906-11.Ratsch, Christian, 1957- III.Title

OK99.A1 S39 2001394.1'4-<Jc21 2001004425

1098765432HealingArts Press is a division of InnerTraditionsInternational

Picture on titlepage: Mayan "mushroom stone" fromEI Salvador, lateformative period (300B. C.-A. D. 200);height 13 V, in. (33.5cm).

Original concept and design: Emil M. BOhrer,Franz Gisler,Joan Halifax, and Robert ToblerNewmaterial translatedby: Annabel Lee andMichael BeasleyComposition: SatzWeise,F6hren, GermanyPhotolithography:Pesavento AG, Zurich, Switzerland

CONTENTS

7 PREFACE

9 INTRODUCTION

10 WH AT ARE PLANTHALLUCINOGENS?

16 THE PLANT KINGDOM

20 PHYTOCHEMICALRESEARCH ON SACREDPLANTS

26 GEOGRAPHY OF USAGE ANDBOTANICAL RAN GE

31 PLANT LEXICON

62 WHO USES HALLUCINOGENICPLANTS?

65 OVERVIEW OF PLANT USE

81 THE MOST IMPORTANTHALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS

82 MAINSTAY OF THE HEAVENSAmanita (Fly Agaric) .

86 THE HEXING HERBSAtropa (Deadly N ightshade)H yoscyam us albus (Yellow H enbane)Hy oscyam us niger (Black H enbane)Mandragora (Mandrake)

92 THE NECTAR OF DELIGHTCannabis (He mp, Marijuana,

H ashish)

102 ST. ANTHONY'S FIREClaviceps (Ergot)

106 HOLY FLOWER OF THENORTHSTARDatura innoxia (Toloache)Datura m etel (D atura)Datura stramonium (Thorn Appl e)

112 GUIDE TO THE ANCESTORSTabernanthe (Iboga)

116 BEANS OF THE HEKULASPIRITAnadenanthera peregrina (Yopo)

120 SEEDS OF CIVILIZATIONAnadenanthera colubrina (Cebil)

124 THE MAGIC DRINK OF THEAMAZONBanisteriopsis (Ayahu asca)

Psychotria (Chacruna)Peganum (Syrian Rue)Tetrapteris (Yage)

137 AYAH UASCA ANA LOGS

140 TRUMPETS OF THE AN GELSBrugmansia (Go lden Angel's Trumpet)Brugmansia (Blood-Red Angel's

Trumpet)

144 THE TRACKS OF THE LITTLEDEERLophophora (Peyo te)

156 LITTLE FLOWERS OF THEGODSConocybePanaeolus cyanescens (Blue Meanies)Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Hoop-

petticoat)Panaeolus subbalt eatus (Dark-rimmed

Mottlegill)Psilocybe cubensis (San Isidro)Psilocybe cyanescens (Wavy Cap)Psilocybe mexicana (Teonanacatl)Psilocybe semilan ceata (Liberty Cap )

164 DIVINER'S SAGESalvia divinorum

166 CACTUS OF THE FOURWINDSTrichocereus (San Pedro)

170 VINES OF THE SERPENTIpomoea (Morning Glory)Turbina (O loliugui)

176 SEMEN OF THE SUNVirola (Epena)

182 GATEWAYTO DREAMTIMED uboisia (Pituri Bush)

184 CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OFHALLUCINOGENS

188 USES OF HALLUCINOGENSIN MEDICINE

196 EPILOGUE

198 PICTURE CREDITS

199 BIBLIOGRAPHY

199 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

204 INDEX

Thedreamingsmoker stretchedoutcomfortablyonhischaiseenjoys visionsinduced byHashish.This engravingisfrom M. von Schwind's Albumof Etch­ings, published in 1843.

Page 4 left:Thewitches of medievalEurope induced inebriation witha greatvarietyof brews, most of which hadatleast one of theNightshades as apsychoactive constituent.During theirintoxications, theyengagedin manyaspectsof hexing, both malevolentandbenevolent.Thisillustration, awoodcut,published in 1459, portrays twowitchescalling for rain and thunder, possiblyduringa dry spell, and preparing a brewto help themachievethisgoal.

For the Huichollndians of Mexico, the Peyote cactus (Lophophora wil/iamsii)(see page7) is not a plant but a god,a gift from the Earth Goddess to hu­mans to assist them in attaining a connection to her in the mystical realms.The Huichol celebrate a great Peyote festival every year (below), at which allmembers of the tribe partake in eating the freshly harvested Peyote cactus.

.• - _. - -;' -- .- --~- ._ • • - ._.-. - •.- - - ••• - •• • - • •~ .- ~ .-.":'~ ~P7"- .~

PREFACE

The earliest forms of life on Earth were plants. Re­markably preserved plant fossils have recentlybeen discovered dating back 3.2 billion years.These early plants provided the foundation forthe development of all later forms of plants andindeed of animals, including that most recent ofcreatures, the human being. The green plant coverof the earth has a marvelous relationship with thesun: chlorophyll-bearing plants absorb solar raysand synthesize organic compounds, the buildingmaterials for both plant and animal organisms. Invegetable matter, solar energy is stored in the formof chemical energy, source of all life processes.Thus the Plant Kingdom provides not only body­building foods and calories but also vitamins es­sential for metabolic regulation. Plants also yieldactive principles employed as medicines. The inti­mate relationship between the human and plant

world is easily discerned, but the production ofsubstances profoundly affecting the mind andspirit is often not so easily recognized. These arethe plants that make up the substance of Plants ~fthe Gods, focusing attention on the origin of theiruse and the effect that th ey have had on man's de­velopment. Plants that alter the normal fun.ctionsof the mind and body have always been consideredby peoples in nonindustrial societies as sacred, andthe hallucinogens have been "plants of the gods"par excellence.

7

" In consciousn ess dw ells the wondrous,w ith it man attains the rea lm beyond th e material,

and the Peyote tells us,where to find it ."

- Amonin An aud, Th e Tarabum ars (1947)

The shamans of the Huichol Indians use the sacred Peyote cactus so thatthey may attain a visionary state of consciousness in the alternate reality,which is causal to occurrences in mundane reality; whataffects the former

will changethe latter. The shaman in the middle of the yarn painting isdepicted with a skull because he is a "dead man" and thus has the ability totravel into the nether realms.

INTRODUCTION

The use of hallucinogenic or consciousness­expanding plants has been a part of human experi­ence for many millennia, yet modern Western so­cieties have only recently become aware of thesignificance that these plants have had in shapingthe history of primitive and even of advanced cul­tures. In fact, the past thirty years have witnesseda vertiginous growth of interest in the use andpossible value of hallucinogens in our own mod­ern, industrialized, and urbanized society.

Hallucinogenic plants are complex chemicalfactories. Their full potential as aids to humanneeds is not yet fully recognized. Some plantscontain chemical compounds capable of inducingaltered perceptions, such as visual, auditory, tac­tile, olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations, orcausing artificial psychoses that, without anydoubt, have been known and employed in humanexperience since earliest man's experimentationwith his ambient vegetation. The amazing effectsof these mind-altering plants are frequently in­explicable and indeed uncanny.

Little wonder, then, that they have long playedan important role in the religious rites of early ci­vilizations and are still held in veneration and aweas sacred elements by certain peoples who havecontinued to live in archaic cultures, bound to an­cient traditions and ways of life. How could manin archaic societies better contact the spirit worldthan through the use of plants with psychic effectsenabling the partaker to communicate with super­natural realms? What more direct method than topermit man to free himself from the prosaic con­fines of this earthly existence and to enable him toenter temporarily the fascinating worlds of inde­scribably ethereal wonder opened to him, eventhough fleetingly, by hallucinogens?

Hallucinogenic plants are strange, mystical,confounding. Why? Because they are only nowbeginning to be the subject of truly scientificstudy. The results of these investigations will, mostassuredly, increase interest in the technical impor­tance of the study of these biodynamic plants. Forman's mind, as well as his body and the organs of

-- the body, need curative and corrective agents.Are these nonaddictive drugs of interest as

"mind-expanding agents," as media for attaining"the mystic experience," or as agents to be em­ployed merely as aids in hedonistic adventure?

There is, however, another aspect that engages thescientist's attention: Can a thorough understand­ing of the use and chemical composition of thesedrugs not lead to the discovery of new pharmaceu­tical tools for psychiatric treatment or experimen­tation? The central nervous system is a most com­pleX. organ, and psychiatry has not advanced sorapidly as many other fields of medicine, mainlybecause it has not had adequate tools. Some ofthese mind-altering plants and their active chemi­cal principles may indeed have far-reaching posi­tive effects when they are fully understood.

An educated public must be an integral part insuch development of scientific knowledge, espe­cially in so controversial a field as hallucinogenicdrugs. It is for this reason that we offer the presentvolume-directed neither to the scientists who aredeeply involved in research in this field nor to thecasual reader, but to the concerned public. It is ourbelief that scientists-for the sake of humanityitself and its advancement-must make technicalknowledge available to those able to take advan­tage of its presentation. It is in this spirit that wewrote Plants of the Gods, hoping that it may, inone way or another, further the practical interestsof mankind.

Richard Evans SchultesAlbert Hofmann

THE REVISION

When the book Plants ofthe Gods first appeared in1979, it was a milestone in ethnobotany and ethno­pharmacology. The book inspired and influencedmany young researchers around the world and en­couraged them to continue in their own work. Be­cause of this there have been some new discoveriesabout the plants of the gods. Many questions aboutthe activity and constituents of psychedelic plantshave been clarified. I have tried to incorporate thenew information in a way that preserves the origi­nal character of the book and reflects the currentstate of knowledge. I hope that the plants of thegods retain their valuable position in our worldand that they reach the many people upon whomthe sacredness of nature is dependent.

Christian Ratsch

9

WHAT ARE PLANT HALLUCINOGENS?

Many plants are toxic. It is no accident that theetymological origin of the word toxic stems di­rectly from the Greek word rO;Lxov (toxikon),for "bow," referring to the use of arrow poisons.

Medicinal plants are useful in curing or alleviat­ing man's illnesses because they are toxic. Thepopular interpretation tends to accept the termtoxic as implying poisoning with fatal results.Yet, as Paracelsus wrote in the sixteenth century:"In all things there is a poison, and there is noth­ing without a poison. It depends only upon thedose whether something is poison or not."

The difference among a poison, a medicine, anda narcotic is only one of dosage. Digitalis, for ex­ample, in proper doses represents one of our mostefficacious and widely prescribed cardiac medi­cines, yet in higher doses it is a deadly poison.

We all realize the meaning of the term intoxica­tion, but it is popularly applied primarily to thetoxic effects from overindulgence in alcohol. Inreality, however, any toxic substance may intoxi­cate. Webster defines toxic as "Of, pertaining to,or caused by poison." It might be more specific tostate that a toxic substance is a plant or animalsubstance or chemical ingested for other thanpurely nutritional purposes and which has a no­ticeable biodynamic effect on the body. We realizethat this is a broad definition-a definition thatwould include such constituents as caffeine: whileemployed in its usual form as a stimulant, caffeinedoes not evoke truly toxic symptoms, but in highdoses it is a very definite and dangerous poison.

Hallucinogens must be classed as toxic. Theyinduce unmistakable intoxications. They are like­wise, in the broad sense of the term, narcotics. Theterm narcotic, coming from the Greek vaQxovv(narkoyn), to benumb, etymologically refers to asubstance that, however stimulating it may be inone or more phases of its activity, terminates itseffects with a depressive state on the central ner­vous system. Under this broad definition, alcoholand tobacco are narcotics. The stimulants such ascaffeine do not fall under the definition of narco­tic, since in normal doses, they do not induce aterminal depression, though they are psychoac­tive. English has no term that, like the GermanGenuflmittel ("medium of enjoyment"), includesboth narcotics and stimulants.

But the term narcotic has popularly been inter-

10

Datura haslongbeen connected to theworship of Shiva, the Indian godasso­ciated with thecreative anddestructiveaspects of the universe. Inthisextraor­dinarybronze sculpture fromSouth­east Indiaof the eleventh or twelfthcentury, Shivadances theAnandatan­dava, the seventh andlastof hisdances, which combines all inflectionsof hischaracter. Underhis left foot,Shivacrushes the demon Apasmara­purusa, who is thepersonification ofignorance. In Shiva'supperrighthand,he holds a tinydrumthatsymbolizesTimebythe rhythm of hiscosmicdance in the fieldof LifeandCreation.Hislowerrighthandis in the abhaya­mudra, expressing Shiva's quality ofsafeguarding theuniverse. Inhisupperlefthand, heholdsa flame thatburnstheveilof illusion. His lowerlefthand isheldin the gajahasta andpoints to hisraisedleft foot, which is freein spaceandsymbolizes spiritual liberation.Shiva's hair is bound witha band, andtwoserpents holda skullasa centralornament, thusshowing Shiva'sde­structive aspects of TimeandDeath.Onthe rightis a Datura flower. Gar­lands of Datura blossoms arewovenamong the locksof hiswhirling hair.

Below:This painting by the Peruvianshaman Pablo Amaringodepictsthecreation of thedrink Ayahuasca, themostimportantmedicine of theAmazo­nian Indians. Themagical drink haspowerful visionary properties, whichre­veal to theparticipant a glimpse of.'true reality," the fantastic realmof visions.

Page 13top:Thehallucinogenic useof Hemp (Cannabis) canbe tracedfarback into history. It is possible that the ingestion of this plant wasresponsiblefor thewild dances of theMongolian shaman.

preted as referring to dangerously addictive agents,such as opium and its deri vatives (morphine, co­deine, heroin) and cocaine. In the United States asubstance must be included in the Harrison Narco­tic Act to be considered legally a narcotic: thusMarijuana is not legally a narcotic , although it is acontrolled substance.

Hallucinogens are, broadly speaking, all narco­tics, even though none is known to be addictive orto have narcotic effects.

There are many kinds of hallucinations: themost common and popularly recognized is the vi­sual hallucination, often in colors. But all sensesmaybe subject to hallucinations: auditory, tactile,olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations can occur.Frequently a single hallucinatory plant-as in thecase of Peyote or Marijuana-may induce several

12

different hallucinations. Hallucinogens may like­wise cause artificial psychoses-s-the basis of one ofthe numerous terms for this class of active agents:psychotomimetic ("inducing psychotic stat es").Modern brain research has shown, however, thathallucinogens trig ger brain activity entirely differ­ent from that app arent with true psychoses.

Modern studies have demonstrated such a com ­plexity of psychophysiological effects that theterm hallucinogen does not always cover thewhole range of reactions. Therefore, a bewilder­ing nomenclature has arisen. None of the terms,however, fully describes all known effects. Theterms include entheogens, deliriants, deluslono­gens, eidetics, hallucinogens, misperceptinogens,mysticomimetics, phanerothymes, phantasticants,psychotica, psychoticants, psychogens, psychosomi-

metics, psychodysleptics, psychotaraxics, psycho to­gens, psychotomimetics, schizoge ns, and psychede­lics, among other epithets . In Europe, they are fre­qu ently called phantastica. The most commonname in the United States-psychedelics-is ety­mologically uns ound and has acquired othermeanings in the drug subculture.

The truth is that no one term adequately delimitssuch a varied group of psychoactive plants. TheGerman toxicol ogist Loui s Lewin, who fir st usedthe term phantastica, admitted that it "does notcover all that I should wish it to convey." The wordhallucinogen is easy to pronounce and to under­stand, yet not all of the plants induce true halluci­nations. Psychotomim etic, while often employed,is not accepted by many specialists because not allthe plants in thi s group cause psychotic-like states.

Belowright:In India the flowers of thepotenthallucinogenic Thorn Apple(Datura metel) are brought as an offering to the Hindu godShiva. They arealso ritually smoked.

Below left: Henbane (Hyoscyamus albus) is oneof themost important hallu­cinogenicplants of Europe. It wasused for oraclesand ritually burned inancient Greece.

But since these two term s-hallucinogen and psy­chotomimetic-are easily understood and widelyused, w e shall employ the m in this book.

Among the many definitions that have been of­fered, that of H offer and O smond is broad enou ghto be widely accepted: "Hallucinogens are . . . che­micals which, in non-toxic do ses, produce changesin perception, in thought and in mood, but whichseldom produce mental confusion, mem ory loss ordisorientation for person, place and tim e."

Basing his classification of psychoactive drui; son the older arranzements of Lewin, Albert Hot-0

1,

mann divides them into analgesics and cup ro rics(Opium, C oca), sedativ es and tranquilizers (Re­serpine), hypnotics (Kava-kava), and hallucino­gens or psychedelics (Peyote, Marijuana, ctc.).Mos t of these gro ups modify only the mood,

13

Below: Marfa Sabina reverently ingests the nii'ios santos, "holy children:' asshe lovingly refers to thevisionaryandhealing MagicMushrooms.

either stimulating or calming it. But th e last group.produces deep changes in the sphere of experience,in perception of reality, in space and time, and inconsc iousness of self. Depersonaliza tion may oc­cur. Without loss of cons ciousness, th e subject en­ters a dream wo rld th at often appears more realthan the normal world. Colors are freq uently ex­perienced in indescribable bri lliance; objects maylose their symbolic character, standing detachedand assuming increased significance since theyseem to possess their own existence.

The psychic changes and unusual states of con­sciousness induced by hallucinogens are so far re­moved from similar ity with or dinary life that it isscarcely possible to describe them in the languageof daily living. A person under the effects of a hal­lucinogen forsakes his familiar wo rld and operatesund er other standa rds, in strange dimensions andin a different time.

Whil e most hallucinogens are of plant origin, afew are derived from th e Animal Kingdom (toads,

14

Page 15:The Mazatec shaman MarfaSabina incenses sacredmushroomsprior to theiringestion during the healing ceremonyof the velada.

frogs, fish) and some are synthetic (LSD, TMA,DOB). Their use goes back so far into prehistorythat it has been postulated that perhaps the wholeidea of the deity could have arisen as a result of theotherworldly effects of these agents.

Indigenous cultures usually have no concept ofphysica lly or organically induced sickness ordeath: both result from interference from the spir­it world. Therefore, halluc ino gens, which permitthe nati ve healer and sometimes even the patientto communicate with the spirit world, ofte n be­come greater medicines-the medicin es par excel­lence-of th e native pharmacopoeia. They assumefar more exalted roles than do the medicines orpalliatives with direct physical action on the bod y.Little by little, they became the firm basis for" m~di.cal" practices of most, if no t all, aboriginalSOCIetIes.

Hallucinogenic plants owe thei r activity to alimited number of types of chemical substancesacting in a specific way upon a definite part ofthe central nervous system. The hallucinogenicstate is usually short-lived, lasting only until thecausa tive principle is metabo lized or excretedfrom th e body. There would seem to be a differ­ence between what we might call tru e hallucina­tions (visions) and what perhaps could be de­scribed as pseudo-hallucinations. Conditions forall practical purposes appa rently very similar tohallucinations may be induced by many highlytoxic plants which so upset the normal metabo­lism that an abno rmal mental condition may de­velop. A number of th e plants (for example, Salv iadivinorum) experimented with by members of theso-called drug subculture and which were consid ­ered as newly discovered hallucinogens by theirusers belong to this catego ry as well. Pseud o­hallucinogenic conditions may be induced with­out th e ingestion of toxic plants or substances;high fevers are known to cause such reactions.Fanatics of the Middle Ages who went withoutfoo d or water over long periods finally inducedsuch alterations in normal metabolism that theydid actually experience visions and hear voicesthrough pseudo-hallucinogens.

"t . "~."

~:~~~~-~~."-... ~.. .

Haircap MossP",I" f,.;,..h" m r n m m, m .o

MONOC0ToYUEDONEAE

Hallucinogenicspecies occur among the highest-evolvedflowering plants (angiosperms) andin the divisionfungi ofthesimpler plants. Angiosperms are subdividedinto mono­cots (oneseed leaf)anddicots(twoseed leaves).

SweetFlag, Hemp(Marijuana), and Deadly Nightshade(above, right) as well as Fly Agaric (below, right) arerepre­sentative psychoactive species.

THE PLANT KINGDOM

Before the eighteenth century, there was really nological or widely accepted classification or namingof plants. They were known in Europe by the ver­nacular names current in the various countries andwe re referred to technically in Latin by cumber­some descriptive phrases, often several words long.

The invention of printing and movable type inthe midd le of the 1400s stimulated the productionof herb als-that is, bo tanical books-mainly onmedicinal plants. The so-called Age of Herbals,from about 1470 to 1670, led to the freeing of bot­any and medicine from the ancient concepts ofDioscorides and other classical naturalists thatshaped Europe for some sixteen centuries. Thesetwo centuries saw more progress in bo tany thanhad taken place during the previous millenniumand a half.

Yet it was not until the eighteenth century thatCarolus Linnaeus , or Carl von Linne, a Swedishnaturalist-physician and professor at the Univer­sity of Uppsala, offered the first comprehensiveand scientific system of classificati on and nomen­clature for plants in his monumental, 1,200-pagebook Species Plantarum, published in 1753.

Linnaeus grouped plants according to his "sex­ual system"-a simple system of twenty-fourclasses based primarily on the nu mber and charac­teristics of the stamens. He gave each plant a gen­eric and a specific name, resulting in a binomialnomenclature. Although other botanists had usedbinomials, Linnaeus was the first to employ thesystem consistently. While his sexual classifica­tion-highly artificial and inadequate from thepoint of view of an evolutionary understandingof the Plant Kin gdom (which was to come la­ter)-is no longer followed, his binomial nomen­clature is now universally accepted, and botanistshave agreed on the year 1753 as the starting pointof current nomenclature.

Believing that he had classified most of thewo rld's flora in 1753, Linnaeus calcul ated the sizeof the Plant Kingdom as 10,000 or fewer spec ies.But Linnaeus's work and the influence of hismany students had stimulated interest in the florao~ th~ new lands that were being opened to colo­mzano n and e:cploration . Consequently, nearly acentury later, m 1847, the British botanist JohnLindl ey increased th e estimate to nearly 100,000species in 8,900 genera.

16

Mushroomsand molds (fungi), seaweeds(algae), mossesandliverworts (bryophytes),and ferns(pteridophytes) aresimpler plants.

17

Below: A flower andleaves of thehallucinogenic Datura innoxia, which be­longs to oneof themosthighly evolved families of theflowering plants.

Even though modern botany is only two centu­ries old, estimates have greatly increased. Theyvary from some 280,000 to 700,000 species, thehigher figures being generally accepted by bota­nists whose research is centered in the still onlysuperficially explored tropical regions.

Modern specialists estimate the fungi at be­tween 30,000 and 100,000 species. The great var­iance is due partly to lack of comprehensive stu­dies of many groups and partly to inadequatemeans of defining some of the unicellular mem­bers. One contemporary mycologist, realizingthat the fungi are very sparsely collected in thetropics, where they abound, suggests that the total

. figure might reach 200,000. b

All of the algae are aquatic, more than half beingmarine. This most varied group of plants is now be­lieved to comprise from 19,000 to 32,000 species.Algae have been found in pre-Cambrian fossils dat­ing from one to n;t0re than three billion years of age.These procaryotlc blue-green algae (Collenia) re­present the old est known form of life on Earth.

18

Page 19/eft: Thisfossil of blue-green algae (Collenia) is approximately 2.3billion years oldandis oneof theearliest known specimens of lifeon Earth.

Page 19right: A fossilized algae colony from theCambrian period in Boliviademonstrates that life-forms canbesuccessfully preserved overbillions ofyears.

Lichens-a curious group of plants comprisinga symbiotic union of an alga and a fungus-num­ber from 16,000 to 20,000 species in 450 genera.

The bryophytes comprise two groups: mossesand liverworts. They are primarily tropical, andmany new species are to be expected from the tro­pics with increased field investigations. That theyare not an economic group may be in part respon­sible for our lack of understanding of their extent.

Present calculations assign 12,000 to 15,000 spe­cies to the pteridophytes: the ferns and their allies.An ancient group of plants, it is best representedtoday in tropical regions. The seed-bearing plants,or spermatophytes, clearly dominate the landflora of the present time. The gymnosperms, orcone-bearing plants, constitute a small group ofsome 675 species; dating back into the Carbonifer­ous Age, this group is apparently dying out.

The principal group of plants today-the plantsthat dominate the earth's flora and which have di­versified into the greatest number of species andwhich, in the popular mind, comprise the world'sflora-are the angiosperms. Angiosperms are seedplants in which the seed is covered or protected byovarian tissue, in contrast to the gymnosperms,which have naked seeds. They are commonlycalled flowering plants. Economically the mostimportant group of plants today, they have domi­nated the several terrestrial environments of theearth. Consequently, they may have a right to beknown as the "most important" plants.

Estimates of their extent vary. Most botanistshold that there are 200,000 to 250,000 species in300 families. Other estimates, probably more rea­listic, calculate 500,000 species.

There ar.e two major groups of angiosperms: themonocotyledons, plants with one seed leaf; andthose with usually two seed leaves. The monoco­tyledons are usually credited with one quarter ofthe total.

Some sections of the Plant Kingdom are ofgreat importance from the point of view of biody­namic species with compounds of significance tomedicinal or hallucinogenic activity.

The fungi are of increasing interest: almost allantibiotics in wide use are derived from fungi.They are also employed in the pharmaceutical in­dustry in the synthesis of steroids and for otherpurposes. Hallucinogenic compounds may be

widespread in the fungi, but those that have beenof importance in human affairs belong to the asco­mycetes (Ergot) and the basidiomycetes (variousmushrooms and puffballs). The importance offungi as sources of aflotoxins of foods has onlyrecently been recognized.

Algae and lichens, interestingly, have as yet notyielded any species reported as hallucinogens. Animpressive number of new biodynamic com­pounds, some of possible medical value, have al­ready been isolated from algae. Recent researchhas heightened the promise of isolation of activeprinciples from lichens: they have yielded a largenumber of bacteria-inhibiting compounds andhave been shown to be rich in chemovars. Thereare persistent reports of hallucinogenic lichens em­ployed in northwesternmost North America, butas yet no identifiable specimens or reliableinformation has been forthcoming. In South Amer­ica, a lichen (Dictyonema) is used as a psychoactive.The bryophytes have been phytochemicallyneglected; the few that have been studied have gi­ven little hope as sources of biodynamic com­pounds. Similarly, in ethnomedicine, the mossesand liverworts seem to have been ignored.

Some ferns appear to be bioactive and psy­choactive. However, phytochemical investigationhas been far from exhaustive. Very recent investi­gations have indicated a hitherto uns uspectedwealth of biodynamic compounds of potential in­terest to medicine and commerce; sesquiterpinoidlactones, ecdyosones, alkaloids, and cyanogenicglycosides. A recent survey for antibacterial activ­ity of extracts from 44 Trinidadian ferns indicatedthe surprising fact that 77 percent were positive.No hallucinogenic constituents have yet been dis­covered in laboratory research or by indigenous

societies, although several ferns are employed inSouth America as additives to hallucinogenicdrinks (Ayahuasca).

Of the spermatophytes, the gymnosperms exhi­bit few biodynamic elements. They are knownprimarily as the source of the sympathomimeticalkaloid ephedrine and the very toxic taxine.Many are of economic importance as sources ofresins and timber. This group of seed plants is richalso in physiologically active stilbines and othercompounds that act as protective agents againstheartwood decay (essential oils).

From many points of view, the angiosperms arethe important plants: as the dominant and mostnumerous group and as the elements basic toman's social and material evolution. They repre­sent the source of most of our medicines of vegetalorigin; most toxic species are angiospermous; andalmost all hallucinogens used by man, as well asother narcotics, belong to this group. It is easy tounderstand why angiosperms have been chemi­cally more assiduously studied; but what is notfully recognized is the fact that the angiospermsthemselves have been merely superficially exam­ined. It is clear that the Plant Kingdom representsan only partially studied emporium of biodyna­mic principles. Each species is a veritable chemicalfactory. Although indigenous societies have dis­covered many medicinal, toxic, and narcotic prop­erties in their ambient vegetation, there is no rea­son to presume that their experimentation hasbrought to light all the psychoactive principleshidden in these plants.

Undoubtedly new hallucinogens are lurking inthe Plant Kingdom and, in them, possible consti­tuents of extreme interest to modern medicalpractice.

19

PHYTOCHEMICALRESEARCH ONSACRED PLANTS

Plants of the gods interest various disciplines: eth­nology, religious studies, history, and folklore.The two major scientific disciplines that concernthemselves with these plants, however, are botanyand chemistry. This chapter describes the work ofchemists who analyze the constituents of plantsused in religious rites and in the magic of medicinemen and discusses the potential benefits fromsuch research.

The botanist must establish the identity ofplants that in the past were used as sacred drugsor which are still employed for that purpose to­day. The next step to be explored by scientists is:What constituents-which of the substances inthose plants-actually produce the effects thathave led to their use in religious rites and magic?What the chemist is looking for is the active prin­ciple, the quintessence or quinta essentia, as Para­celsus called the active compounds in plantdrugs.

Among the many hundreds of different sub­stances that make up the chemical composition ofa plant, only one or two (occasionally up to half adozen) compounds are responsible for its psy­choactive effects. The proportion by weight ofthese active principles is usually only a fractionof 1 percent, and frequently even of one part perthousand of the plant. The main constituents offresh plants, usually more than 90 percent byweight, are cellulose (which provides the support­ing structure) and water (as the solvent and trans­port medium for plant nutrients and metabolicproducts). Carbohydrates (such as starch and var-

. ious sugars), proteins, fats, mineral salts, and pig­ments make up several more percent of the plant.Together with these normal components, theyconstitute practically the whole plant, and theyare common to all higher plants. Substances withunusual physiological and psychic effects arefound only in certain special plants. These sub­stances as a rule have very different chemicalstructures from those of the usual vegetal consti­tuents and common metabolic products.

It is not known what function these special sub­stances may have in the life of the plant. Varioustheories have been offered. Most psychoactiveprinciples in these sacred plants contain nitrogen,and it has therefore been suggested that they maybe waste products of metabolism-like uric acid

20

in animal organisms-their purpose being theelimination of excess nitrogen. If this theory weretrue, one would expect all plants to contain suchnitrogenous constituents: that is not the case.Many of the psychoactive compounds are toxic iftaken in large doses, and it has therefore been sug­gested that they serve to protect the plants fromanimals. But this theory likewise is hardly convin­cing, because many poisonous plants are in facteaten by animals that are immune to the toxic con­stituents.

It remains, therefore, one of the unsolved rid­dles of nature why certain plants produce sub­stances with specific effects on the mental andemotional functions of man, on his sense of per­ception, and actually on his state of consciousness.

Phytochemists have the important and fascinat­ing task of separating the active principles fromthe rest of the plant materials and of producingthem in pure form. Once active principles are thusavailable, it is possible to analyze them to deter­mine the elements of which they are composed;the relative proportions of carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, etc.; and to establish the mole­cular structure in which these elements are ar­ranged. The next step is the synthesis of the activeprinciple: that is, to make it in the test tube quiteindependently of the plant.

With pure compounds-whether isolated fromthe plant or synthetically produced-exact phar­macological assays and chemical tests can bemade. This is not possible with whole plants be­cause of the varying content of the active princi­ples and interference from other constituents.

The first psychoactive principle to be producedin pure form from a plant was morphine, an alka­loid present in the opium poppy. It was first iso­lated by the pharmacist Friedrich Sertiirner in1806. This new compound was named for theGreek god of sleep, Morpheus, because of itssleep-inducing properties. Since then, enormousstrides have been made in developing more effi­cient methods for the separation and purificationof active principles, with the most important tech­niques evolving only during the last decades.These include the techniques of chromatography:methods of separation based on the fact thatdifferent substances adhere in varying degrees onabsorbent materials or are more or less readily

Thepsychoactive latexof the Poppy (Papaver somniferum) emerges whiteandturnsto a resinous brown substance, rawopium.In 1806 morphine wassuccessfully isolatedoutof thepoppy, the first timein history thata singleconstituentwas isolated.

Below:Papaversomniferum fromKohler's Medizinal-Pflanzen-Atlas. 1887.This atlas is oneof the outstanding plantbooksof the twentieth century.Morphine is not hallucinogenic; it hasbeenclassifiedas a euphoric drug.

(fi ~\I \

! \! \

I! \

iI)y

.:J

s

-Pap[HI Somniffl rum1.

21

taken up in solvents that do not mix. The methodsused in qualitative analysis and to establish thechemical structure of compounds have also under­gone fundamental changes in recent years. For­merly, several generations of chemists would beneeded to elucidate the complex structures of nat­ural compounds. Today; it takes just a few weeksor even only days to determine them with thetechniques of spectroanalysis and X-ray analysis.At th e same time, improved methods of chemicalsynthesis have been developed. The great ad­vances made in the field of chemistry, and the effi­cient methods now available to plant chemists,have in recent years made it possible to gainappreciable knowledge of the chemistry of activeprinciples found in psychoactive plants.

The contribution made by chemists to thestudy of sacred plant drugs may be illustratedwith the example of the Magic Mushrooms ofMexico. Ethnologists had found Indian tribes inthe southern parts of Mexico using mushrooms intheir religious ceremonies. Mycologists identifiedthe mushrooms used in these rituals. Chemicalanalyses showed clearly which species were psy­choactive. Albert Hofmann tested one species ofmushroom on himself; he discovered that it waspsychoactive, that it could be grown under la­boratory conditions, and he was able to isolatetwo active compounds. The purity and chemicalhomogeneity of a compound can be demonstra­ted by its ability to crystallize, unless of course itbe a liquid. The two hallucinogenic principlesnow known as psilocybine and psilocine, foundin the Mexican Magic Mushroom Psilocybe rnex­icana, were obtained in the form of colorless crys­tals.

Similarly, the active principle of the Mexicancactus Lophophora williamsii, mescaline, had been

22

Some psychoactivecompounds arealsoproduced byanimals.TheColoradoRiver toad(Suto alvarius) secretes considerable amounts of 5-MeO-DMT.

isolated in pure form and crystallized as a salt withhydrochloric acid.

With the active principles of the mushroomsavailable in pure form, it became possible to ex­tend research into various fields, such as psychia­try, with useful results.

By determining the presence or absence of psi­locybine and psilocine, an objective method wasnow available for distinguishing true hallucino­genic mushrooms from false ones.

The chemical structure of the hallucinogenicprinciples of the mushrooms was determined (seestructural formulas in the next chapter), and it wasfound that these compounds were closely relatedchemically to substances (serotonin) occurringnaturally in the brain that playa major role in theregulation of psychic functions.

As the pure compounds can be given in exactdoses, their pharmacological actions could nowbe studied under reproducible conditions in ani­mal experiments, and the spectrum of their psy­chotropic actions in man determined. This wasnot possible with the original mushrooms, be­cause their content of active principles tends to

vary, between 0.1 and 0.6 percent of the dryweight of the plant tissue. The greater part of thiscontent is psilocybine, with psilocine present usu­ally only in traces. The median effective dose forhumans is 8 to 16 milligrams of psilocybine orpsilocine. Instead of swallowing 2 grams of thedried mushrooms, which have a rather unpleasanttaste , one merely needs to take about 0.008 gramof psilocybine to experience the hallucinogenic ef­fects, which generally last for several hours.

Once the active principles were available inpure form, it was possible to study their use andeffective application in medicine. They werefound to be particularly useful in experimental

I

til.J=~~\ 0! \-J

»i' ~ i1

, . ~-..;. ' . ~- -

Mescaline-HCI(mescaline-hydrochloride, crystallizedfromalcohol)

Psilocybine(crystallized frommethanol)

Psilocine(crystallized frommethanol)

psychiatry, as valuable aids to psychoanalysis andpsychotherapy.

One migh t think tha t with the isolation, struc­tu ral analysis, and synthesis of psilocybine andpsilocine, the mushrooms of Mexico had lost th eirmagic. Substances that because of their effects onthe mind had led Indians to believe for thousand sof years that a god dwelt in those mushrooms cannow be synthetically produced in th e chemist'sreto rt. It should be remembered, however, th atscientific investigation has merely shown that th emagic prop ert ies of the mushrooms are th e prop­erties of two crystalline compounds. Their effecton the human mind is just as inexplicable, and justas magical, as that of the mushrooms th emselves.This also holds true for the isolated and purifiedactive principles of other plants of th e gods.

Manyalkaloidscrystallizepoorly as freebases. They will separate asa crys­tallizedsalt, however, when neutralizedwith a suitableacid,eitherbycoolingthesaturated solutionor byevaporation of thesolvent.Crystallization of sub­stancesfromsolutionsis carried outmainly fQr purification, since by-productsremain in thesolvent.

Aseachsubstancehas its ownspecificcrystalline form, thisformserves foridentificationand characterizationof a substance. A modernmethod for theelucidation of chemical constitutions is the X-raystructure analysis. For theapplication of this method, alkaloids andother substancesmust be availablein crystallized form.

23

"Th e larges t river in th e worldruns through the largest forest ... By little and lit tle,

I began to comprehendthat in a forest which is practically unlimited­

near three millions of square milesclad wi th trees and little else but tr ees,

and where th e nativesthink no more of destroying the nobl est trees,

when the y stand in their way, than we th e vilest weed,a single tr ee cut down

makes no greater a gap, and is no more missed,than when one pulls up a stalk of groundsel

or a poppy in an English cornfield. "- Richard Spruce

Below:The photographdepicts an aerialviewof the Kuluene River, thesouthernmost tributaryof the Xinqu River, a mainaffluentof theAmazon.

> ';;.-:'"

Right: "There were enormoustrees, crowned with magnificent foliage, decked with fantasticparasites, andhung over with Iianas, whichvaried in thickness fromslender threadsto hugepython-likemasses, werenow round, now flattened, nowknotted and now twisted with theregularity of a cable. Intermixedwith the trees, and often equal to them in altitude, grewnoblepalms; while other and far lovelier speciesof the same family, their ringedstems sometimesscarcelyexceedinga finger'sthickness, but bearing plume-likefrondsandpendulousbunchesof blackor red berries, quite like thoseof their loftier allies, formed, along with shrubsandarbusclesof manytypes, a bushyundergrowth, not visually very denseor difficult to penetrate. . . It is worthyto be noted that the loftiest forest is generally the easiest to traverse ; the lianasand parasites . . . being in great part toohigh to be much in the way. . ."-Richard Spruce

24

GEOGRAPHY OFUSAGE ANDBOTANICAL RANGE

Many more hallucinogenic plants exist than thosethat man has put to use. Of the probable half­million species in the world's flora, only aboutone thousand are known to be employed for theirhallucinogenic properties. Few areas of the globelack at least one hallucinogen of significance in theculture of the inhabitants.

Despite its size and extremely varied vegeta­tion, Africa appears to be poor in hallucinogenicplants. The most famous, of course, is Iboga, aroot of the Dogbane family employed in Gabonand parts of the Congo in the Bwiti cult. TheBushmen of Botswana slice the bulb of Kwashiof the Amaryllis famil y and rub it over scarifica­tions on the head, allowing the active principles inthe juice to enter the bloodstream. Kanna is amysterious hallucinogen, probably no longerused: the Hottentots chewed the plant materialfrom two species of the Ice Plant family that in­duced gaiety, laughter, and visions. In scatteredregions, relatives of Thorn Apple and Henbanewere used for their intoxicating properties.

In Eurasia there are many plants employed fortheir hallucinatory effects. Most significant, it isthe home of Hemp, today the most widespreadof all narcotics: as Marijuana, Maconha, Daggha,Ganja, Charas, etc., the drug and its use havespread nearly throughout the world.

The most spectacular Eurasiatic hallucinogen isthe Fly Agaric, a mushroom consumed by scat­tered tribesmen in Siberia and possibly the sacredgod-narcotic Soma of ancient India.

Datura was employed over wide areas of Asia.In Southeast Asia, especially in Papua New Gui­nea, sundry poorly understood hallucinogens areused. The rhizome of Maraba, a member of theGinger family, is believed to be eaten in New Gui­nea. In Papua, natives ingest a mixture of leaves ofEreriba of the Arum family and bark of a large tree,Agara, to produce a sleep during which visions oc­cur. Nutmeg may once have been taken in Indiaand Indonesia for its narcotic effects. Tribesmenin Turkestan drink an intoxicating tea made fromthe dried leaves of a shrubby mint, Lagochilus.

The heyday of the use of hallucinogens in Eur­ope occurred in ancient times, when they wereused almost exclusively in witchcraft-and divina­tion. The major plants involved-Thorn Apple,Mandrake, Henbane, Belladonna-belong to the

26

Nightshade family. The fungus Ergot, a parasiteon rye, frequently poisoned entire regions if acci­dentally milled into the flour. Such attacks ledhundreds of citizens to go mad and suffer hallu­cinations, often causing permanent insanity, gang­rene, or death. This plague was known as St.Anthony's fire. Although Ergot was apparentlynever purposefully used in medieval Europe as ahallucinogen, there are suggestions that the Eleu­sinian mysteries of ancient Greece were associatedwith this fungal genus.

The famous and widely employed Kava-kava isnot a hallucinogen but has been classified as ahypnotic narcotic.

It is in the New World that the number andcultural significance of hallucinogenic plants areoverwhelming, dominating every phase of lifeamong the aboriginal peoples.

There were some hallucinogenic species in theWest Indies. In fact, the early indigenous popula­tions used mainly the snuff known as Cohoba;and it is believed that this custom was importedby Indians invading the Caribbean Islands fromthe Orinoco regions of South America.

Similarly, North America (north of Mexico) isquite poor in hallucinogens. Various species ofDatura were employed rather widely, but most in­tensely in the Southwest. The Indians of the regionof Texas and adjacent areas used the Red Bean orMescal Bean as the basis of a vision-seeking cere­mony. In northern Canada, Indians chewed theroots of Sweet Flag as medicine and supposedlyalso for the hallucinogenic effects.

Mexico represents without a doubt the world'srichest area in diversity and use of hallucinogensin aboriginal societies-a phenomenon difficultto understand in view of the comparatively mod­est number of species comprising the flora of thecountry. Without any question the Peyote cactus ·is the most important sacred hallucinogen,although other cactus species are still used innorthern Mexico as minor hallucinogens for spe­cial magico-religious purposes. Of almost equalreligious importance in early Mexico and surviv­ing until today in religious rituals are mush­rooms, known to the Aztecs as Teonanacatl, Atleast twenty-four species of these fungi are em­ployed at the present time in southern Mexico.Ololiuqui, the seeds of Morning Glories, repre-

Top: At the Shiva Temple of Pashupatinathnear Kathmandu, Nepal, Indianyogis smoke Marijuanain preparation for the arduousbody practiceandmeditation.

Below: Visionsreveaiedby hallucinogenscanbeSUbsequentlyprocessedandrenderedartistically. In this waythe experience is carried into andcon­nected witheveryday life. (HallucigeniabyChristianHatsch, watercolor, circa1993)

sents another hallucinogen of great importancein Aztec religion and is still employed in south­ern Mexico. There are many hallucinogens ofsecondary importance: Toloache and other spe­cies of the Datura group; the Mescal Bean orFrijolillo in the north; Pipiltzintzintli of theAztecs; the diviner's sage now known as Hierbade la Pastora; Genista among the Yaqui Indi­ans; Piule, Sinicuichi, Zacatechichi, the puffballs

known by the Mixtecs as Gi ' -i-Wa; and manyothers.

South America ranks a close second to Mexicoin the number, variety, and deep magico-religioussignificance of hallucinogens. The Andean cul­tures had half a dozen species of Brugmansias,known as Borrachero, Campanilla, Floripondio,Huanto, Haucacachu, Maicoa, Toe, Tongo, etc.In Peru and Bolivia a columnar cactus called SanPedro or Aguacolla is th e basis of the drinkcimora, used in a vision-seeking ceremony. Ma­puche Indian witch doctors (who are mostl yfemale) of Chile formerly employed a hallucino­genic tree of the Nightshade family-Latue orArbol de los Brujos. Research has indicated theuse in various parts of the Andes of the rare shru?Taique (D esf ontainia), th e mysterious Shanshi,and the fruits of Hierba Loca and Taglli, both ofthe Heath family. Most recently, a tYEe o~ Petuniahas been reported as an intoxicant used ill Ecua­dor. In the Orinoco and parts of the Amazon, apowerful snuff called Yopo or Niopo is madefrom the toasted seeds of a tree of the legume

27

0 -. '-.- , ' ,~ 'I.

'* ~ 0

::.-:- ~-.~. ... ";.,. , .

...: :i.~"": '5-

/'~:'?:,

i..<;: ,;.: ::~:-" -1'-. '"':';""_

~ ;.. ,'i ' . :r·.~ ~.

.!.. ~ \ .

J::-{

,-.'

There arefewcultures in theWestern Hemisphere thatdid notvalue at least one hallucinogenic plant inmagico-reiigious ceremonies. Many cultures hadseveral. In additionto hallucinogens,a number ofotherwise psyc~oact ive plants'sharedthehonors:Tobacco, Coca, Guayusa, Yoco, Guaranca,Some of

. these-especially Tobacco andCoca-rose toexaltedpositions in thesacred native pharmacopoeias.Thesemajorhallucinogens areculturallysignificant in theareas indicatedbythesymbols.

,. '-"_..._- ....~-.- '~"

-- 7 : - . :., ~ '--T - - . "::::: -: -: -:.•

--'-_._.'- ' - ' .'."._'.-:_'--- -_....

,b c'W Q

~ J,40 ~~ J, qp~ ~'! ~~~~!~ ~t5lP

. ~ t5lP~

······i ! ~

,.'! °0

.':.:: ~

,' ~

,\~

( \'-' O· .' c

1 &~.&&@

' ...~ - "

', ."

, ::

' .. , ....

.....

o Hyoscyamusspp.

® Amanita muscarialJ~. Atropabelladonna.'* Cannabissativa

'- Claviceps purpurea

rf!!f Datura spp.

, Tabernanthe iboga

.~ Anadenanthera peregrina

Right: Shamans remain theguardiansof wisdom concerning themagical ef­fects of thepsychoactive plants. Thisphotograph wastaken at theholymountainKalinchok (4,OOOm) in the Himalayasof Nepal.

family. The Indians of northern Argentina take asnuff-Cebfl or Villca-prepared from seeds of aspecies closely related to Yopo. Perhaps the mostimportant lowland hallucinogen in South Americais Ayahuasca, Caapi, Natema, Pinde, or Yaje. Em­ployed ceremonially in the western Amazon andin several localities on the Pacific coastal areas ofColombia and Ecuador, it is made basically fromseveral species of lianas of the Malpighia family.Brunfelsia, a member of the Nightshade family,known widely in the westernmost Amazon asChiricaspi, is taken for hallucinatory purposes.

There are more plants utilized as hallucinogensin the New World than in the Old. Nearly 130species are known to be used in the WesternHemisphere, whereas in the Eastern Hemispherethe number reaches roughly 50. Botanists have noreason to presume that the flora of the New Worldis richer or poorer than that of the Old in plantswith hallucinogenic properti es.

30

PLAN T LEXICON

.'v/~

The plant lexicon includes basic de­scriptions, primarily botanical innature, of ninety-seven plants thatare known to have a hallucinogenicor psychoactive effect.

Emphasis is given to plan ts thatare known fro m the literature, fieldexperience , and/or labora to ry evi­dence to have definite psych oactiveeffects. Some species that are re­ported to have"narcoti c" or" intox­icating" uses are included as wel l.

The plants are arranged alphabe­tically according to the Latin nameof the genus . This order has beenfollowed in view of th e man y differ­ent vernacular names in the greatvariety of native languages. If a par­ticular name is not listed, it may besought in th e inde x of vern acularnames on pages 32-33 or at the endof the book where these epithets arecro ss-referenced.

Inasmuch as this volume is writ­ten fo r the general reader, the bota­nical desc riptio ns are intentionallybrief, str essing the obvious and mo st

easily visible characteristics of theplant. Whenever space permits, ad­ditional information of historical,ethnological, phytochemical, and,very occasionally, psychopharma­cological interest is added . In th isway, an attempt has been made inthis introductory lexicon to give asbroad an int erdi scipli nary view aspossib le. The illustrations in the lex­icon are of two kinds : some of themare wa tercolors made wheneve rpossible from living plant materialor herbarium specimens. Most aredirect reproductions of color photo­graphs. A number of the plants de­picted here are illustrated for th efirst time.

The purpose of the lexicon ismanifestly to help guide th e readermore easily into the admittedlycomplex array of facts and storiesthat comprise only a small fractionof the extensive knowledge frommany fields concerning these plantsthat native peoples aro und th e worldhave considered plants of the gods .

The botanical investigation of medicinalplantshas, over theyears, becomemoreandmoreexactand sophisticated.In 1543, thewriter ofoneof the mostbeautifully illustratedherbals, LeonardFuchs, presented this accurate sketchof Datura stramonium, theThornApple(left). Some three hundredyears later,Kohler, in his lvIedizinal Pflanzen,pub­lisheda moredetailed pharmacognosticrendering of this very important thera­peutic plant (center). In the 125 yearssincethe establishmentof Linnaeus'sherbarium and thebinomial system ofnomenclature,our herbariahave greatlyenhanced the understanding of themorphological variation ofvegetalspecies through the collectionof driedspecimens around theworld. The thirdillustrationdepicts a typical herbariumspecimen of theThorn Apple repre­senting the kind of material thatnowauthenticatesbotanical identification.Modern technology (for example, theelectron-scanningmicroscope) is mak­ing available morphologicaldetails,suchas the leaf surface hairsof theThornApple, whichprovidegreaterac­curacy in thework of plantidentification.

31

Index and Keyto the Plant Lexicon

Ninety-sevenhallucinogenic plantsareillu­stratedand described on thefollowingpages(34-60).

Thelexicon is inalphabetical orderbygenusname. Each text in thelexicon includes thefol­lowinginformation in its heading:• Genus,author,and, inbrackets, thenumber of

species known to exist in thegenus.• Botanicalname of thespecies shown. The

species known to contain hallucinogenicproperties or tobe usedashallucinogens willbefound in the reference section "OverviewofPlantUse," pages 65-80, which is organizedbycommon name. This reference section/chart provides thebotanical names of theplants and describes thehistory, ethnography,context,purpose of usage, andpreparation,aswellaschemical components andeffects.

• Plant family.• Reference number.• Geographical distributionof thegenus.

Common names arelistedherebelow with thenumberdesignatingeach plant's location in thelexicon.

32

AcaciaAgaraAguacollaAjucaAngel's TrumpetArbol de CampanillaArbol de los BrujosAxocatzinAyahuascaAztec DreamGrassBadohBadohNegroBakanaBelladonnaBhangBiak-BiakBlack HenbaneBlood-Red Angel's TrumpetBlue MeaniesBlue Water LilyBorracheroBovistaBrunfelsiaCaapiCaapi-PinimaCahuaCalamusCaweCebflCebolletaChacrunaChacrunaBushChalice VineChannaCharasChautleChichipeChilicoteChiricaspiChiric-SanangoCohobaColeusColorinesCommonReedConocybeCopelandiaCoral BeanCoral TreeCOWhageCumalaTreeDachaDaggaDamada NoiteDark-rimmed MottlegillDaturaDeadly NightshadeDiviner's SageDogGrassDutra

135945611,124247869,9316954324,84817574112636011, 12,30,4252139,939380262461808087831778634131352134,887422638834589648171965288821628

EIAhijadoEI MachoEI NeneEpenaEreribaErgotEsakunaFalse PeyoteFang-K'ueiFlag RootFloripondioFly AgaricFrijolesGalangaGanjaGenistaGigant6nGi'-i-Sa-WaGi'-i-WaGolden Angel'sTrumpetHashishHawaiianWood RoseHempHenbaneHierba dela PastoraHierba dela VirgenHierba LocaHikuliHikuliHikuli MulatoHikuli RosaparaHikuli RosaparaHikulisunarneHikuriHikuriHikuri OrchidHongode San IsidroHoop-petticoatHuacacachuHuantoHuedhuedHueipatlHuilcaIbogaJamburJimsonweedJurema TreeKannaKieliKieriKifKoriboKouguedKratomKuma MushroomKwashiLady of theNightLatusLatuy

21212196392025772211 , 12388451726945252111761740,4 182827024513333537533261766411, 1211, 1270871490632956838787179283571066194730

LemcngrassLiberty Cap'-ion's Tail»lace."IaconhaMagic MushroomMaicoaMaiden'sAcaciaMalvaColoradaMammillariaManakaMandrakeMarabaMarijuanaMarijuanilloMashihiriMatwuMescalMescal BeanMescal ButtonMorning GloryNightshadeNinfaNondaNutmegNyakwanaOloliuquiPaguandoPainted NettlePalquiPetuniaPeyoteCactusPeyoteCimarronPeyote de San PedroPeyotilloPincushion CactusPipiltzintzintliPitallito CactusPituriPituri BushPiulePoisGI1 BushPokeberryQuetzalaxcchiacatlRape dos IndiosRed BeanRedCanary GrassReed GrassSaguaroSanangoSan IsidroSan Pedro CactusScopoliaScrew PineShang-IaShaninShanshiShe-toSiberian Lion's Tail

2579485919

76,7911. 12

1865313544517494414888851438560105996954221

19

71517536924,538232313143,8131756055

8873731889769485677571236449

Siberian MotherwortSinicuichiStraw FlowerSweetCalomelSweetFlagSyrian RueTabaco del DiabloTabernaemontanaTaglliTaiqueTakiniTaMaTamuTecomaxochitlTeonanacatlTepescohuiteThle-pelakanoThorn AppleTlililtzinToeToloacheToloatzinTongaTo-shkaTotubjansushTsuwiriTupaTurkestan MintTzompar:quahuitlVillcaVoacangaWavy CapWichowakaWichuriWichurikiWild DaggaWoodRoseXtabentumYal1utliYajeYakeeYellow HenbaneYopoYOn-shihZacatechichi

493637226850

89703038172287785616294311

27

27

11, 126442750

4634497776224534869591

9964051516

A SouthAmerican Indian harvests aplant of thegods,a Blood-Red An­gel's Trumpet (Brugmansia sangui­nea). This alkaloid-rich plant hasbeen cultivated andused for psy­choactive purposes for centuriesor

even millennia. The Indians cautionagainst the thoughtlessuse of thisplant,which causes such stronghallucinations and deliriumthatonlyexperiencedshamanscanuseit fordivination and healing.

33

ACACIA Mill. (750-800) ACORUS L. (2) AMANITA L. (50-6 0) ANADENANTHERA Speg. (2)

Acacia maidenii F vonMuell.Maiden's Acacia

Leguminosae (Pea Family)Australia

1

AcaruscalamusL.Sweet Flag

Araceae (Arum Family)Temperate andwarm zones

2 of bothhemispheres

Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Pers.FlyAgaric

AmanitaceaeEurope, Africa, Asia,

3 Americas

Anadenanthera calubruna(Vellozo)BrennanCebfl, Villca

Leguminosae (Pea Family)NorthwestArgentina

4

Thegenus Acacia iswidely dis­tributed throughout thetropicalandsubtropical regions of theworld. It encompasses for themost partmedium-sized treeswith pinnate, occasionallysmooth leaves. Theflowersgrow in clusters andthefruit ispea-like. Many acacias areatraditional additivetopsycho­active products, such as betel,beer, balche, pituri, andpulque.Some of thespecies aresuitedfor thepreparation of Ayahuas­ca analogs. Numerous Austra­lianspecies (A. maidenii,A. phlebophylla, A. simplicifolia)contain higher concentrationsofDMT in theirbarkand.leaves.

Acacia maidenii, a beautifulerect treewith a silvery splen­dor, contains different trypta­mines. Thebarkcontains0.36 % DMT. Theleaves areusable asa DMT-deliveringcomponent ofAyahuasca ana­logs. These acacias areeasytocultivate in temperate climatessuch as in California andsouth­ernEurope.

34

Some evidence, although weakandindirect, suggests thattheCree Indians of northwesternCanada may occasionally chewtherootstalk ofSweet Flag foritspsychoactive effects.

Sweet Flag is a semiaquaticherbwitha long, aromatic,creeping rootstock producingshoots of erect, linear, swordlikeleaves upto 6ft (2m) in length.Thetinyflowers areborne onasolid, lateral, greenish yellowspadix. Therootstalk or rhizomecontains anessential oil re­sponsible for theplant's medic­inalvalue.

It has been suggestedthattheactive principlesarea-asaroneand~-asarone. Thereis a struc­tural resemblance betweenasarone and mescaline, a psy­choactive alkaloid. Noevidencehasever been produced, how­ever, thatasarone canbe asso­ciated with psychotomimeticactivity.

Amanita muscaria is a beautifulmushroom growing in thinfor­ests usually under birches, firs,andyoung pines. It mayattain aheight of 8-9 in. (2Q--23cm).Thesomewhat viscid, ovate,hemispheric, andfinally almostflatcapmeasures3-8 in. (8­20cm)when mature. There arethree varieties: onewitha blood­red capwith white warts found intheOldWorld andnorthwesternNorth America; a yellow or or­ange type with yellowishwartscommon in eastern andcentralNorth America; anda whitevariety thatis found in Idaho.Thecylindrical stem, which hasa bulbous base, iswhite, %- 1in.(1 -3cm) thick, with a conspicu­ous cream-white ring coveredbasically withencircling scales.Thewhite valveadheresto thebase of thestem. Thegillsvaryfrom white to cream colororeven lemon yellow.

This mushroom, perhapsman's oldest hallucinogen, hasbeen identifiedwithSoma ofancient India.

Thistreegrows9-50 ft (3- 18m)andhasanalmost black barkoften adorned with conicalthorns. The leaves arefinely lo­cular andreach upto 1ft (30cm)long. The yellowish whiteflow­ersareround. Theleathery darkbrown fruitpods grow to 1ft(35cm) long and contain veryflat red-brown seeds 1h to 1in.(1-2cm) wide, with rounded toright angles.

Theseeds have been used asa hallucinogen bythe Indians ofthesouthern region of theAn­desforapproximately 4,500years. They areeither workedintoa snuff powder, smoked, orused asanadditive forbeer.Primarily they areused inshamanism.

Theseeds of theCebfl orVill­ca contain tryptamines, espe­cially bufotenine.

I N JADENANTHERA Speg. (2) ARGYREIA Lour. (90) ARIOCARPUSScheidw. (6)

.redensmnere peregrina(L.)Speg.

ICPO

Leguminosae (Pea Family)Tropical zones of South

5 America, West Indies

Anadenanthera peregrina is amimosa-like tree, mainly ofopengrasslands, attaining a heightof65ft (20m)andwitha trunk2ft(60cm) in diameter. The black­ish bark is coarsely armed withconical mucronate projections.The leaves have from 15to 30pairs of pinnaewithmanyverysmall hairy leaflets. Many min­ute whiteflowersin sphericalheads arranged in terminaloraxillary clusters comprisetheinflorescence. Flat, thin, glossyblack, roundishseedsoccur inrough, woody pods, from 3 to 10in a pod.

A potent hallucinogenic snuffis made from the beans of Ana­denantheraperegrina in the Or­inoco basin, where it is calledYopo. Its former shamanic andritual use in the WestIndies, un­der the nameCohoba, was re­portedas early as 1496. Sadly,this usehasdisappeared duetothe exploitation of the nativepeople.

The treenative to theedges ofthe large forested areasofGuyana is still usedbydifferenttribes, primari ly the Yanomano

and Waika, for the production ofEpena. The shamanic snuff ismadefrom cultivated trees inaddition to othersubstancesand plantashes. The seedscontain mostly N,N-Dimethyl­tryptamine (DrvlT) aswellas5-MeO-DMTandothertrypta­mines. The shaman of the rainforest people of theOrinoco re­gion (for example, the Piaroa)cultivate this tree which is notnative to that area. Thatwaythey securetheir snuffsupplies.

Argyreia nervosa (Burmanf.) Bojer,Hawaiian Wood Rose

Convovulaceae(Morning Glory Family)

India, Southeast Asia,6 Hawaii

The mature stemsof this vigor­ouslygrowing twining bindweedclimb up to 30ft (10m) high andcarry a latexlikemilk.Thestemmed, heart-shaped leavesare finelyhaired and have asilveryappearance dueto adense white down thatcoverstheyoung stemsandthe leafundersides. The funnel-shapedflowers arevioletor lavenderandare carried in the leaf axis.Their sepals are finelyhaired.The round fruit are berrylikeandcontain smooth brown seeds. Ineach seedcapsule there are 1­4 seeds.

The plantoriginatesin India,where it hasbeen usedmedic­inally sinceancient times. A tra­ditional useas an entheogenhasnot yetbeendiscovered.Phytochemical research is tothank for the awareness of itspotentpsychedelic constitution.The seedscontain 0.3% Ergotalkaloids (ergine and Iysergic­acid-amides) . Mostpsycho­nautsdescribe LSD-like effectsafter taking4-8 seeds.

Ariocarpus retusus Scheidw.False Peyote

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Mexico, Texas

7

These plantsaresmall, grayishgreen to purplish grayor brown­ish cactuses, 4-6 in. (10- 15cm)in diameter. They hardly appearabove the ground. Often calledLiving Rocks, theycan easily bemistakenfor rocks in the stonydesertwhere they grow. Theirhornyor fleshy, umbricated,three-angled tubercles arecharacteristicof the genus.Densemasses of hairoften filltheareoles. The flowers varyfrom white to pinkandpurplishandmeasure approximately2%in. (6cm) long andup to1V2 in. (4cm)wide when fullyopen.

Indians in northern and cen­tral Mexicoconsider A. fissura­tusand A. retusus as "falsePeyotes."

These species of cactus, re­latedto Lophophora, are typicaldesert plants, growingpreferen­tiallyin theopen sun in sandy orrocky stretches.

Several psychoactive pheny­lethylaminealkaloids have beenisolated from A. fissuratus andA. retusus.

35

ATROPA L. (4)

Atropa belladonna L.Deadly Nightshade

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Europe, NorthAfrica, Asia'··8--

BANISTERIOPSIS (20-30)C.B. Robinson et Small

Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruceex Gri­seb.) Morton, Ayahuasca

Malpighiaceae(Malpighia Family)

Tropical zones of northern9 South America, West Indies

BOLETUSDill. ex Fr.

Boletus manicus HeimKuma Mushroom

BoletaceaeCosmopolitan

10

(225)

This much-branched perennialherbupto3ft (90cm)tallmaybeglabrous or pubescent-glandu­lar. Theovate leaves attain alength of 8in. (20cm). Thesoli­tary, drooping, bell-shaped,brown-purple flowers, approxi­mately 1Va in. (3cm) long, pro­duce shinyblack berries 1Va-1V2in. (3-4 cm) in diameter. Allparts of theplantcontain potentalkaloids. It grows in thicketsandwoods on limesoils andisnaturalized especially near oldbuildingsandhedges.

It is believed thatBelladonnafigured asan important ingredi­entin many of thewitches'brews ofantiquity. There are, ofcourse, numerous records ofaccidental andpurposeful poi­soningassociated withtheDeadly Nightshade.

This plant played a major rolein thewarof theScots underDuncan I against the Norwegianking Sven Canute about A. D.

1035. TheScots destroyed the­Scandinavian armybysending them food andbeerto which "Sleepy Nightshade"had been added.

36

The main psychoactivecon­stituent is atropinebut lesseramounts of scopolamine andtrace amounts of minor tropanealkaloids arealsopresent. Thetotalalkaloidcontent in theleaves is0.4%, in the roots0.5%, andin theseeds 0.8%.

In addition to theusual Bella­donna there is a rare, yellowblooming variety (var. lutea) aswellaslittleknown related kinds.The Indian Belladonna (Atropaacuminata Royleex lind!.) iscultivated for pharmaceuticalpurposes because of its highcontent of scopolamine. In AsiatheCaucasian Belladonna(Atropa caucasia Kreyer) andtheTurkmenish Belladonna(Atropa komarovii Blin. et Shal)arefound. Belladonna is stillcultivated for thepharmaceuti­cal productionofatropine.

Thesegiant forest Iianas are thebasis of an important hallucino­genic drink (Ayahuasca) rituallyconsumedin thewestern half ofthe Amazon Valley andbyiso­lated tribes onthePacific slopesoftheColombian andEcuador­ean Andes. Thebarkof Banis­teriopsis caapiandB. inebrians,prepared incoldwater orafterlong boiling, maybetaken alone,butvarious plant additives­especially the leaves of Oiplop­teriscabrerana, known asOco­Yaje, andof Psychotria viridis­areoften used toaltertheeffectsof thehallucinogenic drink.

Both species are Iianas withsmooth, brown barkanddarkgreen, chartaceous, ovate-Ian­ceolate leaves upto about 7in.(18cm) in length, 2-3 in. (5-8cm) wide. The inflorescence ismany-flowered. Thesmall flow­ersarepinkor rose-colored. Thefruit is a samarawithwingsabout 1% in. (3.5cm) long.B. inebrians differs from B. caa­piin its thickerovate, more at­tenuate leaves andintheshapeof thesamara wings. TheIianacontains MAO inhibitors.

Severalspecies of Boletus areinvolved in thecurious "mush­room madness" of the KumaofNewGuinea. Boletus reayi, oneof these, ischaracterized byahemispherical, strong brownishred capthatis cream-yellow attheperiphery; it measures from% to 1V2 in. (2to 4cm) india­meter. Theflesh of thecap islemon-colored. Thestipe variesfrom orange at thetop, to amarbled green andgray-rose inthemiddle, to a green at thebase. Thespores, which areelongated ellipsoidal, have ayellow membrane butareolive­colored within.

B. manicus is a well-knownspecies that, as itsname im­plies, hassomewhat toxic prop­erties, (mania = insanity). Hallu­cinogenic propertieshave notyetbeen proven.

(40) I

Brunfelsia grandiflora D. DonBrunfelsia

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Tropical zones of northern13 South America, West Indies

BRUNFELSIA L.BRUGMANSIA Pers. (9-1 0)

Brugmansia sanguinea(Rulz et Pavon) D. DonBlood-RedAngel's Trumpet

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

South America,12 Colombia to Chile

Srugmansia aureaLacerh.Golden Angel's Trumpet

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Western SouthAmerica

BRUGMANSIA Pers. (7-8)

11

Closely relatedto Datura, thespecies of Brugmansia are ar­borescent, and it is suspectedthat they are all cultigensun­known in the wild. Biologicallyvery complex, all species ap­pear to have been used as hal­lucinogens for millennia. Brug­mansia suaveolensandB. insignis occur in warmerparts of South America, espe­cially in thewestern Amazonia,where theyare employed aloneor mixedwith otherplants,usually underthe nameToe.Most of the species, however,prefer the cool, wet highlandsabove 6,000 ft. (1 ,830m). Themost widespread species in theAndes is Brugmansia aurea,with bothyellowand,more com­monly, white flower forms. In thehorticultural literature it has fre­quently been misidentified asBrugmansia(or Datura) arbor­ea, which is in reality a muchless common plant. Brugmansiaaurea is a shrubor small tree upto 30It (9m) tall with oblong-el­liptic, often minutely hairyleaves, the blademeasuring 4­16in. (1 0- 40cm) long, 2-6V2 in.

(5-16cm)wide, borneon a pe­tiole up to 5in. (13cm) long. Theflowersare nodding, notwhollypendulous,usually7-9 in. (18­23cm) long and very fragrant,especially in the evening. Thetrumpet-shaped corolla flaringbroadly at the mouthis white orgolden yellow, its slender basalpart completelyenclosed by thecalyx, its teeth 1V2-2Y2 in. (4­6cm) long, recurving. The elon­gate-ovoid, smooth, green fruit,which is variable in size, re­mains fleshy, never becominghard or woolly. The angular,blackishor brownish seedsarerelatively large, measuringabout Y2 by 318 in. (12 by 9mm).In addition to their use as hallu­cinogens, all species haveplayed major roles as medicinesfor a large spectrum of ills,especially in thetreatment ofrheumatic pains. They containpotent hallucinogenic tropanealkaloids.

This perennial Brugmansiaisheavilybranched andreaches6­16ft (2-5 m),developingaverywoody trunk.The gray-greenleaves arefurryand roughly ser­rated attheedge.TheBlood-RedAngel's Trumpet does not emitscents in thenight. Usuallytheflowers aregreen at thebase,yellowin themiddle, and have ared edgearound thetop.Therearealso green-red, pureyellow,yellow-red, and almostcomple­tely redvarieties.Thesmoothoval fruitsarebulbousinthecen­terand pointed at theends andare usuallypartially protectedbythedriedcalyx. InColombia thispowerful shamanplant wasri­tually used inthecultofthesunofpre-Columbian times. The plantis stillusedas a hallucinogenbytheshamans andCuranderos ofEcuadorand Peru.

The entire plant contains tro­pane alkaloids. The flowerscontain essentially atropine andonly traces of scopolamine(hyoscine). In the seeds ap­proximately 0.17% totalalkaloids are present; of those,78% are scopolamine.

Several species of Brunfelsiahave medicinal andpsycho­active roles in the Colombian,Ecuadorean, and PeruvianAmazon as well as in Guyana.Scopoletine hasbeen foundinBrunfelsia, but this compound isnot known to be psychoactive.

B. chiricaspi and B. grandi­flora are shrubsor small treesreaching a heightof about 10It(3m). Theoblong or lanceolateleaves, measuring 2V2-12 in.long (6-30cm), are scatteredalong the branchlets. The flow­ers haveatubular corolla,longerthan the bell-shaped calyx andmeasuringabout 4-4314in. (10­12cm) across, blue to violet,fading with age to white. B. chir­icaspidiffersfrom B. grandiflorain havingmuch larger leaves,longer leaf stalks, a few-flow­ered inflorescence, and de­flexedcorolla lobes. B. chiricas­pi occurs in thewest Amazoniaof Colombia, Ecuador, andPeru. B. grandiflora is wide­ranging in western South Amer­ica from Venezuela to Bolivia.Brunfelsias serve as Ayahuascaadditives.

37

CACALIA L.

Cacalia cordifoliaL. fil.Matwu

(50) CAESALPINIA L.

CaesalpiniasepiariaRoxb.YOn-Shih

(100) CALEAL.

Calea zacatechichiSchlecht.DogGrass

(95) CANNABIS L.

CannabissativaL.Hemp

(3)

Compositae(Sunflower Family)East Asia, North America,

14 Mexico

Leguminosae (PeaFamily)Tropical and warmzones of

15 both hemispheres

Compositae (SunflowerFamily)Tropical zones of northern

16 South America, Mexico

Cannabaceae (Hemp Family)Warm-temperatezones,

17 worldwide

A small shrubby climber,Cacaliacordifolia hasdusty-

.puberulent, six-angledstems.The leaves arethin, ovate, andbasally cordate, 1Vz-3Y3 in. (4­9cm) long. The flowering headis subsessile or pedicellate,about 3/ein. (1 cm) long.

Thisand several other spe­ciesof Cacalia have been re­ferred to in partsof northernMexico as Peyote andmaypos­siblyhave oncebeen employedforhallucinatory purposes. InMexico Cacalia cordifolia is apresumed aphrodisiacandcureforsterility. Analkaloid hasbeenreported from the plant, butthereis no evidence of a chemi­cal constituent with psycho­activeproperties.

This little.researched plantisapparently oftenconfused withCalea zacatechichi.

38

Caesalpinia sepiariaor YOn­Shih, a shrubby vine with retro­rsely hooked spines, is reput­edly used as a hallucinogen inChina.The roots, flowers , andseedsalsohave value in folkmedicine.

The earliest Chinese herbal­Pen-ts'-ao-chinrstated thatthe "flowers could enable onetoseespiritsand, when taken inexcess, cause oneto staggermadly:' If consumed overa longperiod, theyproduce levitationand"communication with thespirits:'

This plantis an extensiveclimber with pinnate leaves 9­15in. (23-38cm) longandlinear-oblong leaflets in 8-12pairs.The large, erect, un­branched showy racemes, 21in.(53em) long, bearcanary yellowflowers.Thesmooth, elongate­ovoid, pointed fruit has4 to 8ovoid, brown- andblack-mottledseeds, 2fs in. (1 em) long. Anal­kaloid of unknown structure hasbeen reported from Caesalpiniasepiaria.

Known in Mexico asZacatechi­chi ("bitter grass"), this incon­spicuousshrub, occurringfromMexicoto Costa Rica, has beenimportant infolkmedicine. It hasalsobeen valued as aninsecticide.

Recent reports suggest thattheChontal Indiansof Oaxacatake a tea of the crushed, driedleaves as a hallucinogen. Be­lieving invisionsseen indreams, Chontal medicine men,who assertthatZacatechichiclarifies thesenses, call theplant Thle-pelakano, or "leaf ofgod."

Calea zacatechichi is a heav­ily branchingshrub withtriangular-ovate, coarselytoothed leaves %- 2%in. (2­6.5cm) long. The inflorescenceis densely many-flowered(usually about 12).

Noconstituentwith hallucina­. tory properties hasasyetbeen

isolated from C. zacatechichi.Theplantcontains germacra­

nolides.Thesubtile psychoac­tiveeffect canbedescribed asdreamlike.

Cannabis sativahas becomevery polymorphic, but it isusually a rank, robust, erect,loosely branched annual herb,sometimesattaining a height of18ft (5.4m). Thesexes arenor­mally on separate plants, thestaminate weaker anddyingaftershedding pollen, thepistil­latestockier and more foliose.Themembranaceous leavesaredigitate, with 3 to 15(usually 7to 9) Iinear-Ianceolate, serratedsegments commonly 2%-4 in.(6-1Oem) wide. Theflowers areborne in axillary or terminalbranches, dark green, yellow­green, or brownish purple. Thefruit is an ovoid, slightly com­pressed, often brownishakenecovered byapersistent calyx,envelopedbyanenlarged bract,usually lackinga strong marbledpattern; it is firmly attached tothe stalk withouta definite ar­ticulation. The seed is ovoid ,mostly Veby%in. (4by2mm).

Cannabis indica is pyramidalor conical in form and under 4­5ft (12Q-150cm) inheight.

Cannabis rudera/is is smalland is never cultivated.

CARNEGI E ,~ Brilt. et Rose (1) CESTRUM L. (160) CLAVICEPS Tulasne (6) COLEUSLour. (150)

Carnegiea gigantea(Engelm.) Britt.et RoseSaguaro

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Southwestern North

18 America, northernMexico

Cestrum parqui L:Herit.Lady of the Night

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Chile19

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.)TulasneErgot

ClavicipitaceaeTemperatezones of Europe,

20 northernAfrica, Asia,North America

Coleus blumei Benlh.PaintedNettle

Labiatae (Mint Family)Tropical and warm zones of

21 Europe, Africa, Asia

This largestof thecolumnarcactus plants, Saguaro, reach­ing a height of some 40ft (12m),is a candelabra-branched "tree."Themany-ribbedstems andbranches attain a diameter of 1­2V2It (30- 75cm). Thespinesnear thetop of theplant areyel­low-brown. Measuring4- 5in.(10- 13cm) in length, thewhite,funnel-shaped flowers openduring theday. Thefruit, red orpurple, is anovoidor ellipsoidberry splittingdown theside intotwo or three sections and mea­suring2V2-3 Y2 in. (6-9cm) long.Thenumeroussmall seeds areblackandshining.

Although there are no reportsof the Saguaro asa hallucino­gen, theplantdoes containpharmacologically activealka­loids capableof psychoactivity.

Carnegine, 5-hydroxycarne­gine, and norcarneqine, plustrace amounts of 3-methoxytyr­amine andarizonine (a tetrahy­droquinoline base), have beenisolated from Saguaro.

Thenative people makeawine fromthe pressed fruit.

Cestrumparqui hasbeen usedmedicinallyand ritually for sha­manic healingsince pre­Columbian timesbythe Ma­puche in southern Chile.Theplanthas the power to withstandattacksof sorcery or black ma­gic. The dried leaves of Cestrumparqui are smoked.

The shrub growsto 5It (1 .5m)and has small , lanceolate mattegreen leaves. The bell-shapedyellowflowers have five pointypetals. They hang from thestemin clusters. The flowers bloom inChile between October and No­vember andrelease a powerfu l,heady aroma. The plant hassmall oval berries that areashiny black color.

Cestrumparquicontainsso­lasonine, a glycosidesteroid-al­kaloid, aswell assolasonidineanda bitter alkaloid (Parquin'sformula C21H39NOs), which hasa similar action to strychnine oratropine.

Ergot is a fungal disease of cer­tain grasses andsedges, pri­marily of rye. Meaning"spur,"Ergot refers to thesclerotium orfruiting bodyof anascomyceteor sac fungus. The spuris apurplishor black, curved, club­shaped growth V2-2Y2 in. (1­6cm) long, which parasiticallyreplacesthe endosperm of thekernel. The fungus producespsychoactive andtoxic alka­loids.

Therearetwodistinctperiodsin the lifecycle of this fungus: anactive and a dormant stage. TheErgot or spurrepresents thedormant stage. Whenthespurfalls to theground, the Ergotsprouts globular heads calledascocarps fromwhich growasci, each with threadlike as­cospores that aredisseminatedwhen the asci rupture.

Inthe MiddleAges andearlierin Europe, especially where ryewas used in bread-making,whole areas frequently werepoisoned, suffering plaguesofergotism, when fungus-infectedrye kernelsweremilled intoflour.

Twospeciesof Coleushavesig­nificance in Mexico. Related toSalvia divinorum is La Hembra("the woman"); C. pumilus is EIMacho("theman"); and twoforms of C. blumeiare EI Nene("thechild") and EI Ahijado("thegodson"). C. blumei attainsaheightof 3It (1m) and hasovate, marginallytoothed leavesupto 6in. (15cm) in length; thebottom surfaceis finely hairy,the uppersurface usually withlargedark red blotches. Themore or lessbell-shaped blue orpurplish flowers, measuringabout Y2 in. (1cm) long, areborne in long lax, whorledracemes upto 12in. (30cm) inlength.

Recently, salvinorine-like sub­stances (diterpene)were dis­cove red .Thechemical structurehas notyet been determined. Itis possible that bydryingorburningthe diterpene, its che­micalstructureismodified intopotent material.The chemistryandpharmacologymust be re­searched further.

39

Coriariaceae (Coriaria Family)Southern Europe, northern

:23 Africa, Asia; NewZealand;Mexicoto Chile

CONOCYBE (40)

ConocybesiligineoidesHeimConocybe

Agaricaceae (Bolbitiaceae)(Agaric Family)" Cosmopolitan22 "

CORIARIA L.

Codara thymifolia HBKex Willd.Shanshi

(15) CORYPHANTHA (64)(Engelm.) Lem.

Coryphantha compacta"(Engelm.) Britt. et RosePincushion Cactus

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Southwestern North

24 America, Mexico,Cuba

CYMBOPOGON Sprengel (60)

Cymbopogon densiflorus StapfLemongrass

Gramineae (Grass Family)Warmzonesof Africa and

25 Asia

Conocybe siligineoides hasbeen reported asoneof thesacred intoxicating mushroomsof Mexico. Psilocybine hasnotasyetbeen isolated from thisspecies, but Conocybecyanopus of the United Stateshas been shown to contain thispsychoactive alkaloid.

Thisbeautifulmushroom, uptoabout 3in. (Bcm) tall, living onrottingwood, hasa capupto1in. (2.5cm)in diameter that isfawn-orange-red, with a deeperorange at thecenter. Thegillsaresaffron-colored or brownishorange with chrome yellowspores.

Many speciesof the genusConocybecontain psilocybine,arepsychoactive, andareusedritually. Recently a rudimentarycultaround Tamu (a Conocybespecies, "Mushroom of Aware­ness") hasbeen discovered.

Conocybe siligeneoides is anobscure mushroom which hasnot been found or analyzedagain sinceitsfirstdescription.

40

In thehighest Andes from Co­lombia to Chile, Coriaria thymi­folia adorns thehighways withits frondlike leaves. It hasbeenfeared in the Andean countriesasa plant toxicto browsingani­mals. Human deaths have sup­posedly followed ingestion ofthefruit. Reports from Ecuador,nevertheless, suggest that thefruit (shanshi) may beeaten toinduce an intoxicationcharac­terized bysensations of soaringthrough theair.

Coriaria thymifolia isa shrubusually up to 6ft (1.B m)tall.Theleaves areoblong-ovate, Vz-% in. (1-2cm) in length, borneon slender, archinglateralbranches. The small, darkpur­ple flowers occur densely onlong drooping racemes. Theround purplish black fruit iscomposed of five to eight com­pressed fleshy parts, or carpels.Thewhole shrub has a fernlikeappearance.

No psychoactivepropertieshave been isolated yet.

A small, solitary, globular butsomewhat flattened, spiny cac­tusupto 3%in. (Bcm) in dia­meter, Coryphantha compactagrows in dry hillyandmountai­nous regions. It is hardly visiblein thesandy soil where it occurs.Theradial spines arewhitish,Vz-% in. (1 -2cm) in length; thecentral spines areusually ab­sent. Thecrowded tubercles arearranged in 13 rows. Arisingfrom thecenter of thecrowneithersinglyor in pairs, theyel­lowflowers measure upto 1in.(2.5cm)"in length. TheTarahu­mara of northern Mexicocon­siderCoryphantha compacta akind of Peyote. Theplant, calledBakana, is takenbyshamansandis respected andfeared. It isused asa substitute for Peyote.

Coryphantha palmeriihaslikewise been reported asa hal­lucinogen in Mexico. Variousal­kaloids, including thepsychoac­tive phenylethylamines, havebeen isolated from severalspeciesof Coryphantha: horde­nine, calipamine, andmacro­merine.

Native medicine men inTanza­niasmoke theflowersof Cym­bopogon densiflorus alone orwith tobacco to cause dreamsthat they believe foretell the fu­ture.The leaves and rhizomes,pleasantly aromatic of citron,arelocally used asa tonic andstyptic.

Thisperennialgrass hasstout, erect culms with linear tolinear-Ianceolate leaves, basallywide androunded andtaperingto a finepoint, 1 ft. (30cm) inlength and%- 1in. (1-2 .5cm) inwidth. Thefloweringspikes areslender, olivegreen tobrownish.This species grows in Gabon,the Congo, and Malawi.

Little is known about the psy­choactive propertiesof thegrass. Thegenus Cymbopogonis richin essentialoils, andster­oidal substances have beenfound insome species.

CYTISUS L. (30) DATURA L. (14-1 6) DATURA L. (14-16) DATURA L. (14- 16)

Cytisus canariensis (L.)O.KuntzeGenista

Leguminosae (Pea Family)Southern Europe, northern

26 Africa, western Asia; CanaryIslands, Mexico

Datura innoxia Mill. (D. mete/aides)Toloache

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Tropical andwarm-27 temperature zones of both

hemispheres

Datura mete/L.Datura

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Tropicalandwarm-28 temperate zones of Asia

andAfrica

Datura stramonium L.ThornApple

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

29Tropicalandmoderate zonesofbothhemispheres

Rarely areforeign plants incor­porated in ceremonial useinaboriginal American societies.Native to the Canary Islands,Genistawasintroduced intoMexico from theOldWorld,where it hasno record of useasa hallucinogen. Itapparently hasacquired magical useamongthe Yaqui Indians of northernMexico, where medicine menvalue the seed as ahallucinogen.

A coarse, evergreen, much­branched shrub upto 6ft (1 .8m)tall, Cytisus canadensis bearsleaves with obovate or oblong,hairyleaflets %-Y2 in. (.5-1cm)long. The fragrant, brightyellowflowers, in terminal, many-flow­ered, dense racemes, measureabout Y2 in. (1 cm) in length. Thepods arehairy, V2-%in. (1­2cm) long.

Cytisus is richin the lupine al­kaloidcytisine, which is com­monin the Leguminosae. Cy­stinehassimilar properties asnicotine.Forthis reason, plantsthatcontain cystineareoftensmoked asa substitute forTobacco.

The most extensive useof Da­turacenters in Mexico andtheAmerican Southwest, where themostimportant psychoactivespeciesseems to be Datura in­noxia. This is the famous To­loache of Mexico, oneof theplants of thegodsamong theAztecs andotherIndians. Themodern Tarahumara of Mexicoaddthe roots , seeds, andleavesof 0. innoxia to tesquino,a cere­monial drinkprepared frommaize. Mexican Indians believethat, unlike Peyote, Toloache isinhabitedbya malevolent spirit.

Datura innoxia is a herbac­eous perennial up to 3ft (1 m)tall, grayish because of finehairs on thefoliage; the leaves,unequally ovate, repand or sub­entire, measure upto 2 or2%in.(5cm) in length. The erect,sweet-scented flowers, 5V2-9in.(14-23cm) long, arewhite witha 1O-pointed corolla. Thepen­dantfruit is nearly globose, 2in.(5cm) in diameter, covered withsharpspines.

In the OldWorld, themost cul­turally important species of Da­tura for medicinal andhallucino­genic useis 0. mete/.

Datura mete/, nativeprobablyto the mountainous regions ofPakistan or Afghanistan west­ward, is a spreading herb,sometimes becoming shrubby,3-6 ft (i-2m) tall. Thetriangu­lar-ovate, sinuate, anddeeplytoothed leaves measure 5V2­8V2in. (14-22cm) long, 3-4%in. (8-11cm)wide. Thesoli­tary flowers, which maybepur­ple,yellowish, orwhite, aretub­ular, funnel- or trumpet-shaped,almostcircularwhen expanded,mayattain a length of 6V2in.(17cm). Thedrooping, roundfruit, upto 2%in. (6cm) in dia­meter, is conspicuously tuber­culate or muricate, openingtoexpose flat, lightbrown seeds.Theflowers areprimarily violetandgrowat anangle or uprightto thesky.

All types of Datura contain thehallucinogenic tropane alkaloidsscopolamine, hyosyamine andsomeatropine.

Thisannual herb grows toabout4ft (1.2m)and hasmany-forkedbranches and branched, leaflessstems.Therich green leaves arecoarsely serrated. Thefunnel­shaped flowersare5-pointed,stand erect, and open upward.Thecommon varietycarrieswhite flowers thatat2-3 in. (6-9cm) long areamong thesmal­lestoftheDatura species.Thetatu/avarietyhas smaller violetflowers. Thegreen egg-shapedfruit iscovered with thorns andstands erect. Theflat,l iver­shaped seeds areblack.

Theoriginsof this powerfulhallucinogenicspeciesofThornApple is uncertain and itsbota­nical history ardently arguedover. Some authors suggest thatDatura stramonium isanancientspeciesthatoriginates in the re­gion of theCaspian Sea. Othersbelieve thatMexico or NorthAmerica is theoriginal habitat.Today theherb is foundthroughout North, Central, andSouth America; North Africa;Central and Southern Europe; inthe nearEast; and in theHimalayas.

41

DESFONTAINIA R.et P. (1-3)

Desfontainia spinosa R.et P.Taique

DesfontainiaceaeHighlandsof Central

30 Americaand South America

DUBOISIA R. Br. (3)

Duboisia hopwoodii F. v. Muell.Pituri Bush

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

- CentralAustralia-31

ECHINOCEREUS Engelm. (75)

Echinocereus triglochidiatus En­gelm.PitallitoCactus

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Southwestern North

32 America, Mexico

EPITHELANTHA Weber (3)ex Britt. et Rose

Epithelantha micromeris (Engelm.)Weberex Britt. et RoseHikuli Mulato

Cactaceae(Cactus Family)SouthwesternNorth

33 America, Mexico

One of the least-known Andeanplants, Desfontainiaspinosa issometimesassigned to a differ­ent family: Loganiaceae or Po­taliaceae. Botanistsarenot inagreement asto thenumber ofspecies in thegenus.

Desfontainia spinose, a beau­tifulshrub 1-6ft (30cm-1 .8m) inheight, hasglossy green leaves,resemblingthose of Christmasholly, andtubular red flowerswith ayellow tip. Theberryiswhite or greenish yellow, glo­bose, with many lustrous seeds.It hasbeen reported asa hallu­cinogen from Chile andsouth­ernColombia. InChile it isknown asTaique, in Colombiaas Borrachero ("intoxicator") .

Colombian shamans of theKamsa tribetake a teaof theleaves to diagnose disease or"to dream." Some medicine menassert that they"gocrazy" underits influence.Nothing isasyetknown of the chemicalconstitu­ents of Desfontainia.

Insouthern Chile Desfontai­niais used forshamanic pur­poses similar to Latua pubiflora.

42

Thebranched evergreen shrubwithwoodystems growstoap­proximately6-9 ft (2.5-3m). ltswoodhas ayellow color andadistinctscentofvanilla. Thegreenleavesarelanceolate,withacon­tinuous margin taperedatthepe­tiole andare4-5 in. long (12­15cm).Theflowers arewhite,oc­casionallywith rose speckles, andbell-shaped (to7mmlong) andhang inclusters offthetipsofthebranches.Thefruit isablackber­rywith numerous tinyseeds.

Thepsychoactive Pituri hasbeen hedonistically andrituallyused bytheAborigines since theirsettlement ofAustralia.Theleaves aregathered inAugustwhen theplantsareinflower.They arehung uptodryorroastedoverafire.TheyareeitherchewedasPituri orsmoked incigarettesrolled withalkaline substances.

Duboisia hopwoodii containsavariety of powerful andstimu­lating buttoxic alkaloids:pitur­ine, dubosine, D-nor-nicotine,andnicotine. Thehallucinogenictropane alkaloids hyoscyamineandscopolamine have beendiscovered inthe roots.

The Tarahumara Indiansof Chi­huahua consider twospeciesasfalse Peyotes or Hikuri of themountainousareas.Theyarenot sostrong as Ariocarpus,Coryphantha, Epithelantha,Mammillaria, or Lophophora.Echinocereus salmdyckianusisa low, caespitose cactus withdecumbent, yellow-green stems314- 1V2in. (2-4cm) indiameter.Theribsnumber7 to 9. The8 or9 radialspines areyellow, Vz in.(1cm) long, central spinesoli­taryandlonger than radials.Theorange-colored flowers mea­sure31,4-4 in. (8- 10cm) longandhave oblanceolate tospathulate perianth segments.This species is native to Chi­huahua andDurango in Mexico.Echinocereus triglochidiatus dif­fers inhavingdeepgreen stems,fewer radial spines, whichturngrayishwith age, andscarletflowers 2-2% in. (5- 7cm) long.

A tryptaminederivativehasbeen reported from Echinocer­eustriglochidiatus(3-hydroxy-4­methoxyphenethylamine).

This spinycactus,oneof theso­called falsePeyotes oftheTara­humaraIndiansof Chihuahua,hasacidic,ediblefruit calledChi­Iitos.Medicinemen takeHikuliMulatotomaketheirsight clearerandtopermit themtocommunewithsorcerers. It istaken byrun­ners asastimulant and"protec­tor," andtheIndians believe thatitprolongs life. It is reportedlyabletodrive evil people to insanity orthrowthemfrom cliffs.

Alkaloidsandtriterpenes havebeen reportedfromEpithelanthamicromeris. Thisverysmall,globularcactusgrows to adia­meter of2Vz in.(6cm).Thelowtubercles,V 16 in. (2mm) long,arearranged inmany spirals.Thenumerous white spines almosthidethetubercles.Thelowerra­dialspines measure V16in.(2mm)long, theupper about% in. (1cm).Thesmall flowers,whicharisefromthecenteroftheplantinatuftof woolandspines,arewhitishtopink, 1,4 in. (5mm)broad. Theclavate fruit,%-V2 in.(9-13mm) long, bearsratherlarge, shiningblack seeds, V16 in.(2mm) across.

ERYTHRINA L. (110) I GALBULIMIMA F. Iv!. Bailey (3) HEIMIA Link et Otto (3) HELICHRYSUMMill (500)

!:rythrinaamericana Mill. Galbulimima belgraveana Heimiasalicifolia Helichrysum(L.) Moench.Coral Tree (F.v. Muell.) Sprague (H.B.K.)Link et Otto StrawFlower

Agara Sinicuichi

Leguminosae(PeaFamily) Himantandraceae Ly1hraceae (Loosestrife Family) Compositae (Sunflower Family)Tropical and warmzones of Northeast Australia, Southern North Americato Europe, Africa, Asia,

34 both hemispheres 35 Malaysia 36 Argentina, West Indies 37 Australia

Tzompanquahuitl of the ancientAztecs mayhave been from themany species in the genus Ery­thrina, theseeds ofwhich arebelievedto havebeen employedasa medicine and hallucinogen.In Guatemala the beans areemployed in divination.

The beans of Erythrina f1abel­liformis constitute a TarahumaraIndian medicinalplant of manyvaried uses, which mayhavebeen utilized as a hallucinogen.

Erythrina f1abelliformisis ashrub or small tree with spinybranches. The leaflets are2V2­3%in. (3-6 cm) long, usuallybroader than long. Thedenselymany-flowered racemes bearred flowers 1Vs-2V2 in. (3-6cm)long. Sometimes attaining alength of 1ft (30em), thepods,shallowly constricted betweentheseeds, contain from twotomanydarkred beans. This spe­cies is common in thehot, dryregions of northern and centralMexico andtheAmericanSouthwest.

Nativesin Papua boil the barkand leaves of this treewithaspecies of Homalomena to pre­pare a tea thatcauses an intox­ication leading to a deep slum­ber,duringwhich visionsareexperienced.

This tree of northeasternAustralia, Papua, and Moluccais unbuttressed, attainingaheight of 90ft (27m). The highlyaromatic, gray brownish, scalybarkmeasures V2 in. (1cm) inthickness. Theelliptic, entireleaves area glossy, metallicgreen above, brown beneath,and are normally 4V2-O in. (11­15cm) longand 2-2%in. (5-7cm)wide. Lackingsepals andpetals but with many conspicu­ous stamens, the flowers haveapaleyellowor brownishyellowhue with a rusty brown calyx.The ellipsoidalor globose fruit isfleshy-fibrous, reddish, 3f4in.(2cm) in diameter.

Although 28 alkaloidshavebeen isolated from Galbulimimabelgraveana, a psychoactiveprinciple has not yet been foundin the plant.

This genus has threevery simi­lar species, andallplay impor­tant roles in folkmedicine. Sev­eral vernacular names reportedfrom Brazil seemto indicateknowledgeof psychoactivity,e.g., Abre-o-sol ("sun-opener")and Herva da Vida ("herboflife").

Sinicuichi (Heimia salicifolia)is 2-6ft (60cm-1.8m) tall withlanceolateleaves%- 3V2in. (2­9cm) long. Theyellow flowersarebornesingly in the leafaxils;thepersistentbell-shaped calyxdevelops long hornlike appen­dages. The shrubgrows abun­dantly in moist places and alongstreams in thehighlands.

In the Mexican highlands, theleaves of H. salicifolia areslightly wilted, crushedin water,and the preparation is then al­lowed to ferment intoan intoxi­catingdrink. Although it is be­lieved thatexcessive useofSinicuichi maybe physicallyharmful , there areusually nouncomfortable aftereffects. Thisplant containsquinolizidine al­kaloids(Iythrine, cryogenine, Iy­foline, nesidine).

Two species are usedby witchdoctors inZululand "for inhalingto induce trances:' It ispre­sumed thattheplants aresmoked for these effects.

Helichrysum foetidum is a tall,erect, branching herb 10-1 2in.(25-3 0cm) inheight. It is slightlywoodynear thebase and isverystrongly scented. The lanceo­lateor lanceolate-ovate, basallylobed, entire leaves, measuringupto 3V2in. (scm) long and%in. (2cm)wide, basally en­clasp the stem; they aregray­woolly beneath and glandularabove. The flowersoccur inloose, terminal, corymboseclusters of several stalkedheads %- 1V2 in. (2- 4cm) in dia­meter, subtended bycream-co­lored or goldenyellow bracts.These speciesof Helichrysumare some of the plants known inEnglish asEverlasting.

Coumarine andditerpeneshave been reported from thegenus, butnoconstituents withhallucinogenicproperties havebeen isolated.

43

HELICOSTYLISTrecul (12) HOMALOMENASchott (142) HYOSCYAMUS L. (10-20) HYOSCYAMUS L. (20)

He/icostylis peduncu/ataBenoistTakini

Moraceae (MulberryFamily)CentralAmerica, tropical

38 zones of South America

Takini isa sacred treeof theGui­anas. From the red"sap"of thebark amildly poisonousintoxi­cant isprepared. Extracts fromtheinnerbarkof twotrees elicitcentral nervous systemdepres­sant effects similar tothose pro­duced by Cannabis sativa. Thetwospecies responsible for thishallucinogen areH. pedunculataand H. tomentosa.

These twospecies oftrees aresimilar. Both arecylindrical orvery slightly buttressed forestgiants 75ft (23m)tallwithgrayishbrown bark; the latexispale yel­loworcream-colored. Theleath­erylanceolate-elliptic leaves at­taina lengthof7in. (18cm) andawidthof 3in. (8cm).Thefleshy,pistillateflowers areborne inglo­bose cauliflorous heads.

Very little is known about thesetreesand theyarerarelystudied.Thehallucinogen couldtheoreti­callyoriginate from eitherof therelated genera Brosimum or Plt­atinera. Extracts fromtheinnerbarkof both trees havebeenpharmacologicallystudied;theyhaveasoftening ordampeningeffect,similar to Cannabis sativa.

44

Homa/omena /auterbachii Eng!.Ereriba

Araceae (Arum Family), South America, tropical39,,zones of Asia

In Papua New Guinea the na­tives are saidtoeat the leavesofa speciesof Homalomena withthe leavesandbarkof Galbuli­mimabelgraveana to induce aviolent conditionending in slum­ber, duringwhich visions areex­perienced. Therhizomes have anumber of uses in folkmedicine,especiallyfor thetreatment ofskin problems. In Malaya an un­specifiedpartofa specieswasan ingredient ofan arrowpoison.

The speciesof Homalomenaaresmall or large herbs withpleasantly aromatic rhizomes.The leaves areoblong­lanceolate or cordate-ovate,borneonveryshort stems,rarelyexceeding6in. (15cm)inlength. Thespathe usually per­sists in fruit. The male andfe­male portions of thespadix areproximate.Thesmall berriesarefew or many-seeded.

Thechemistry of thisgroup ofplants hasnotyetdisclosed anyhallucinogenic principle.

Hyoscyamusa/bus L.Yellow Henbane

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family),- " Mediterranean, Near East

40..

Although theherb has erectstems, it often appears bushy. Itgrowsto approximately8-12 in.(4Q-50cm) high. Thelightgreenstems andserrated leaves, aswellas the funnel-shaped flow­ers and fruits, areall pileous.The herbblooms from Januaryto July. Thecolorof theflowersis lightyellow with deep violet onthe interior. The seeds have awhitishor ocher color, occasion­allya graycolor.

Thishenbane wasthemostwidely usedmagical herbandmedicinalplant.Thehallucino­genwasanimportant medium inantiquity, used to promote atrance andtakenbyoracles anddivinitory women. Intheancientearthoracleof Gaia, it is the"dragon's herb."Thegoddess ofthewitches,Hecate,uses "crazy­maker" in theKolchoracle. Lateantiquitygivesus"Zeus'sBeans"intheoracle ofZeus-Ammon andtheRoman godJupiter. IntheDelphi oracles ofApollo,who istheGodof "prophetic insanity," itisknownas"Apollo's Plant."

Theentire plantcontains thetropane alkaloids hyoscyamineand scopolamine.

Hyoscyamus nigerL.Black Henbane

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family), ,--~ Europe, northern Africa,41 southwestern andcentral

. Asia

Henbane is acoarse annual orbiennial, viscid, hairy, strong­smellingherbupto about 30in.(76cm)tall.Theleaves areen­tireor occasionally have a fewlargeteeth, ovate, 6-8in. (15­20cm) long,the lowercaulineamplexicaul leaves being oblongandsmaller. Theflowers, yellowor greenish yellow veinedwithpurple, attain a length of about-1V2 in. (4cm)and are borne intwo ranks in a scorpioid cyme.Thefruit is a many-seeded cap­suleenclosed in thepersistentcalyx with its five triangularpoints becomingrigid. Theseeds release a powerful anddistinctive odor whensqueezed.

In antiquity and theMiddleAges, Hyoscyamus nigerwasemployed in Europe asan im­portant ingredient of thewitches'brews andointments. It not onlyreduced painbutalso inducedoblivion.

The active principles in thissolanaceous genus aretropanealkaloids, especially scopola­mine. Scopolamine is a potenthallucinogenic agent.

I 'a CHROMA Ber.th. (24) IPOMOEAL. (500) JUSTICIAL. (350)

:chroma fuchsioides (Benth.) Miers,"aguando

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Tropical andsubtropical42 zonesof SouthAmerica

Ipomoea violaceaL.MorningGlory

Convolvulaceae(Morning Glory Family)

Mexicoto SouthAmerica43

JusticiapectoralisJacq. var.stenophylla LeonardMashihiri

Acanthaceae (Acanthus Family)Tropical andwarm zonesof

44 Central and SouthAmerica

Amonq the Karnsa Indians ofthe Colombian Andes, I. tuch­sioides is taken byshamans fordifficult diagnoses.

Theintoxication is notplea­sant, leaving aftereffects forseveral days. The shrub is va­lued also as a medicinefortreating difficulties withdigestionor bowel function, and to aid inGases of difficultchildbirth.

lochroma fuchsioides, ashrubor small tree 10-15ft (3­4.5m)tall, butsometimes larger,occurs in the Colombian andEcuadoreanAndesat about7,000ft (2,200m) altitude. Thebranches are reddishbrown,and the leaves, obovate-oblong,measure 4-6in. (10-15cm) inlength. The clustered tubular orbell-shaped flowersare red, 1­1V2in. (2.5-4cm) long. The redfruit is an ovoid or pyriformberryabout %in. (2cm) in diameter,partially enclosedin a persistentcalyx.

Theplantcontainswithanolide.

In Oaxaca, in southern Mexico,the seeds of this vine arees­teemed as one of the principalhallucinogensfor usein divina­tion aswellas magico-religiousandcuring rituals. The Chinan-

tecandMazatec Indians call theseeds Piule; theZapotecs, Ba­dohNegro. Inpre-Conquestdays, theAztecs knew them asTlililtzin andemployed theminthe same wayasOloliuqui, theseeds of another Morning Glory,Turbina corymbosa.

Ipomoea violacea, knownalso as I. rubrocaerulea, is anannual vinewith entire, ovate,deeply cordate leaves 2Vz--4 in.(6-10cm) long, %- 3in. (2-8cm)wide.The inflorescence is three­or four-flowered. The flowersvaryfrom white to red, purple,blueor violet-blue, and measure2-2% in. (5-7cm)wideat themouth of the trumpet-shaped,corolla tube, 2-23f4 in. (5-7 cm)long. Theovoid fruit, about V2in.(1cm) in length, bears elongate,angular blackseeds.

This variable species rangesthrough western andsouthernMexicoandGuatemala and intheWest Indies. It canbe foundaswell in tropical South Ameri­ca. It is wellknown in horticul­ture.

Justicia pectoralis var. steno­phyl/adiffers fromthe wide­spread J. pectoralis mainly in itssmaller stature and its very nar­rowly lanceolate leaves andshorter inflorescence. It is anherbup to 1ft (30cm) tall, witherect orascendingstems,sometimes rooting at the lowernodes. The internodes areshort, usually less than 3f4in.(2cm) long. The numerousleaves measure normally %­2%in. (2-5cm) long,%- 1in. (1­2cm)wide. The dense inflores­cence, coveredwith glandularhairs, may reach a length of 4in.(10cm)butis usuallymuchshorter. The inconspicuousflowers,about \4 in. (5mm) long,arewhite or violet, frequentlypurple-spotted. The fruit, V4in.(5mm) long, bears flat, reddishbrown seeds.

Chemical examination of Jus­ticiahasbeen inconclusive.Preliminary indications that theleaves of J. pectoralisvar.ste­nophyl/a contain tryptamines(DMT) needconfirmation. Thedried herb contains coumarin.

45

KAEMPFERIAL. (70) LAGOCHILUS Bunge (35) LATUA Phil. (1) LEONOTIS (pers.) R. Br. (3-4)

Kaempferia galanga L. Lagochilus inebrians Bunge Latua pubiflora (Griseb.) Baill. Leonotis leonurus (L.) R.Br.Galanga Turkestan Mint Latue Lion's Tail

SolanaceaeZingiberaceae (Ginger Family) Labiatae (Mint Family) (Nightshade Family) Labiatae (Mint Family)

Tropical zones of Africa, Central Asia Chile South Africa45 southeastern Asia 46 ..47 48

Kaempferia galanga is used asa hallucinogen in New Guinea.Throughout the range of thisspecies, the highly aromatic rhi­zome is valued asa spice to fla­vorrice, andalso in folkmedi­cine asanexpectorant andcarminative aswell asanaph­rodisiac. A teaof the leaves isemployed forsore throat, swel­lings, rheumatism, andeyein­fections. In Malaysia, theplantwasadded to thearrow poisonprepared from Antiaris toxicaria.

Thisshort-stemmed herb hasflat-spreading, green, roundleaves measuring 3-6 in. (8­15cm)across.Thewhite flow­ers(with a purple spotonthelip), which arefugacious, appearsingly in thecenter of theplantandattain approximately 1in.(2.5cm) in breadth.

Beyond thehigh content ofessential oil in the rhizome, littleis known of thechemistryof theplant. Psychoactiveactivitymight possibly bedueto consti­tuents of the essentialoils.

46

Onthedrysteppes ofTurkestan,theTajik, Tatar, Turkoman, andUzbek tribesmen have used atea made from thetoastedleaves of themintLagochilus in­ebrians asan intoxicant. Theleaves arefrequently mixed withstems, fruiting tops, andflowers,andhoney andsugar mayocca­sionally be added to lessen theintense bitterness of the drink.

Thisplant hasbeen well stu­diedfrom thepharmacologicalpoint of view in Russia. It is re­commended for itsantihemor­rhagic andhemostatic effects toreduce permeability of bloodvessels andasanaid in bloodcoagulation. It hasalso beenconsideredhelpful in treatingcertain allergiesandskin pro­blems. It hassedativeproperties.

Phytochemical studies haveshownthepresence of a crys­talline compound called lagochi­line-a diterpene of the grinde­Iian type.This compound is notknown tobe hallucinogenic.

Latua, 6-30tt (2-9 m) tall, hasoneor more main trunks. Thebarkis reddish to grayish brown.Thespinybranches, rigid and1in. (2.5cm) long, arise in theleafaxils. The narrow ellipticleaves, dark to lightgreenabove, palerbeneath, aremar­ginally entireor serrate andmeasure 1%- 1% in. (3V2-4V2cm)by%- 1%in. (1 .5-4cm).Theflowers have a persistent,bell-shaped, green to purplishcalyx anda larger, magenta tored-violet, urceolate corolla 1%­1%in. (3.5-4cm) long, %in.(1em) wide at the mouth. Thefruit is a globose berryabout1in. (2.5cm) in diameter, withnumerous kidney-shapedseeds.

The leaves andfruitof L. pub­ifloracontain 0.18% hyoscya­mine andatropine and0.08%scopolamine.

This South African shrub hasorange-colored flowers and isreported to be"hallucinogenic."InAfricait iscalled Dacha, Dag­gha, orWild Dagga, whichmeans "wild hemp."TheHotten­totsandtheBushpeople smokethe buds andtheleaves asanarcotic. It ispossible thatthisplant is one of thenarcoticplants called Kanna (compare toSceletium tortuosum) . The resi­nous leaves, or the resin ex­tracted from theleaves, aresmoked alone or mixed withto­bacco. Chemical studies arelacking.

InCalifornia theplant hasbeen grown and tested, reveal­inga bitter-tasting smoke and alightly psychoactive effect thatisreminiscent ofbothCannabisand Datura. Ineastern SouthAfrica, the closely related Leo­notisovata is reportedly used forthesame purpose.

I LEONURUSL. (5- 6) LOBELIA L. (250) LOPHOPHORA Coull. (2)

Leonurus sibiricus L.Siberian Motherwort

Labiatae;(Mint Family)Siberia to East Asia, Central

49 andSouth America(naturalized)(

Lobelia tupa L.Tabaco del Diablo

Campanulaceae (Lobeliaceae)(Harebell Family)

Tropicaland warm zones50

Lophophora williamsii (Lem.) Coull.Peyote

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Mexico, Texas

51

This herbgrows erect and tall,reachinq over 6ft (2m) often ona single stem. It has maxilliformbranchesand finely serrated,dark green leaves. The violetflowersappear on the ends ofeachstemandthe inflorescencecan be long andattractive.

The Siberian Motherwort ismentionedin the ancientChi­neseShih Ching (the Book ofSongs, written approximately1000-500 B. c.), where it iscalled t'uei. Later it was occa­sionally praised as a medicinalplantin old Chinese herbals.

The dried leaves, harvestedfrom the flowering plant, aresmokedas marijuanasubstitutein Central and South America

I (1 - 2g per cigarette).In the plant, 0.1% of the flavo­noid glycoside rutin has beenascertained. Of particular inter­est with regard to thepsychoac­tive properties wasthediscov­ery of three newditerpenes:leosibiricine, leosibirine, and theisomers isoleosibiricine inessential oil.

This beautifu l, red- or red-pur­pie-flowered, 6-9 ft (2-3 m) highpolymorphic Lobelia iswell re­cognizedas toxic in theAndesof southernPeru and northernChile, where it is called Tupa orTabaco del Diablo ("devil's to­bacco"). It flourishes in dry soil,and its stemsand roots have awhite latex that irritates the skin.

The luxuriant foliage clothesnearly thewhole length of theplant with grayishgreen, elliptic,often minutely hairy leaves 4­9in. (1Q-23cm) long. 1%-31/ 4 in.(3-8cm) wide. Carminered orpurple, theflowers, 1liz in. (4cm)in length, arebornedenselyonastalk 14in. (36cm) long. Thecorolla is decurved, sometimesrecurved with the lobes unitedatthe apex.

Tupa leaves contain thepi­peridinealkaloid lobeline, a re­spiratory stimulant, aswellasthe diketo- anddihydroxy-deri­vatives lobelamidineandnor-Io­bedamidine. These constituentsare not known to possess hallu­cinogenic properties. Neverthe­less, the smoked leaves have apsychoactive effect.

Two species of Lophophora arerecognized: they differmorpho­logically andchemically.

Both species of Lophophoraare small, spinelessgray-greenor bluish green top-shapedplants. The succulent chloro­phyll-bearingheador crownmeasures upto 3%in. (8cm) indiameter and is radially dividedin from 5 to 13 rounded ribs.Each tuberclebears a small, flatareole from thetop of whicharisesa tuft of hairs 3/4 in. (2cm)long. Thewhitishor pinkishcampanulate, usually solitary,%- 1in. (1.5- 2.5cm) long flow­ers are bornein the umbilicatecenterof the crown.

The Indianscut off the crownanddry it for ingestion as a hal­lucinogen. This dry, disklikehead is known as the MescalButton or Peyote Button.

Lophophora wi/liamsii isusually blue-green with from5to13 ribsandnormally straightfurrows. It has up to 30 alka­loids-primarily Mescaline-aswell as further psychoactivephenylethylamines and isoqui­nolines. L. diffusa has a gray-

green, sometimes even a ratheryellowish green crown with in­definiteribs and sinuate furrows.The flowers are usuallymuchlarger than in L. williamsii.Thechemical constitution is muchsimpler.

Both species of Lophophorainhabit the driest and stoniest ofdesert regions,usually on cal­careoussoil. When the crownisremoved, fhe plantwill oftengrow new crowns andthusPeyoteswith multipleheads arecommonly seen. The hallucino­genic effects of Peyote arestrong, withkaleidoscopic, richlycolored visions. The othersenses-hearing, feel ing,taste-can alsobe affected.There are reportedly twostagesin the intoxication. At first, a per­iod of contentment andsensitiv­ity occurs. Thesecond phasebrings greatcalm andmuscularsluggishness, with a shift in at­tention from external stimuli tointrospectionandmeditation.

47

LYCOPERDON L. (50-100) MAMMILLARIA Haw. (150-200) MANDRAGORA L. (6)

Lycoperdon mix/ecorumHeimLycoperdonmarginatumVitt.Bovista

Lycoperdaceae(Club Moss Family)

Temperate zonesof Mexico52

Mammillariaspp.Pincushion Cactus

Cactaceae (CactusFamily)Southwestern North

53 America, Central America

Mandragora officinarumL.

Mandrake

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Southern Europe, northern54 Africa, westernAsia to

Himalayas

Probably noplant hashadamore fantastic history thantheMandrake. As a magical plantand hallucinogen, its extraordin­aryplace in Europeanfolklorecan nowhere be equaled.Knownfor its toxic andreal andpresumed medicinal properties,Mandrake commanded thefearandrespect of Europeansthroughout theMiddle Agesandearlier. Its folk uses andattri­buteswere inextricably boundupwith theDoctrine of Signa­tures, because of its anthropo­morphic root.

While therearesix species ofMandragora, it is M. officinarumof Europe and the Near Eastthat has played themost impor­tant role asa hallucinogen inmagic and witchcraft. It is a

stemless perennial herb upto1ft (30cm) high, witha thick,usually forking root andlarge,stalked, wrinkled, ovate leaves,marginally entireor toothed andmeasuringupto 11 in. (28cm) inlength. The whitish green, pur­plish, or bluish bell-shaped flow­ers, 1114 in. (3cm) in length, areborne in clusters among thetufted leaves.Theglobose orovoid, succulent yellowberryhas a delightful fragrance.

Thetotal content of tropanealkaloidsin theroot is 0.4%.Theprincipal alkaloids arehyoscyamine and scopolamine,but atropine, cuscohygrine, ormandragorine isalso present.

Innorthern Mexico, among theTarahumara of Chihuahua, aspecies of Lycoperdon, knownas Kalamoto, is taken bysor­cerers to enable themto ap­proach people without being de­tected andto make people sick.In southern Mexico, theMixtecsof Oaxaca employ twospeciesto induce a condition of half­sleep, during whichit is saidthatvoices andechoes canbeheard.

Lycoperdon mixtecorum,known onlyfrom Oaxaca, issmall, attaining a diameter of nomore than1114 in. (3cm). It issubglobose, somewhat flat­tened, abruptly constricted intoa peduncle scarcely Vsin.(3mm) long. Theexterior sur­face is densely cobbled-pustuli­form and lighttan incolor. Theinterior substance is straw co­lored.

Thespherical spores, brown­ish tawny with a subtle tingeofviolet, measure upto 10fl. Thisterrestrial species growsin lightforestandin pastures.

Psychoactive constituentshave notyet been isolated.

48

Among themost important"false Peyotes" of theTarahu­mara Indians areseveral spe­ciesof Mammillaria, all of themround andstout-spined plants.

N-methyl-3,4-dimethoxy-phe­nylethylamine hasbeen isolatedfrom M. heyderii, a speciesclo­selyrelated to M. craigii. Horde­nine is present in many species.

Mammillaria craigii is globosebutapically somewhat flattenedwith conical, angled tuberclesabout V2in. (1 cm) longandaxilsandareoles at firstwoolly; thecentral spinesareabout 114 in.(5mm) long. Therose-coloredflowerattainsa length of o/s in.(1 .5cm). M. grahamiimay beglobose or cylindric, 2%in.(6cm) in diameter with small tu­bercles andnaked axils; thecentral spines are% in. (2cm)orless in length. Theflowers,which attain a length of 1in.(2.5cm), have violet or purplishsegments, sometimes withwhite margins.

MAQUIRA Aubl. (2) MIMOSA L. (500) MITRAGYNA Korth. (20- 30)

Maquira sclerophylla (Ducke) C. C.BergRape dos Indios

Moraceae (MulberryFamily)Tropical zones of South

55 America

Mimosa hostilis (Mart.) Benth. (Mi­mosa tenuit/ora)Jurema Tree

Leguminosae (PeaFamily)Mexico and Brazil

56

Mitragynaspeciosa KorthalsKratom

Rubiaceae (MadderFamily)Southeast Asia (Thailand,

57 northernMalayPeninsula toBorneo, NewGuinea)

In the Pariana regionof the Bra­zilian Amazon, the Indians for­merlyprepared a potent halluci­nogenic snuffthat, although nolongerprepared and used, isknownas Rape dosIndios ("In­diansnuff"). It is believed to .have been made from thefruit ofan enormous forest tree, Ma­quira sclerophylla (known alsoas Olmedioperebea sclero­phylla) .

Maquira sclerophyllaattainsaheightof 75- 100ft (23-30m).Thelatex iswhite.Very thick andheavy, the ovate or oblong­ovate, marginally imolled leavesare8-12in. (2Q-30cm) long, 3­6V2in. (8-16cm)wide.Themaleflowering heads areglobose, upto about V2 in. (1cm) in dia­meter; the female inflores­cences areborne in the leaf ax­ils andhave oneor rarely twoflowers. The drupe or fruit, cin­namon-colored andfragrant, isglobose, %- 1in. (2-2.5cm) indiameter. The treecontainscardiacglycosides.

In thedry caatingas of easternBrazil, this busy, sparselyspinytreelet flourishes abundantly.Thespines arebasally swollen,Vain. (3mm) long. Its finely pin­nateleaves are 1Y4- 1%in. (3­5cm) long. The flowers, whichoccur in loosely cylindricalspikes, arewhite andfragrant.The legume or pod, about 1-1Y4 in. (2.5- 3cm) long, breaksinto 4-6 sections. An alkaloidwasisolated fromtheroot of thistreelet andcalled nigerine. Itwas later shown to be identicalwiththe hallucinogenicN,N-dimethyltryptamine.

Several speciesof Mimosaare calledJurema in easternBrazil. M.hostilis is oftenknownasJurema Preta ("blackjure­ma"). It is identical to the Mexi­canTepescohuite (M. tenui­flora). The relatedM. verrucosa,from the bark of which a stupe­facient is saidto bederived, isfrequently called Jurema Branca("white jurema").

Thetropical treeor shrub growsin marshy areas. Often it growsonlyto 6-9 It (3-4 m)high, oc­casionally to 36-42ft (12- 16m).It hasan erect stem with forkedbranches that grow obliquelyupward. The green oval leaves(8-12cm) areverybroad andbecome narrower toward thetip,which is pointed. Theflowersaredeep yellow and hang inglobular clusters. Theseeds arewinged.

Thedried leaves aresmoked,chewed, or worked into an ex­tract called Kratomor Mambog.

Thepsychoactivepropertiesof kratomare paradoxical. Per­sonal research, thedescriptionsof it in the literature,aswell asthe pharmacological character­istics of the material have re­vealed kratom to besimulta­neously stimulating likecocaineand soothing like morphine. Thestimulating effects begin within 5to 10minutes of chewing thefresh leaves.

As earlyas the19th centurytheuseof Kratom asanopiumsubstituteand a curative foropiumaddiction was reported.There arenumerous indole al­kaloids present in theplant. Theprimaryconstituent is mitragy­nine, which is apparently easilytolerated andshows barely anytoxicity even inhighdoses.

49

MUCUNA Adans. (120) MYRISTICA Gronov. (1 20) NYMPHAEAL. (50) ONCIDIUMSw. (350)

Mucunapruriens (L.) DC. Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nymphaea ampla (Salisb.) DC. Oncidiumcebol/eta (Jacq.) Sw.

Cowhage Nutmeg WaterLily Hikuri Orchid

Nymphaeaceae

Leguminosae(Pea Family) Myristicaceae (Nutmeg Family) (Water Lily Family) Orchidaceae (Orchid Family)

Tropical andwarmzones of Tropical andwarm zonesof Temperate and warm zones : _ Central America, South

58 both hemispheres 59 Europe, Africa,Asia 60 of bothhemispheres 61 America, Florida

Mucunaprurienshasnotbeenreported asahallucinogen,buttheplant has been chemicallyshown toberich inpsychoactiveconstituents (DMT, 5-MeO-DMT).

Thisstout, scandent herb,with acute angulate stems, hasthree-foliolate leaves. The leaf­lets, oblong orovate, areden­selyhairy on both surfaces. Thedarkpurple orbluish flowers, %­1%in. (2-3cm) long, areborneinshorthanging racemes. Thepods, with long, stiff,stinginghairs, measure about 1V~3V2 in.(4-9cm) long, V2 in. (1 ern) thick.

Thetotal indole alkylaminecontent was studied from thepointof view of its hallucino­genic activity. Itwasfound thatmarked behavioral changes oc­curred that could be equatedwith hallucinogenicactivity. It ispossible thatIndian peoplesmay have discovered anduti­lized some of these psychoac­tive properties of M.pruriens.Thepowdered seeds arecon­sidered aphrodisiac in India.Theseeds contain DMTandareused asanAyahuasca analogtoday.

50

Nutmeg andmace can, in largedoses, induce an intoxicationcharacterized byspace andtimedistortion, a feelingof detach­mentfrom reality, andvisual andauditory hallucinations. Fre­quently with unpleasant effectssuch as severe headache, dizzi­ness, nausea, tachycardia, nut­megintoxication is variable.

Myristica fragrans is a hand­some tree, unknown ina trulywildstate, butwidely cultivatedfor nutmeg, from the seed, andfor mace, from the redarilsur­rounding theseed. Thetwospiceshave different tastesbecause of differingconcentra­tionsof components of theiressential oils. Thearomaticfraction of oil of nutmeg is madeupof ninecomponents belong­ingto the groups terpenes and .aromatic ethers. Themajorcomponent-myristicine-is aterpene, butitsbiological activityis believed to bethatof anirritant.

Thepsychotropic activity isthought to bedueprimarily toaromatic ethers (myristicine andothers).

There is evidence thatNym­phaea may have been employedasahallucinogen inboththeOldand New Worlds. The isolationof thepsychoactive apomor­phine hasoffered chemical sup­portto thisspeculation. Nucifer­ineandnornuciferine arealsoisolated from N. amp/a.

Nymphaea amp/a hasthickishdentate leaves, purple beneath,measuring 5V~11 in. (14­28cm)across. Thebeautiful,showy white flowers, with30­190yellow stamens, become 3­5%in. (7-13cm) across at ma­turity. The EgyptiannativeN. caeru/ea's oval, peltateleaves, irregularly dentate,measure 5-6 in. (12-15cm) indiameter andaregreen-purpleblotched beneath. The lightblueflowers, dull white in thecenter,open three days in themid­morning; theymeasure 3-6 in.(7.5-15cm)across; thepetals,acute-Ianceolate, number 14to20, while thestamens number50or more.

Oncidiumcebol/eta is anepi­phytic orchid thatgrows onsteep, stone cliffs andtrees intheTarahumara Indian countryof Mexico. It is employed asatemporary surrogate of Peyoteor Hikuri (Lophophora william­sii). Little is known, however, ofitsuse.

Thetropical orchid iswidelydistributed intheNew World.Thepseudo-bulbs appear as lit­tle more than a swelling at thebase of thefleshy, erect, roundleaves, grayish green, oftenspotted with purple.Theflower­ingspike, often arching, hasagreen stalk withpurplishorpur­ple-brown spots. Theflowershave brownishyellow sepalsand petals spotted with darkbrownblotches. Thethree-lobedlip,% in. (2cm) long by1%in.(3cm) across themid-lobe, isbrightyellow withreddish brownmarks.

Analkaloidhas been reportedfrom Oncidium cebol/eta.

(2CH30)PACHYCEREUS (A. Berger) (5)Britt. et Rose

Pachycereus pecten-aboriginum(Engelm.) Britt. et RoseCawe

Cactaceae(Cactus Family)Mexico

62

PANAEOLUS (Fr.)Ouslet

Panaeo/us cyanescensBerk. et Br.Blue Meanies

CoprinaceaeWarmzonesof both

63 hemispheres

PANAEOLUS (Fr.) (20-60)Ouelet

Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Fr.) OueletHoop-petticoat

CoprinaceaeCosmopolitan

64

A plant of manyuses among theIndians, thistall, treelike colum­narcactus, arising froma 6It(1.8 m) trunk, attains a heightof35It (10.5 m).Theshortspinesarecharacteristically graywithblack tips.The2-3in. (5-8cm)flowers arepurplish in the out­ermost petals, white in the innerparts. Thefruit, globose andmeasuring 2Y2-3 in. (6-8 em) indiameter, is densely coveredwith yellow wool and longyellowbristles.

TheTarahumara, whoknowtheplant as Cawe andWicho­waka, take a drinkmade fromthejuiceof theyoung branchesasa narcotic. It causes dizzi­ness andvisual hallucinations.Theterm Wichowaka alsomeans "insanity" in theTarahu­mara language. There areanumber ofpurely medicinal usesof thiscactus. Recent studieshave isolated 4-hydroxy­3-methoxyphenylethylamineand 4-tetrahydroisoquinolinealkaloids fromthis plant.

Panaeolus cyanescens is asmall , fleshy or nearly membra­naceous, campanulate mush­room. Theslender stipe is fra­gileandthe lamellae arevariegated, withmetuloid co­lored, pointed cystidia onthesides. Thespores areblack. Thefruiting bodies take on bluishflecks withageor afterbruising.

The islanders of Bali pickPanaeolus cyanescens fromcowandwaterbuffalo dung andingest them forcelebrations andartistic inspiration. Themush­room is alsosoldas a hallucino­gento strangers astheypassthrough on their travels.

Although this mushroom isprimarily tropical , thediscoverythat it contains psilocybinewasmade withmaterialcollected inagarden in France. Upto 1.2% ofpsilocine and0.6% of psilocy­bine hasbeen found in thisspecies.

Oneofthesacred hallucinogenicmushrooms employed indivina­tionandothermagic ceremoniesinnortheastern Oaxaca,Mexico,among theMazatec and Chi­nantec Indians isthismember ofthesmallgenus Panaeolus. It isknown in Mazatec asT-ha-na­sa, She-to, andTo-shka, She-tomeans "pasturemushroom" andTo-shka, "intoxicating mush­room." Whilenotso important astheseveral speciesof PsilocybeandStropharia, P sphinctrinusis onoccasion used bycertainshamans.Thisand otherspe­ciesof Panaeolus have beenre­portedtocontainthehallucino­genic alkaloid psilocybine.

Growingoncowdung in for­ests, open fields, andalongroads, P sphinctrinus is a deli­cateyellowish brown mushroomup to 4in. (1 Ocm) in height. Ithasan ovoid-campanulate, ob­tuselypointed, tan-gray capupto 1Y4in. (3cm) in diameter. Thestipeis darkgrayish. Thedarkbrownish black gillsbearblack,lemon-shaped spores thatvaryin size; theycanmeasure 12to15by 7.5 to 8.3~.

Theflesh is thin, in color simi­lar to thesurface, withscarcelyanyodor. Several investigatorshave at times argued thatP sphinctrinus is notamong thehallucinogenic mushroomsused byshamans in Indiancommunities ofOaxaca, butthisview is contradicted byampleevidence. ItsusebyOaxacanIndians along withso manyother mushroom species de­monstrates thetendency amongshamans to usea surprisinglywiderange of different mush­rooms, depending onseason,weather variation, andspecificusage. Investigators nowbe­lieve thatthere maybemorespecies and genera of mush­rooms in useamong MexicanIndianpopulations than thosenow known.

In European Panaeolussphinctrinus nopsilocybine hasbeen detected. Neither havepsychoactive effects been de­termined in human pharmacolo­gicalexperiments. It is possiblethatchemically different typesexist.

51

PancraliumIrianlhumHerbertKwashi

Amaryllidaceae(Amaryllis Family)

, Tropical and warmzones of66 Africaand Asia

Pandanus sp.Screw Pine

Pandanaceae(ScrewpineFamily)

Tropical andwarm zones of67 Europe, Africa, Asia

Peganumharmala L.Syrian Rue

Zygophyllaceae(Caltrop Family)

WesternAsia to northern In­~.a.:·.dia; Mongolia,Manchuria

PANAEOLUS (Fr.) (20- 60)Ouelet

Panaeolus subballealusBerk. etBroomeDark-rimmed Mottlegill

CoprinaceaeEurasia, North and Central

65 America

PANCRATI UM L. (15) PANDANUSL. fil. (600) PEGANUML. (6)

TheDark-rimmed Mottlegill iswidelydistributed throughoutEurope. Itgrowsindung-ferti­lized,grassy earth, inparticularinhorse pastures andincon­junctionwith horse manure. Thecapis%- 2% in.(2-6 cm) wideand somewhat smooth.Thismushroom spreads rapidly. It isat firstdamp brown andgrowsdriertoward themiddle, sothattheedge often appears markedlydarker. Thered-brown lamellaearecurved andeventually be­come black duetothespores.

There is noinformationpassed onabout a traditionaluse of this mushroom. It is pos­sible that it was an ingredient inthe mead or beerof theGer­mans. Nevertheless, this mush­room hasa symbiotic relation­ship with the horse, thesacredanimal of theGerman godofecstasy, Wodan.

The fruitingbody contains 0.7%psilocybineaswell as0.46 %baeocystine,a fair amount ofser­otonine and also 5-hydroxy-tryp­tophane,butnopsilocine. Activityisexperienced with 1.5gdriedmushroom; 2.7garevisionary.

52

Manyof the 15speciesof thisplantarepotentcardiac poi­sons; others are emetics; oneissaid to cause death byparalysisof thecentral nervous system.P. trianthum is reputedly oneofthemost toxic species.

Little isknown oftheuse ofPancratium trianthum. InDobe,Botswana, theBushmen report­edly value theplant asahalluci­nogen, rubbing thesliced bulbover cuts made inthescalp. Intropicalwest Africa, P. trianthumseems tobereligiouslyimportant.

The species of Pancratiumhave tunicated bulbs andlinearleaves, mostly appearingwiththe flowers. Thewhite or green­ish white flowers, borne in anumbel terminating in anerect,solid, stout scape, have afunnel-shaped perianth with along tube andnarrow segments.Thestamens, located at thethroat of the perianth, are joinedtogether at thebase intoa kindof cup. Theseeds areangledandblack.

In thebulb of P. trianthum thealkaloids Iycorine andhordeninehave been detected.

Natives of New Guineaemploythe fruit of a species of Panda­nusforhallucinogenic purposes,butlittleis known of this use.

Dimethyltryptaminehasbeenisolated andidentified in Panda­nusnuts. Pandanus is a verylarge genus of theOldWorldtropics. It is dioecious, treelike,sometimes climbing, with pro­minent f1ying-buttress- or stiltlikeroots. Theleaves of some spe­cies attaina length of 15ft(4.5m)andareused formatting:they arecommonly long, stiff,swordlike, armed withprickles,hookedforward andbackward.Thenaked flowersoccur in largeheads enclosed in spathes. Theaggregate fruit or syncarpium, isa large, heavy, hard, compositeball-like, orconelikemass com­prisingtheunionof the angled,easily detachablecarpels. Mostspeciesof Pandanus occuralong theseacoast orin saltmarshes. Thefruitsof somespecies are used as food inSoutheast Asia.

TheSyrianRueisanherbnativeto desertareas. It is a bushyshrub attaininga height of 3ft(1 m). Theleaves arecut intonarrowly linear segments, andthesmall white flowers occur intheaxils of branches. Theglo­bose, deeply lobed fruitcontainsmany flat, angled seeds ofabrown color, bitter taste, andnarcotic odor. Theplant pos­sesses psychoactiveprinciples:~-carbo l i n e alkaloids-harmine,harmaline, tetrahydroharmine­andrelatedbases knownto oc­cur in at least eight families ofhigher plants. These constitu­ents arefound in Peganum har­mala in the seeds.

Thehigh esteem that P. her­mala enjoys infolk medicinewherever theplantoccursmayindicate a former semisacreduse asa hallucinogen in nativereligionandmagic. It hasrecently been postulated thatP. harmala may have been thesource ofSoma orHuoma ofthe

.ancientpeoples of PersiaandIndia.

PELECYPHORA Ehrenb. (2)

Pelecyphora aselliformis Ehrenb.Peyotillo

Cactaceae (Cactus Family)Mexico

69

PERNETIYA (20)Gaud.-Beaup.

Pernettya furens (Hook. exDC.)KlotzchHierbaLoca

Ericaceae (Heath Family)Mexico to the Andes; Gala­

70 pagosand Falkland Islands;NewZealand

PETUNIA Juss. (40)

Petunia violacea Lind!.Shanin

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Warm zones of North71 America, South America

PEUCEDANUM L. (125)

Peucedanum japonicum Thunb.Fang-K'uei

Umbelliferae (Parsley Family)

72Temperate zones of Europe,southern Africa, Asia

There aresuspicions thatthisround cactus maybevalued inMexico as a "false Peyote."It islocally known as Peyote andPeyotillo.

A beautiful cactus, P. asel/i­farmis is a solitary, gray-green,tufted, cylindric-conical plant 1­2V2 in. (2.5-6.5cm), althoughrarely upto 4in. (10cm) in dia­meter. Thelaterally flattened tu­bercles arespiraled, notar­ranged on ribs, and bear verysmall, scalelike, pectinatespines. Theapical bell-shapedflowers measure upto 1%in.(3cm) in width; theouterseg­ments arewhite, the innerred­violet.

Recent investigations haveindicated thepresence of alka­loids, mescaline among others.When consumed, thecactushasa similar effect to Peyote.

Numerous reports indicate thatPemettya is intoxicating. Thefruitof P. furens, the Huedhuedor Hierba Locaof Chile, causesmental confusion, madness,andeven permanent insanity.Theeffects of the intoxicationaresaidto besimilar to thosecaused by Datura. Taglli , orP. parvifalia, hastoxic fruitcap­able, when ingested, of inducinghallucinations aswell asotherpsychic andmotoralterations.

It hasbeen suggested thatPemettya was employed byaboriginal peoples asa magico­religious hallucinogen.

These twospecies of Pemet­tyaaresmall, sprawling to sub­erectshrubs withdensely leafybranches. The flowers arewhiteto rose-tinted. The berrylike fruitiswhite to purple.

A recent report from highlandEcuador hasindicated that aspecies of Petunia isvalued asahallucinogen. It is called Shaninin Ecuador. Which group of In­dians employs it, whatspecies,and howit is prepared for usearenot known. It is said to in­duce a feeling of levitation or ofsoaring through theair, a typicalcharacteristic of many kinds ofhallucinogenic intoxications.

Mostof thecultivated typesofPetunia arehybrids derived fromthepurple-flowered Petunia via­lacea andthewhite Petunia ax­iIIaris. These species arenativeto southern South America.

Phytochemical studies of thehorticulturally important genusPetunia arelacking, butas a so­lanaceous group allied to Nicoii­ana-the tobaccos-it maywellcontain biologically activeprinciples.

Peucedanum japanicum is astoutperennial, blue-green herbwith-thick roots and shortrhi­zomes. Thesolid, fibrous stemsattain a length of 20---40 in. (0.5­1m). Thethick leaves are8­24in. (20--B1 cm) long, twice orthrice ternate withobovate­cuneate leaflets 1%-2V2 in. (3­6cm) long. Theflowers areborne in umbellate clusters. The10to 20 rays are%- 1% in. (2­3cm) long. Theellipsoid fruit isminutely hairy, 1V2-2 in. (3.5­5cm) long. Thisplant is com­mon onsandy places nearsea­shores.

Therootof Fang-K'uei is em­ployed medicinally in China asan eliminative, diuretic, tussic,andsedative. Although thoughtto be rather deleterious, it may,withprolonged use, have toniceffects.

Alkaloidal constituents havebeen reported from Peuceda­num. Coumarin and furocou­marin arewidespread in thegenus and occur in P. japani­cum.

53

PHALARIS L. (10) PHRAGMITESAdans. (1) PHYTOLACCA L. (36) PSILOCYBE(Fr.) Ouelet (180)

Phalaris arundinacea L.Red Canary Grass

Graminaea (Grass Family)Cosmopolitan

73

Thisperennial grass hasgrayishgreen stalksthatgrowto6ft (2m)and can besplitlengthwise.Thelong, broad leaves have roughedges.Thepaniclecan takeonalightgreen orred-violetcolora­tion. The calyxholdsoneflower.

TheRed Canary Grass wasknown already in antiquity. Thusfar, notraditional use of Phalarisarundinacea asa psychoactivesubstance is known.

Thepsychoactiveconstitu­ents of Phalaris were firstno­ticed bya phytochemical studyon grasses done foragriculturalpurposes. It is possible that inthepast fewyears "cellar sha­mans" might have been experi­menting with a possible psy­choactive usefor thegrass inAyahuasca analogs andDMTextracts.

Theentiregrass contains in­dole alkaloids, which arehighlyvariable according to theirspe­cies, tribe,position,andharvest.In most,DMT, MMT, and5­MeO-DMTareto be found. Thegrass can also contain highconcentrations of gramine, anextremely toxic alkaloid.

54

Phragmitesaustralis (Cav.) Trin.exSteud.CommonReed

Gramineae (Grass Family). Cosmopolitan

74

TheCommonReed,thelargestgrass inCentral Europe,oftengrows inharbors. Ithas athick,many-branched rhizome.Thestalksare3-9ft (1-3m) high; theleaveshave roughedgesandgrowupto 16-20in. (4G-50cm)long and V4-%in.(1-2cm)wide.Theverylong panicle, 6-16in.(1 5-40cm)long,has many darkpurpleflowers. It flowersfromJulytoSeptember. Seeds matureinwinter,atwhichpoint theleavesdrop andthepanicle turns white.

TheCommon Reed hadmanyuses in ancient Egypt, particu­larlyas fibrous material.Tradi­tional usefor psychoactive pur­poses hasbeen documented,onlyasa fermentedingredient ina beerlike drink.

TherootstalkcontainsDMT,5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine, andgramine. Reports concerningpsychoactive propertiesarepri­marily from experiences withanAyahuasca analog made from anextract ofthe roots, lemonjuice,andtheseeds of Peganumhar­mala. Unpleasant sideeffectssuch asnausea,vomiting, anddiarrhea havebeen described.

PhytolaccaacinosaRoxb.Pokeberry

PhytolaccaceaeTropicaland warmzones of

75 both hemispheres

Phytolacca acinosa is a glab­rousperennialwith robust,branching green stems upto 3ft(91 cm) in length. Theellipticleaves average about43,4 in.(1 2cm) long. Thewhite flowers,about 3fs in. (1cm)in diameter,are borne ondensely floweredracemes 4in. (10cm) in length.Thepurple-black, berrylikefruitbears small black kidney­shaped seeds Va in. (3mm) long.

A well-known Phytolacca inChina, Shang-Iuexists in twoforms: onewithwhite flowersanda white root andonewithred flowers anda purplish root.The latter typeis consideredtobehighly toxic, although thefor­mer is cultivated asa food. Thef1owers- Ch'ang-hau'- are es­teemedfor treating apoplexy.Theroot is sopoisonousthat it isnormally used onlyexternally.

Phytolacca acinosa is highinsaponines andthesapof thefresh leaves hasbeen reportedto have antiviral properties.

Psilocybe cubensis (Earle)Sing.SanIsidro

StrophariaceaeNearlycosmopolitan in thetropics

This mushroom, known in Oax­acaas Hongo deSan Isidro, isan important hallucinogen,although it should be notedthatnotallshamans willuse it.TheMazatec name is Di-shi-tjo-Ie­rra-ja ("divinemushroom ofmanure").

Themushroom may attain aheightof 1%-3in. (4-8cm), veryrarely upto 5%in. (15cm). Thecap, usually %- 2in. (2- 5cm) indiameter (rarely larger), isconic­campanulate, at firstespeciallypapillose, then becoming con­vex to plane. It is golden yellow,pale tanto whitishnearthe mar­gin; in ageor upon injury, it maybecome cyanaceous. Thestipeis hollow, usually thickened atthebase, white butyellowing orbecomingashy red, andstrongly lined. Thegillsvaryfrom whitish to deep gray-violetor purple-brown. Theellipsoidspores arepurple-brown.

Theactive principle in Psi/o­. cybecubensis is psilocybine.

PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Ouelet (180) PSILOCYBE(Fr.) Ouelet (180) PSILOCYBE (Fr.) Ouelet (180) PSYCHOTRIA L. (1200--1400)

~silocybe cyanescens Wakefield2mend. KriegelsteinerWavy Cap

SirophariaceaeNorth America,

77 Central Europe

Psilocybe mexicana HeimTeonanacaf

StrophariaceaeNearly cosmopolitan

78

Psiiocybe semilancea/a (Fr.) OueletLiberty Cap

StrophariaceaeCosmopolitan,

79 except Mexico

Psycho/ria viridis Rufzet PavonChacruna

Rubiaceae (Madder Family)Amazonia-from Colombia

80 to Bolivia and eastern Brazil

~'..'

;'1:~{ I '

I· ~. t , .l

! .I : ": ! J .

.). .,

Psilocybe cyanescens is rela­tively easyto identify by its wavybrown cap%- 1%in. (2- 4cm)wide. It doesn't liveon dung, buton decaying plants, coniferousmulch, and humus-rich earth. Inolder mushroom guides it is of­tencalled Hyphalomacyanes­cens. It is very closely related tothe species Psilocybe azures­censand Psilocybe bohemica,bothalsoverypowerfulhallucinogens.

A traditional or shamanic useof this highlypotent Psilocybehasnotyet beendocumented.

Today, Psilocybe cyanescensis used in Central Europe andNorth America in neo-paganrituals. In addition, cultivatedmushrooms that have a veryhigh concentration of psilocy­bine are eaten. Visionary dosesare 1g of thedried mushroom,which contains approximately1% tryptamine (psilocybine,psilocine, andbaeocystine).

Manyspecies of Psilocybeareemployed in southern Mexico assacred mushrooms, P. mexica­nabeing oneof the most widelyused.

P. mexicanagrows at altitudesof 4,500- 5,500ft (1,375-1,675m), especially in lime­stone regions, isolated or verysparsely in moss along trails, inwet meadowsandfields,and inoak andpine forests. Oneof thesmallest of the hallucinogenicspecies, it attains a heightof 1­(rarely) 4in. (2.5- 10ern), Theconiccampanulate or frequentlyhemispherical cap, %- 1V3 in.(1-3cm) in diameter, is a weakstrawcolor or greenish strawcolor (sometimes even brownishred) when living, drying to agreenish tan or deepyellow; ithas brown striations, and theterminal nipple is oftenreddish.The fleshof the cap turnsbluishon bruising. The hollowstipe isyellow to yellowish pink, red­brown near the base. Thesporesare deep sepia to darkpurple-brown.

Psilocybesemilanceata is themostcommon andwidespreadmushroom inthePsilocybegenus.The LibertyCapprefersto growin fieldswitholdmanurepilesandongrassy, fertilemea­dows. Its cap,%- 1in. (1- 2.5cm)wide, is conical andoftenpeaked. It usually feelsdampandslimy.The"head skin" is easy topeeloff.Thesmail lameis areol­ive to red-brown; thespores aredarkbrown or purple-brown.

P. semilanceata contains highconcentrations of psilocybine(0.97% up to 1.34%), some psi­locine, and less baeocystine(0.33%). This species is one ofthe most potent Psilocybemushrooms.

Toward the end of the MiddleAgesin Spain, P. semilanceatawasprobably usedas a halluci­nogenby women whowere ac­cusedof beingwitches. Alleg­edlythe nomads of the Alpsnamed P. semilanceata the"dream mushroom" and tradi-

. tionally used it as a psycho­activesubstance.Today thismushroom is ritually taken incertain circles.

The evergreen shrub can growintoa small treewith a woodytrunk, but usually remainsat aheightof 6-9 ft (2-3 m). Itswhorled leaves are long andnarrowwith a color ranging fromlight green to dark green andashiny top side. The flowers havegreenish white petals on longstalks. The red fruit js a berrythat contains numerous smalllongovalseeds, about 1in.(4mm) long.

The leaves mustbe gatheredin the morning.They areusedeither fresh or dried in thepro­ductionof Ayahuasca. Todaytheyarealsousedas an Aya­huasca analog.

The leavescontain 0.1-0.61% DMT, as well as traces ofsimilar alkaloids (MMT, MTHC);mostof the leaves containaround0.3% DMT.

55

RHYNCHOSIA Lour. (300) SALVIA L. (700) SCELETIUM (1000) SCIRPUS L. (300)

Rhynchasia phasea/aides DC. Sa/via divinarum EpLet Sce/etium tartuasum L. Scirpus atravirens Willd.Piule Jativa-M. Kougued Bakana

Diviner'sSage

Leguminosae (Pea Family) Labiatae (Mint Family) Aizoaceae (Carpetweed Family) Cyperaceae (Sedge Family)Tropicalandwarm zones of Oaxaca, Mexico SouthAfrica Cosmopolitan

81 both hemispheres 82 83 84

Thebeautiful red andblackbeans of several species ofRhynchosia may have been em­ployed inancient Mexico asahallucinogenic. Paintings ofthese seeds onfrescoes datedA. D. 300-400atTepantitlasug­gestformer use asa sacredplant.

These twospecies aresimi­lar-scandent vines withflowersin long racemes. Theflowers ofR. /ongeracemosa areyellow;theseeds aremottled lightanddarkbrown. R. pyramidalis hasgreenish flowers andhandsomehalf-red, half-black seeds.

Chemical studiesof Rhynch­osia arestillpreliminary andin­decisive. Analkaloid withcur­are-like activity has beenreported from onespecies.Early pharmacologicalexperi­ments with anextract of R. pha­seoloides produced a kind ofsemi-narcosis in frogs.

56

InOaxaca, Mexico, theMazatecIndians cultivate Sa/via divinor­umfor the leaves, which arecrushed ona metate, diluted inwater, anddrunk or chewedfreshfor their hallucinogenicproperties in divinatory rituals.Theplant, known as Hierba dela Pastora ("herb of theshep­herdess") or Hierba de la Virgen("herb of theVirgin"), is culti­vated in plots hidden away inforests far from homes androads.

Sa/via divinorumis a peren­nialherb3ft (1 m)tall or more,with ovate leaves upto 6in.(15cm)andfinelydentate alongthe margin. Thebluish flowers,borne in panicles upto 16in.(41 em) in length, areapproxi­mately % in. (15mm) long.

It hasbeen suggested thatthenarcotic Pipiltzintzintli of thean­cientAztecs was Sa/via divinor­um, butatpresent theplantseems tobeused onlybytheMazatecs. Theplant containsthepotentcompound salvinorin A.

Over twocenturiesago, Dutchexplorers reported thatthe Hot­tentots of South Africa chewedthe root of a plantknown asKanna or Channa asavision-in­ducing hallucinogen. Thiscom­mon name is today appliedtoseveral species of Sce/etiumthathave alkaloids-mesembr­ineandmesembrenine-withsedative, cocainelikeactivitiescapable of inducing torpor.

Sce/etium expansum isashrub upto 12in.(30cm) tallwithfleshy, smooth stems andpros­trate, spreading branches. Thelanceolate-oblong entire,smooth, unequal leaves, mea­suring 1V2 in. (4cm)long, V2 in.(1 em) wide, areofa fresh greencolorandveryglossy. Borne onsolitary branches in groups ofoneto five, thewhite ordullyel­lowflowers are1V2-2 in.(4-5em) across.Thefruitisangular.

Both S. expansum andS. tor­tuosum were formerly Mesem­bryanthemum.

One of themost powerful herbsof theTarahumara of Mexico isapparently a species of Scirpus.Tarahumara Indians fear to cul­tivate Bakana lest they becomeinsane. Some medicine mencarry Bakana to relieve pain.Thetuberous underground partis believed to cure insanity, andthewhole plant is a protector ofthose suffering from mental ills.Theintoxication thatit inducesenables Indians to travel farandwide, talkwith dead ancestors,andseebrilliantly coloredvisions.

Alkaloidshave been reportedfrom Scirpus aswell asfrom therelated genus Cyperus.

Thespecies of Scirpus maybeannualsor perennials andareusually grasslikeherbs withfew- to many-flowered spikeletsthataresolitary or in terminalclusters. Thefruitisa three­angled akene withorwithout abeak. They grow inmany habi­tats butseem toprefer wetsoilor bogs.

Malvaceae (Mallow Family)Warm zones of bothhemi­

86 spheres

Solandra grandiflora Sw.ChaliceVine

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Tropical zones of South87 America, Mexico

Sophora secundiflora (Or!.) Lag. exDC.Mescal Bean

Leguminosae (Pea Family)Southwestern North

88 America, Mexico

SCOPOLIA (3-5)Jacq. Carr. Link

Scopolia carniolicaJacquesScopolia

Solanaceae(Nightshade Family)

Alps,CarpathianMountains,85 Caucasus Mountains,

Lithuania, Latvia, andUkraine

SIDAL.

Sida acutaBurm.Axocatzfn

(200) SOLANDRA Sw. (10-12) SOPHORAL. (50)

This herbaceousannual oftengrows 1-3ft (3D-80cm). Thedull green leaves arelongish,pointed, andslightly pileous.The fleshy root is tapered. Thesmall, bell-shaped flowers arevioletto lightyellow and hangdown individually from the ra­chisandlooksimilar to theflow­ersof henbane (Hyoscyamusa/bus). It flowers April to June.The fruit developsa capsulewith doubled dividingwall andmany small seeds.

In Slovenia, Scopolia waspossibly used for theprepara­tion of witches' salves. In EastPrussia, the root was used asanative narcotic, beeradditive,andaphrodisiac. Women alleg­edlyused it to seduce youngmeninto beingwilling lovers.

The wholeplantcontainscoumarins (scopoline, scopole­tine) aswell as hallucinogenicalkaloids (hyoscyamine,scopolamine) andchlorogenicacid. Today the plant isgrown forthe industrial harvest ofL-hyoscyamine andatropine.

These two species are herbs orshrubs oftenup to 9ft (2.7m) inheight, found in hot lowlands.Thestiff branches areemployedin making rough brooms. Theleaves, lanceolate to obovoidandmeasuringabout 1in.(2.5em) wide and upto 4in.(10em) long, are beaten inwaterto produce a soothinglather formakingskin tender.The flowers varyfromyellow towhite.

Sidaacuta and S. rhombifo/iaaresaidto besmoked as a sti­mulantandsubstitutefor Mari­juanaalong the Gulf coastal re­gionsof Mexico. Ephedrine isfound in the roots of thesespe­ciesof Sida. Thedriedherbsmellsdistinctly likecoumarine.

A luxuriant climbing bushwithshowy flowers resemblingthoseof Brugmansia, So/andra is va­lued for its hallucinogenic pur­poses in Mexico. A tea madefrom thejuiceof the branches ofS. brevica/yx andof S.guerrer­ensisis known to have strongintoxicant properties. MentionedbyHernandez asTecomaxochitlor Hueipatl of theAztecs,S. guerrerensis is used asan in­toxicantin Guerrero.

These twospeciesof So/an­draareshowy, erect, or ratherscandent shrubs with thickellip­tic leaves up to about 7in.(18cm) in length andwith large,cream-colored or yellow, fra­grant, funnel-form flowers, upto1O in. (25em) in length andopening wideat maturity.

The genus So/andra, aswould beexpected inviewof itsclose relationship to Datura,contains tropane alkaloids:hyoscyamine, scopolamine,nortropine, tropine, cuscohy­grine, andotherbases havebeen reported.

The beautiful red beansof thisshrub were once used as a hal­lucinbgen inNorth America.

Sophora secundiflora seedscontain the highly toxic alkaloidcytisine, belonging pharmacolo­gically to thesame group asni­cotine. It causes nausea, con­vulsions, and eventually, inhighdoses, death through respira­tory failure. Truly hallucinogenicactivityis unknownfor cytisine,butit is probable thatthepower­ful intoxication causes, througha kind ofdelirium, conditionsthatcan induce a visionarytrance.

Sophora secundiflora is ashrub or small treeupto 35ft(10.5m) in height. Theever­green leaves have 7 to 11 glossyleaflets. Thefragrant, violet-blueflowers, bornein droopingra­cemes about 4in. (10cm) long,measure upto 1%in. (3cm) inlength. Thehard, woody pod,constricted between each seed,bears two to eightbright redbeans.

57

TABERNAEMONTANA L.

Tabernaemontanaspp.Sanango

(120) TABERNANTHE Bail!.

Tabernantheiboga Baill.Iboga

(2-7) TAGETES L.

Tagetes lucidaCay.Yauhtli

(50)

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)Tropical zonesof both

89 hemispheres

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)Tropical zonesof western

90 Africa

Compositae (Sunflower Family)Warm zones of the Americas

91 rnoslly Mexico

Most species of Tabernaemon­tana arebushy shrubs, climbers,orsmall trees. Theleaves areevergreen, lanceolate, oftenwith a leathery topside. Theflowers consist of fivepointedpetals thatmostly grow in clus­tersoutof thecalyx. Thetwosymmetrical fruits aredividedand marked with fairlyvisibleveins. Because of this, theyareeasily confused with thetestesofa mammal.

In theAmazon, theSanango(Tabernaemontana sananho R.et P.) isconsidered a panacea.The leaves, roots, andthe latex­rich bark areused in folk medi­cine.Thetreegrowsastall as15ft (5m). Theleaves areusedasa psychoactiveadditivetoAyahuasca. It is used in combi­nationwith Virola in theproduc­tionof anorally effectivehalluci­nogen. IntheAmazon, Sanangois also considereda "memoryplant." Ayahuasca is enhancedwith it inorder that thevisionscan bebetter recalled.

58

Phytochemical researchhasrecently been done onthegenus. Indole alkaloids aretheprimary constituent, in someeven ibogaine andvoacanginehave been ascertained. Forthisreason, thisspecies is ofparti­cular interest for thediscoveryof newpsychoactive plants. Afewof the species (Tabernae­montana coffeoides Bojer exDC., Tabernaemontana crassaBenth.)have already revealedpsychoactive propertiesanduses.

Tabernantheiboga is ashrub 3­4%ft (1- 1.5m) tall, found in theundergrowthof tropical forestsbutoften cultivated in nativedooryards. Theshrub hasco­pious white, vile-smelling latex.Theovate leaves, usually 3112-4in. (9-10cm) long, about1114in. (3cm) wide (butocca­sionally upto 8%by2%in. or22by7ern), areyellowishgreenbeneath. Thetinyyellowish,pinkish, or white- andpink­spotted flowers, which grow ingroups of 5 to 12, have a era-

.teriform corolla (a long, slendertubeabruptly flaring at themouth) with twisted lobes ~ in.(1cm) long. Theovoid, pointedyellow-orange fruits occur inpairs andbecome as large asolives.

Chemical studieson Taber­nantheiboga have shownatleasta dozen indole alkaloids,themostactivebeing ibogaine,the effects of which, in toxicdoses, lead to extraordinaryvisions; anoverdose, to paraly­sisanddeath.

TheHuichol of Mexicoinducevisions bysmoking a mixture ofNicotiana rustica and Tageteslucida. They frequently drink afermented beer from maizealong with thesmoking inorder"to produce clearer visions."Tagetes lucida is occasionallysmoked alone.

Tagetes lucida isa stronglyscented perennial herb upto1112 ft (46cm) tall. Theoppositeleaves areovate-Ianceolate,toothed, andpunctated with oilglands. Theflowering heads areproduced indense terminalclusters %in. (1cm) in diameter,usually yellowto yellow-orange.Thisspeciesis nativeto Mexico,where it is veryabundant in thestates of Nayarit andJalisco. Noalkaloidshavebeen isolatedfrom Tagetes, butthegenusisrichin essential oilsandthio­phene derivatives; I-inositol,saponines, tannins, coumarinederivatives, and cyanogenic gly­cosideshave been reported.

Tanaecium nocturnum (Barb.-Rodr.)3ur. et K. Schum.Koribo

Bignoniaceae (Bignonia Family)Tropical zonesof Central

92 Americaand South America,West Indies

TANAECIUM Sw. (7) TETRAPTERIS Cay. (80)

Tetrapteris methystica R. E. Schult.Caapi-pinima

Malpighiaceae (Malpighia Family)Tropical zonesof South

93 America,Mexico,West Indies

TRICHOCEREUS (A. Berger)Riccob.

Trichocereus pachanoiBritt. et RoseSan Pedro Cactus

Cactaceae(Cactus Family)Temperateandwarmzones

94 of South America

Tanaeciumnocturnum is amuch-branched climber withbroadly elliptic leaves 5%in.(13.5cm) long, 4in. (10cm)wide. Thewhite flowers, 6%in.(16.5 em) long, aretubular,borne in five- to eight-floweredracemes3in. (8cm) long, aris­ingfrom thestem. The stem,when cut, emitsan odorof al­mond oil.

The Paumari, who liveon theRio Purus, create a ritualsnuffthat theycall koribo-nafuni outofthe leaves. The shamanssniff itwhen they aredealingwithdiffi­cult cases-for example, in or­der to extract a magical objectout of the bodyof thesickper­son. They also sniff it duringaritualfor protection of children,duringwhich theyfall into atrance. The snuff is used only bythe men. This species is saidtobe prized as an aphrodisiac byIndians of the ColombianChoco.

Saponines and tannins havebeen found in Tanaecium. Theleaves contain prussic acidandcyanoglycosides, which disinte­grate when roasted.

It is uncertain as to whetherthe toxin'swaste products con­tribute to thepsychoactiveeffectof T. nocturnum. It is not yetknown if there areother activecompounds in the leaves orother parts of the plant. It ispossible that this plant containssubstances of unknown chemi­cal structureandpharmacologi­caleffect.

The nomadic Maki) Indians ofthe Rio Tlkie inthe northwesternmost Amazonas of Brazil pre­parea hallucinogenic drink,asortof Ayahuasca orCaapi,fromthebark of Tetrapterismethystica. Reports of theef­fects of the drugwould suggestthat ~-carboline alkaloids arepresent.

Tetrapterismethystica (T. mu­cranata) is a scandent bushwithblack bark. The leaves are char­aceous, ovate, 2%-3%in. (6­8.5cm) long, 1-2in. (2.5-5cm )wide, bright green above, ashygreen beneath. The inflores­cenceis few-flowered, shorterthan the leaves. The sepals arethick, hairy without, ovate-Ian­ceolate, with eight blackoval­shaped glands; thepetals,spreading, membranaceous,yellowwith redor brown in thecenter, elongate-orbicular, V2 in.(1em) long, V16 in. (2mm)wide.The fruit, or samara, is ovoid, Vaby Va by '11 6in. (4 by4 by2mm),with brownish wings about %byV'6 in. (10 by2mm).

This cactus isa branched, oftenspineless, columnar plant 9­20ft (2.75-6 m) inheight. Thebranches,which have6to8 ribs,areglaucouswhen young, darkgreen in age. The pointed budsopen at night to produceverylarge, 7V2-9% in. (19-24 em),funnel-shaped, fragrant flowerswith the inner segmentswhite,theouter segments brownishred, and long, greenish stamenfilaments. Thefruit, aswell asthescaleson the floral tube,have longblack hairs.

Trichocereuspachanoi is richin mescaline:2% of thedriedmaterial or 0.1 2% of the freshmaterial. Otheralkaloidshavebeen reported from the plant:3,4-dimethoxyphenylethyla­mine, 3-methoxy-tyramine, andtraces ofother bases.

Trichocereuspachanoi (Echi­nopsis pacha'noi) occurs in thecentral Andesbetween 6,000and9,OOOft (1,83Q-2,750 m),particularly in Ecuador andnorthern Peru.

59

TURBINA Raf. (10) VIROLAAubl. (60) VOACANGA (10-20)

Turbina corymbosa (L.)Raf.Ololiuqui

Convolvulaceae(Morning GloryFamily)

Tropical zonesof the95 Americas, mostly Mexico

andCuba

Virola theiodora (Spr.) Warb.Cumala Tree

Myristicaceae (Nutmeg Family)Tropicalzones of Central

96 America andSouth America

Voacanga spp.Voacanga

Apocynaceae (Dogbane Family)Tropical Africa

97

Theseeds of Turbina corymbo­sa, better known as Rivea cor­ymbosa, arevalued asoneofthemajor sacred hallucinogensof numerous Indiangroups insouthern Mexico. Theirusegoes back to early periods.Known asOloliuqui, they wereimportant inAztec ceremoniesasan intoxicant with reputedlyanalgesic properties.

Turbina corymbosa isa largewoody vinewith heart-shapedleaves 2-3112 in. (5-9em) longand1-13/4in. (2.5-4.5em) wide.Thecymes aremany-flowered.Thebell-shaped corollas, 3;4­

1112 in. (2-4 em) long, arewhitewithgreenish stripes. Thefruit isdry, indehiscent, ellipsoidal withpersistent, enlarged sepals, andbears a single hard, roundish,brown, minutely hairy seedabout Va in. (3mm) indiameter.Theseeds contain lysergic acidamide, analogous to LSD.

60

Classification of genera inthe Morning Glory family orConvolvulaceae has alwaysbeen difficult. This species hasat one time or another beenassigned to the genera Convol­vulus, Ipomoea, Legendrea,Rivea, and Turbina. Mostche­mical and ethnobotanical stu­dies have been reported underthe name Rivea corymbosa,but recent critical evaluation in­dicates that the most appropri­ate binomial is Turbinacorymbosa.

Most, if notall, species of Virolahave a copious red"resin" in theinner bark. The resin from anumber of species is preparedasa hallucinogenic snufforsmall pellets.

Probably themostimportantspecies is Virola theiodora, aslender tree25-75ft (7.5-23m)inheight, native to theforests ofthewestern Amazon basin. Thecylindrical trunk, 1112 ft (46cm) indiameter, hasacharacteristicsmooth barkthatisbrownmottled withgray patches. Theleaves (with atea-like fragrancewhen dried) areoblong orbroadly ovate,3Vz--13 in. (9­33cm)long, 1Vz--41f2 in. (4-11 em) wide. Themale inflores­cences aremany-flowered,usually brown- orgold-hairy,shorter thantheleaves; theverysmall flowers,borne singly or inclusters of2to 10, arestronglypungent. Thefruitissubglobose,3fe-% in.(1-2cm)byV4-% in.(.5­1.5em); theseed iscovered forhalfits length bya membranac­eous, orange-red aril.

Theresin of the Virola con­tains DMTand5-MeO-DMT.

The Voacanga genus hasre­ceived little research. Thespe­ciesaresimilar to oneanother.They aremultiple-branched,evergreen shrubs or small trees.Theflowers aremostly yellow orwhite with five united petals.There aretwo symmetricalfruits. Latex runs in thebark.

Thebarkand seeds of theAfrican Voacanga africanaStapf. contain upto 10%indolealkaloids oftheiboga type(voa­camine is theprimary alkaloid,ibogaine) and should besimu­latingand hallucinogenic. InWest Africa thebarkisused asahunting poison, stimulant, andpotent aphrodisiac. Supposedlytheseeds are used byAfricanmagicians inorder to producevisions.

Theseeds of the Voacangagrandiflora (Miq.) Rolfe areusedbymagicians inWest Africa forvisionary purposes. Unfortu­nately thedetails arenotyetun­covered, astheknowledge ofthemagicians isa closelyguarded secret.

.:.

WHO USESHALLUCINOGENICPLANTS?

Notwithstanding the recent upsurge in the use ofpsychoactive plants in modern Western societies,the thrust of this book emphasizes almost exclu­sively the employment of hallucinogens amongaboriginal peoples who have restricted the use ofthese plants mostly to magic, medical, or religiouspurposes. The outstanding difference between theuse of hallucinogens in our culture and their use inpreindustrial societies is precisely the difference inthe belief concerning their purpose and origin: allaboriginal societies have considered-and stilldo-that these plants are the gifts of the gods, ifnot the gods themselves. It is obvious that our cul­ture does not view hallucinogenic plants in thislight.

There are many examples-and more will bediscussed in the following pages-of plants thatare sacred and even revered as gods . Soma, the an­cient god-narcotic of India, may be the most out­standing example. Most hallucinogens are holymediators between man and the supernatural, butSoma was deified. So holy was Soma that it has

••been suggested that even the idea of deity mayhave arisen from experiences with its unearthlyeffects. The sacred Mexican mushrooms have along history that is closely linked to shamanismand religion. The Aztecs called them Teonanacatl("divine flesh"), and they were ceremonially in­gested. Highland Maya cultures in Guatemalaapparently had, more than three thousand yearsago, a sophisticated religion utilizing mushrooms.Probably the most famous sacred hallucinogen ofthe New World, however, is Peyote, which,among the Huichol of Mexico, is identified withthe deer (their sacred animal) and maize (theirsacred vegetal staff of life). The first Peyote­collecting expedition was led by Tatewari, theoriginal shaman, and subsequent annual trips tocollect the plant are holy pilgrimages to Wirikuta,original paradisiacal home of the ancestors. In

62

Page 61:TheFlyAgaric is used forshamanic purposes worldwide. It haseven been linked to theancient Indian Soma.

South America, Ayahuasca reveals the real world,while daily living is an illusion. Ayahuasca means"tendril of the soul" in Kechwa and comes fromthe frequent experience that the soul separatesfrom the body during the intoxication, commun­ing with the ancestors and forces of the spiritworld. The drinking of Caapi is a return "to thematernal womb, to the source and origin of allthings," and participants see "all the tribal divi­nities, the creation of the universe, the first humanbeings and animals and even the establishment ofthe social order" (Reichel-Dolmatoff).

It is not always the shaman or medicine manwho administers these sacred plants. The generalpopulation-usually the adult male portion­often shares in the use of hallucinogens. Under

•

Above: Thesymbols inHuicholmythology arevividly depicted in their popularsacred art.Thebeauty of the forms has asa basis the ceremonial use ofPeyote. Theyarnpaintingabove, likean Aztec Codex, is a chronicleof thecreationof theworld. Thegods emerged from theUnderworld to MotherEarth. Thiswaspossible because Kauyumari, Our Elder Brother Deer, foundthe nierika, or portway. Thenierika of Kauyumari (top center) unifies thespiritofall things andallworlds. Through it all lifecame intobeing.

Below Kauyumari's nierika, Our MotherEagle (center) lowers her headtolistento Kauyumari , whositson a rock, bottom right. Hissacredwords traveldowna thread to a prayerbowlandaretransformed into lifeenergy, depictedas a whiteblossom.

Above Kauyumari, theSpiritofRain,aserpent,gives lifeto thegods.Tatewari,firstshamanandSpiritofFire (top center right), isbendingdowntoward Kauyu­mari listeningtohischant.Bothareconnectedtoamedicinebasket (centerright),whichbindsthemtogetherasshamanicallies.OurFatherSun,seenop-

posite Tatewariontheleft, isconnectedwiththeSpiritofDawn,theorangefigurebelow. TheSunand Spirit ofDawnareboth foundinWirikuta,theSacredLandofPeyote.Also inWirikuta isKauyumari'snierika andthetempleofElderBrotherDeerTail.Thetempleis theblackfield, lower center.DeerTail,with redantlers, isseen withhishuman manifestation above him. BehindDeerTail isOurMothertheSea.Acrane brings heraprayergourdcontaining thewordsofKauyumari.Blue Deer (leftcenter) enlivens allsacred offerings.Astream ofenergy goes fromhimtoourMotherSea'sprayergourd;healsooffers hisbloodtothegrowingcorn,thestaffof lifegerminating belowhim. AboveBlueDeeristheFirst Man,whoinventedcultivation. First Man facesasacrificed sheep.

Page 62: This early-sixteenth-century Aztec statue of Xochipilli, theecstaticPrince of Flowers, was unearthed in Tlamanalcoonthe slopes of thevolcanoPopocatepetl. The stylizedglyphs depict various hallucinogenicplants. Fr~m

left to right, theglyphsrepresent: mushroomcap; tendrilof theMorning Glory;flowerof Tobacco; flowerof thesacred MorningGlory; bud of Sinicuiche; and,on the pedestal, stylizedcaps of Psilocybe aztecorum.

63

these circumstances, however, use is often strictlycontrolled by taboos or ceremonial circumscrip­tions. In almost all instances, in both the Old andthe New World, the use of hallucinogenic drugs isrestricted to adult males. There are, however,striking exceptions. Among the Koryak of Siberia,Amanita may be used by both sexes. In southernMexico, the sacred mushrooms can be taken byboth men and women; in fact, the shaman is usual­ly a woman. Similarly, in the Old World, Ibogamay be taken by any adult, male or female. Whilepurely speculative, there may be a basic reason forthe exclusion of women from ingesting narcoticpreparations. Many hallucinogens are possiblysufficiently toxic to have abortifacient effects.Since women in aboriginal societies are frequentlypregnant during most of their childbearing years,the fundamental reason may be purely an insur-

"Whether shaman alone,or shaman and communicants,

or communicants aloneimbibe or ingest flex drinks,

Datura infusions, Tobacco, ...Peyote cactus, Ololiuqui seeds, mushrooms,

narcotic Mint leaves or Ayahuasca. . . the ethnographic principle is the same.

These plants contain spirit power. "- Weston La Barre

64

ance against abortions-even though this reasonhas been forgotten.

Sometimes hallucinogens are administered tochildren. Among the jivaro, Brugmansia may begiven to boys, who are then admonished by theancestors during the intoxication. Frequently,the first use of a hallucinogen occurs in pubertyrituals.

There is hardly an aboriginal culture without atleast one psychoactive plant: even Tobacco andCoca may, in large doses, be employed for the in­duction of visions. An example is the smoking ofTobacco among the Warao of Venezuela, who useit to induce a trancelike state accompanied bywhat, for all practical purposes, are visions.

Although the New World has many more spe­cies of plants purposefully employed as hallucino­gens than does the Old World, both hemisphereshave very limited areas where at least one halluci ­nogen is not known or used. So far as we know,the Inuit have only one psychoactive plant; thePolynesian Islanders of the Pacific had Kava-kava(Piper rnetbysticum), but they seem never to havehad a true hallucinogen in use: Kava-kava isclassed as a hypnotic.

Africa has been poorly studied from the pointof view of drug plants, and may have hallucino­genic species that have not yet been introducedto the scientific world. It is, however, possible toassert that there are few parts of the continentwhere at least one such plant is not now utilizedor was not employed at some time in the past.

Asia, a vast continent, has produced relativelyfew major hallucinogenic varieties but their usehas been widespread and extremely significantfrom a cultural point of view; furthermore, theuse of them is extremely ancient. Numeroussources describe the use of hallucinogenic andother intoxicating plants in ancient Europe. Manyresearchers see the roots of culture, shamanism,and religion in the use of psychoactive or halluci­nogenic plants.

OVERVIEW OFPLANT USE

Two points stand out in clear relief inthis tabular summary of material setforth in greater detail in other sectionsof the book. It is obvious that: (1) thesources of information are interdisci­plinary in nature; and (2) there is urgentneed for deeper studies in view of thesparsity or vagueness of knowledge inso many cases.

That progress in future studies will bemade only when they are based on inte­gration of data . from sundry fields-s­anthropology, botany, chemistry, history,

medicine, mythology, pharmacology,philology, religion, and so ·on-shouldbe obvious. And wise handling of such awealth of information calls for patienceand breadth of understanding. One ofthe first steps in this direction must bepresentation of such diverse material ineasily assimilated outline form-an endthat v:e have tried to accomplish in thisoverview.

It is man living in so-called archaic so-

cieties and intimately familiar with hisambient vegetation who has discoveredthe hallucinogens and bent them to hisuse. The relentless march of civilizationis ever increasing in speed and intensity,reaching even the most remote and hid­den peoples. Acculturation inevitablyspells the doom of native lore and leadsto the disappearance of knowledge builtup through the ages. It is, therefore,urgent that we step up the tempo ofresearch before this knowledge will for­ever be entombed with the culture thatgave it birth.

Accurate botanical identification ofthe source plant is basic to a sound un­derstanding of hallucinogens. We do notalways have this knowledge. Ideally,botanical determination of a productshould be made on the basis of a voucherspecimen: only in this way can -exactnessbe ensured. It is sometimes necessary tobase an identification on a commonname or on a description, in which casethere always may exist some doubt as toits accuracy. It is equally essential thatchemical investigations be foundedupon properly vouchered material. Bril­liant phytochemical work too often isworthless simply because grave doubtsabout the identity of the original vegetalmaterial cannot be dispelled.

Similar deficiencies in other aspectsof our knowledge of hallucinogens andtheir use hamper our understanding.The full cultural significance of mind­altering plants may not be appreciated.It is only in very recent years that an­thropologists have begun to compre­hend the deep and all-encompassingrole that hallucinogens play in the his­tory, mythology, and philosophy ofaboriginal societies . In time as this un­derstanding is appreciated, anthropol­ogy will advance in its explanation ofmany basic elements of human culture.

The material presented in this book isof necessity concentrated in detail. Itmay also at times be diffuse. Realizingthe desirability occasionally of having aquick means of consultation, we havestriven to assemble the essential factsand present them in skeletal form in thisOverview of Plant Use .

Key symbols designating planttypes inOverviewof Plants Use

[I] XEROPHYTES ANDSUCCULENTS

[I llANAS

~ VINES AND TWINERS

[[}fl] GRASSES AND SEDGES

~ HERBS

[fJ LILY-LIKE PLANTS

[I] FUNGI

[i] ORCHIDS~

~ SHRUBS

[!] TREES

[;] AQUATIC PLANTS

Left:TheEnglish botanist RichardSpruce spent fourteen years in fieldresearch in South America during the1800's. Aninsatiableplant-explorer, hemightbecalled theprototype of ethno­botanists of tropical America. Hisstudies laidthefoundation of researchonthehallucinogens YopoandCaapi­research still in progress.

Page64:TheSimiculture of Colombia(from 1200to 1600) hasyieldedmanyenigmatic gold pectoralswithmush­roomlike representations.Theymayimply theexistence ofa cultusingthese ­intoxicating fungi,species of whichoccurin thearea. Many of thepectoralshave winglikestructures, possiblysignifying magic flight, a frequent char­acteristic of hallucinogenic intoxication.

65

REF. COMMO N TYP E OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAM E PLA NT NAM E HISTORY AND ETHNOG RAPHY

35 Agara

~Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague Natives in Papua

11 Angel's Trumpets

~Brugmansia arborea (L.) Lagerh.; Brugmansia are employed in the warmer parts of South

Floripo ndio B. aurea Lagerh.; B. x insignis (Barb.-Rod r.) America, especially in the weste rn Amazon, unde r the

12Borrachero Lockwood ex R. E. Schull. ; nam e of Toe.

Huacacachu B. sanguinea (R. et P.) Don; Also used by the Mapuche Indians of Chil e, the Chib-

Huanto B. suaveolens (H. et B. ex Will d.) cha of Colombia, and known to Peruvian Indians as

Maicoa Berch!. et Presl. ; Huacacachu.

Toe B. versico lor Lagerh.;

Tonga B. vulcanicola (A. S. Barclay) R. E. Schu l!.

(see also pages 140-143)

9Ayahu asca [IJ Banis teriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Mo rton; Used in the western half of the Amazon Valley and by

Caapi B. inebrians Morton; B. rusbyana (Ndz.) Mort on; isolated tribe s on the Pacific slopes of the Colombian

Yaje Diplopterys cabrerana (Cuatr.) B. Gates and Ecuadorean Andes .

(see also pages 124-139)

43 Badoh Negro

~Ipomoea violacea L. Oaxaca , southern Mexico.

Piule Known to the Aztecs as Tlilil tzin and employed in

Tlililtzin the same way as Ololiuqui, Ipomoea is called Piule by

(see also pages 170-175) the Chinantec and Mazatec, and Badoh Negro by the

Zapotec.

24 Bakana

~Goryphantha compacta (Engelm.) Th e Tarahuma ra Indians of Mexico cons ider G. com-

Hiku li Britt . et Rose; G. spp. pacta (Wichuri, also referred to as Bakana or Bakana-

Wic huri wa) a kind of Peyote or Hikuli (see Peyote).

84 Bakana [llil] Scirpussp. A speci es of Scirpus is apparently one of the most

powerful herb s of the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico.

The Indians fear the plant because of possible

insan ity.

60 Blue Water Lily

~Nymphaea ampla (Solis b.) DC.; Water Lilies enjoy ed an exce ptiona lly prominent place in

Ninfa N. caerulea Sav. the mythology and art of Minoan and dynastic Egypti an

Qu etzalaxoch iacatl cu ltures, in India and China, as well as in the Mayan

world from the Midd le Classica l per iod until the incepti on

of the Mexican period.

Among Old and New Wor ld similar ities is the relation

of N. amp la to the toad, itself assoc iated with hallucino-

genic agents, and the relation of the plant to death.

93 Caapi-Pinima

~Tetrapteris methystica R. E. Schul.; Caapi-Pinima is employed by the nomadic Makti Indian s

Caapi (see Ayahuasca) T.mucronata Cav. of the Rio Tikie in the northwestern Amazon of Brazi l.

They call it Caapi , the sam e as Banisteriopsis. Several

wri ters have mentioned "more than one kind" of Caapi in

the Rio Vaupes area of Brazi l and adjac ent Colombia.

62 Cawe

~Pachycereus pec ten-ab originum (Engelm.) Emp loyed by the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico, Wicho-

Wichowaka Britt . et Rose waka means "insanity" in the local language.

4 Ceb il

~Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan; A. peregrina is used today by tribes of the Ori noco basin

Villca A. colubrina (Veil.) Brenan va r. (Yopo) and was first reported in 1946. No longer used in

5Yopo GeM (Gr iseb.) Altschul ; the West Indies .

(see also pages 116-119) A. peregrina (L.) Speg .; Ind ians of Argentina (Villca or Huilca) and southern

A. peregrina (L.) Speg. var. falca ta (Ben th.) Peru (Cebil) are believed to have empl oyed A. colubrina

Altsc hul in precolonial times .

61 Cebolleta

~Oncidium cebol/eta (Jacq.) Sw. It is suspected that the Tarahumara of Mexico make use

of this orch id.

80 Chacruna

~Psychotria viridis Ruiz et Pavon Used for age s in the Ama zon region as a sign ificant in-

Chacruna Bush gredient of Ayahuasca.Ca hua

66

USAGE:CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

Hallucinogenic intoxication

The Indians of Sibundoy use Brugmansia for magico­

medicinal purposes, the Mapuche as medicine for

recalcitrant children.

The Chibcha formerly gave fermented Chicha with

Brugmansia seeds to wives and slaves of dead chief­

tains to induce a stupor before they were buried alive.vith their husbands or masters.

Indians in Peru still believe that Brugmansia permitsthem to communicate with ancestors and that it can

reveal treasures preserved in graves.

Usually drunk in religious ceremonies.

In the famous Tukanoan Yuruparf ceremony in Co­

lombia-an adolescent initiation ritual for boys. TheJfvaro believe that Ayahuasca makes possible com­

munication with ancestors and that , under its influ­

ence, a man's soul may leave the body and wanderfree.

In southern Mexico, this vine is respected as one ofthe principal hallucinogens for use in divination,

magico-religious, and curing rituals.

Medicinal purposes.

Taken by shamans as a potent medicine and greatlyfeared and respected by the Indians.

Scirpus plays an important role in folk medicine

and as a hallucinogen; it must be treated with great·everence.

There exist numerous interesting parallels between

the ritualistic (shamanic) significance of Nymphaea in

the Old and the New Worlds, suggesting that Nym­phaea may have been used as a narcotic, possibly ahallucinogen.

N. ampla has recently been reported to be used inMexico as a recreational drug with "powerful halluci­natory effects ."

Hallucinogenic intoxication .

PREPARATION

The bark and leaves of this tree are boiled with a spe­

cies of Homalomena to prepare a tea.

The drug is usually taken in the form of powdered

seeds added to fermented drinks , or as a tea made of

the leaves.

The bark, prepared in cold or boiling water, may be

taken alone or with additives-especially the leaves of

B. rusbyana (Diplopterys cabrerana) and of Psychotriaviridis-which alter the effects .

The bark can also be chewed . Recent evidence trorn

the northwestern Amazon suggests that the plants arealso used in the form of a snuff.

A drink is prepared from about a thimbleful of the

crushed seeds .

The aboveground Teuile ("meat" of the cactus) is eatenfresh or dried . Eight to twelve cactus "tops" are an

adequate dose.

The tuberous roots of Scirpus are often collected from

faraway places .

Dried flowers and buds of Nymphaea ampla are

smoked . The rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked . The

buds of N. caerula are used to make a tea.

A drink is prepared from the bark of T methystica incold water . The infusion is yellowish, unlike the brown­

ish color of the beverage prepared from Banisteriopsis.

CHEMICAL COMPONENTSAND EFFECTS

Although 28 alkaloids have been isolated, a psychoac­tive principle has not yet been found.

Visions of men and animals to be killed are experi­

enced.

All species of Brugmansia are chemically similar , with

scopolamine as their principal psychoactive constitu­

ent. Content of lesser alkaloids is also similar.

A dangerous hallucinogen, Brugmansia brings on an

intoxication often so violent that physical restraint is

necessary before the onset of a deep stupor, duringwhich visions are experienced.

The hallucinogenic activity is primarily due to harmine,

the major ~-carboline alkaloid in the plants.

Effects of taking the bitter and nauseating drink

range from pleasant intoxication with no hangover to

violent reactions with sickening aftereffects . Usually,visual hallucinations in color occur. The intoxication

ends with a deep sleep and dreams .

The alkaloid content is five times that of Turbinacorymbosa; accordingly natives use fewer seeds . The

same alkaloids are found in other Morning Glories butusage is restricted to Mexico. (See OloliuquL)

Various alkaloids , including phenylethylamines, have

been isolated from Coryphantha, a promising genus for

future studies .

Alkaloids have been reported from Scirpus and relatedsedges . The Indians believe that they can travel to dis­

tant places, talk with their ancestors, and have colored

visions .

The alkaloids apomorphine, nuciferine, and nornuci­ferine , isolated from the rhizomes of N. ampla, may be

responsible for the psychotropic activity.

It has not been possible as yet to carry out chemical

examination of T methystica , but reports of the effects

of the drug would suggest that the same or similar~-carboline alkaloids are present as in Banisteriopsis.

There are several purely medicinal uses of thiscactus.

A hallucinogenic drink is prepared from the juice of the 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylethylamine and four tetra-

young branches of P. pecten-aboriginum. hydroisoquinoline alkaloids have been isolated.It causes dizziness and visual hallucinations .

Now smoked as a hallucinogenic intoxicant by Indiansn northern Argentina.

Reportedly used as a hallucinogen, 0. cebol/eta is

employed as a temporary surrogate for Peyote.

This bush has great cultural significance as a DMT­

orovidinq ingredient of the hallucinogen Ayahuasca ,

vhlch has acentral place in the shaman ic tradition of:he Amazon.

The snuff is prepared from the beans, which are

usually moistened, rolled into a paste, and dried by

toasting .When pulverized to a gray-green powder, it is mixed

with an alkaline plant ash or snail shell lime.

Unknown.

Fresh or dried leaves are mixed with vines or the huskof Banisteriopsis caapi and cooked . The preparation is

drunk as Ayahuasca (Caapi, Yage).

Tryptamine derivatives and ~-carboiines.

A twitching of the muscles, slight convulsions , and

lack of muscular coordination followed by nausea,

visual hallucinations, and disturbed sleep. Macropsia .

An alkaloid has been reported from O. cebol/eta.

The leaves contain 0.1 % to 0.61 % N,N,-DMT, as well

as traces of other alkaloids .

67

REF. COMMON TY PE OF BOTANICAL USAGE :

NUMB ER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

13 Chiricasp i

~Brunfelsia chiricaspi Plowman; Brunfelsia is know n as Borrachero ('the intoxlcator ") to

Chiric -Sa nango B. grandiflora D. Don; Colombi an Indians , and as Chiricaspi ("co ld tree") in

Manaka B. grandiflora D. Don subsp . schu ltesii Plowman westernmost Amazo nia (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru).

34 Colo rines

~Erythrina ame ricana Mill.; The bea ns of various species are frequently sold with

Chilicote E. coralloides Moc . et Sesse ex DC.; those of Sophora secundiflora (Mescal Beans) in

Tzompanquahuitl E. f1abelliformis Kearney Mexico. They are used as amulets or char ms.

74 Common Reed [[}[] Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trinius ex Steudel Used for medicinal purposes since ancient times . Psy-

choact ive use is a recent pheno me non.

63 Cope landia rn Panaeolus cyanesce ns Berk. et Br.; Cultivated on cow and buffa lo dung in Bali.

Jambur Copelandia cyanesce ns (Berk . et Br.) Singer

58 Cow hage

~Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. India. Used in Ayurvedic medicine. Th e seeds are used

wor ldwide as charms or amulets.

19 Dama da Noite

~Cestrum laevigatum Schlecht; Coasta l regions of southern Brazil, southern Chile .

(Lady of the Night) Cestrum parqui L:Herit.

Palqui

Maconha

28 Datura

~Datura metel L. D. metelis mentioned as a hallucinogenic piant in ear ly

Dutra Sanskrit and Chinese wr itings .

(see also pages 106-111) Known as a drug to the Arabia n physician Avicenna inthe eleventh cent ury.

Employed today especially in India, Pakistan, and Af-

ghanistan .

D. ferox, a related Old Wor ld species, plays a minor

role .

8 Deadly Nightshade

~Atropa belladonna L. Europe, Near East.

Belladonna Dead ly Nightshade figured as an important ingredient in

(see also pages 86-91) many of the witches' brews of the Middle Ages .

Atropa played a prominent role in the mythology of

most European peoples.

21 EI Nene

~Coleus blumei Benth.; C. pumilus Blanco Native to the Philippine Islands , two species of this plant

EI Ahij ado have acq uired significance similar to Salvia in southern

EI Macho Mexico among the Mazatec Indians.

96 Epena

~Virola calophylla Warb.; In Braz il, Colombia, Venez uela and Peru a numb er of

Nyakwana V. calophylloidea Markgr.; spec ies of Virola are used, the most importa nt of which

Yakee V. elongata (Spr. ex Bent h.) Warb .; appea rs to be V. theiodora.(see also pages 176-181) V. theiodora (Spr.) Warb. Th e hallucinoge nic snuff has va rious names depend-

ing on the locality or tribe, with the most commonly re-

cog nized terms being Parica, Epena, and Nyakwana in

Brazi l, Yakee and Yato in Colombia.

39

20

68

Ereriba

Ergot

(see also pages 102-105)

Homalomena sp.

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tulasne

Th e natives of Papua are report ed to use Homalomena.

It has recently been convincingly argued that Ergot

played a role in the Eleusinian mysteries of ancient

Greece.

When accidentally ground up with rye flour during the

Middle Ages , Ergot (which grows prima rily as a fungal

disease on rye) poisoned whole districts with ergot ism.

Th ese mass poisoni ngs became known as St. Antho­

ny's fi re.

USAGE:

CONTEXT AND PURPOS E

in Amazonian folk medicine, Brunfelsia plays a majormagico-religio us role.

Used as an additive to the hallucinogenic drink Yaje(see Ayahuasca) .

The plant may once have been used by the Tarahu­

mara, who value the beans medicinally.

PREPARATION

The Kofan of Colombia and Ecuador and the Jfvaro of

Ecuador add Brunfelsia to Yaje, prepa red basicallyfrom Banisteriopsis (see Ayahuasca). It heightens the

hallucinogenic effects .

The red beans are often mixed with the similar ones of

Sophora secundiflora .

CHEMICA L COMP ONENTSAND EFFECTS

Scopoletine has been found in Brunfelsia, but thiscompo und is not known to be psychoactive.

A sensation of chills follows ingestion, an effect thathas given rise to the name Chiricaspi ("cold tree").

Some spec ies of Erythrina contai n alkaloids of the er­ythran type , producing effects similar to those of curareor cytisine.

Used today as a DMT-delivering agent for Ayahuasca Twenty to 50 g of roots are boiled with 3 g of seeds from

analogs. Peganum harmala and the preparat ion is consumed as

a drink.

The roots contain the psychedelic or vision- inducingalkaloid N, N-DMT, 5-MEO-D MT, Bufotenin, and thetoxin gramine .

Used in native festivals in Bali and reportedly sold toforeign visitors as a hallucinogen.

Indian peoples may have utilized the psychoactiveproperties.

Mucuna is considered an aphrodisiac in India.

The Mapuche of southern Chile smoke Palqui.

Used as an aphrodis iac in the East Indies.Valuable drug.

Ceremonial intoxicatio n and recreatio n.

Witches' brews ; the sabbat.

Today, A. belladonna is an important source formedicinal drugs.

Having magico-religious significance, Coleus is usedas a divinatory plant.

Epena or Nyakwana may be snuffed ceremonially byall adult males, occasio nally even without any ritual

connection. The medicine men use the drug in diag­nosis and treatment of illnesses.

The use of Yakee or Parica is restricted to shamans.

Plants are used in tradit ional medicine and to createhallucinogenic dreams .

It appears that Ergot has never been utilized pur­

posef ully as a hallucinogen in medieval Europe.Employed extensively as a medicine by midwives in

cases of difficult childbirth during the Middle Ages,

Ergot induced contractions of involuntary musclesand was a strong vasoconstrictor.

The mushrooms are eaten fresh or dried.

Powdered seeds . Source of DMT for Ayahuasca

analogs.

The leaves are smoked as a substitute for Marijuana.

Powdered seeds added to wine.

The seeds are added to alcoholic drinks, to Canna ­

bis cigarettes or tobacco , and occasionally to the betel

chew mixture .

The entire plant contains psychoactive cons tituents .

The leaves are chewed fresh or the plants are ground,

then diluted with water for drinking.

Some Indians scrape the inner layer of the bark and dry

the shavings over a fire. When pulverized, powderedleaves of Justicia, the ashes of Amasita, the bark of

Elizabetha princeps may be added .

Other Indians fell the tree, collect the resin, boil it to apaste, sun-dry the paste , crush and sift it. Ashes of sev­

eral barks and the leaf powder of Justicia may be added .A further method is to knead the inner shavings of

freshly stripped bark and to squeeze out the resin and

boil it to a paste , which is sun-d ried and prepared intosnuff with ashes added.

A group of Maku Indians in the Colomb ian Vaupes

ingest the unprepared resin as it is collected from the

bark .

The leaves are eaten with the leaves and bark of Gal­bulimima belgraveana (see Agara) .

Used for psychoactive purposes. Taken as a cold­

water infusion. Dosage is difficult to determine and canbe dangerous!

Up to 1.2 % of psilocine and 0.6 % of psilocybine havebeen found in C. cyanescens, which is the highest

content of these alkaloids found in hallucinogenic

mushrooms.

Although Mucuna has not been reported as a halluci­nogen, it is rich in psychoactive alkaloids (such as

DMT) capable of inducing behavioral change s equita­

ble with hallucinogenic activity.

The unripened fruit, leaves, and flowers contain sapo­nines that are not known to be hallucinogenic.

See Toloache.

The plant conta ins alkaloids, capable of inducing hal­lucinations. The main pszochoactive constituent is

hyoscyamine, but lesser amounts of scopolamine andtrace amounts of minor tropane alkaloids are also

present.

No hallucinogenic principle has yet been discovered inthe 150 known Coleus species .

Tryptamine and ~-carboline alkaloids, 5-methoxydi­

methyltryptamine and dimethyitrypta mine (DMT),being the main const ituents, are responsible for the

hallucinogenic activity. Effects of the intoxication vary.They usually include initial excitabil ity, setting in within

several minutes from the first snuffing. Then followsnumbness of the limbs , twitching of the facial muscles ,

inability to coordinate muscular activity, nausea, visualhallucin ations, and finally, a deep, disturbed sleep.

Litt le is known still of the constituents of this genus.

Violent derangement is followed by slumber with

visions.

Ergoline alkaloids, mainly derivatives of lysergic acid,

are the pharmacologically active constituents of Ergot.Ergot alkaloids or derivatives of them are the basis of

important medicines used today in obstetrics, internal

medicine, and psychiatry. The most potent hallucino­gen, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), is a synthetic

derivative of Ergot.

69

REF. COMMON TYPE OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAM E HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

25 Esakuna [tm Cymbopogon densiflorus Stapf Used by medicine men in Tanzania.

-72 Fang-K 'uei

~Peucedanum japonicum Thunb . China

3Fly Agaric rn Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Pers. Finno-Ugrian peop les in eastern and western Siberia.(see also pages 82-85) Severa l groups of Athabaskan peoples of North

America. A. muscaria could very well be the mysterio us

gOd-narcotic Soma of anc ient India, taken by the Aryans3,500 years ago.

45 Galanga

~Kaempferia ga/anga L. There are vague reports that Galanga is emp loyed as a

Maraba hallucinogen in New Guinea.

26 Gen ista

~Cytisus canariensis (L.) O. Kuntze Although native to the Canary Islands, Genista was in-

corporated in aboriginal American societies.

Genista has apparently acquired an important roleamong the Yaqui Indians of Mexico.

52 Gi'-i-Wa rn Lycoperdon marginatum Vitt.; In southern Mexico, the Mixtec of Oaxaca employ twoGi'-i-Sa-Wa L. mixtecorum Heim species to induce a condition of half-sleep . There seems

to be no ceremony connected with the use.

In northern Mexico, amo ng the Tarahumara of Chi-

huahua, a species of Lycoperdon, known as Kalamota ,is employed.

40 Henbane

~Hyoscyamus nigerL.; H. a/bus L. During the Middle Ages , Henbane was an ingredient of

(see also paqes.as-at) the witches' brews and ointments.

41 In anc ient Greece and Rome, reports of "magicdrinks" indicate that Henbane frequently served as an

ingredient. It has been suggested that the priestesses ,

Delphi prophes ied under the influence of Henbane.

82 Hierba de la Pastora

~Sa/via divinorum Epl. et Jativa-M. Used by the Mazatec Indians of Mexico as a substitute

Hierba de la Virgen for psyc hoactive mus hrooms, S. divinorum ("of the divi-Pipiltzintzintli ners") is called "herb of the shepherdess:' It is commonl y

believed to be the narcotic Pipiltzintzintli of the Aztec

Indians.

33 Hikuli Mulato [II Epithe /antha micromeris (Engelm.) One of the "false Peyotes" of the Tarahumara Indians ofHikuli Rosapara Weber ex Britt. et Rose Chihuahua and the Huichol of northern Mexico.

7 Hikuli suname [II Ariocarpus fissuratus Schumann; The Tarahumara Indians in northern and central MexicoChautle A. retusus Sche idw. assert that A. fissuratus is stronger than Peyote (Lo-Peyote Cimarron phophora).Tsuwiri Huichol lndians of Mexico.

90 Iboga

~Tabernanthe iboga Baill. In Gabo n and the Congo, the cult surrounding Iboga

(see also pages 112-1 15) provides the natives with the strongest single force

agai nst the missionary spread of Christianity and Islamin this region .

56

83

70

JuremaAjuca

Tepesco huite

Kanna

Mimosa hostills (Mart.) Benth. ;

M. verrucosa Benth. = Mimosa tenuiflora

(Willd.) Poir.

Mesembryanthemum expansum L.;M. tortuosum L. = Sce/etium tortuosu m (L.)N.E.Br.

Valued in eastern Brazil, where severaltribes in Pernam­

buco use the plant in ceremonials; also employed by var­

ious now extinct tribes of the same area.

Over two centuries ago, Dutch explorers reported that

the Hottentots of South Africa emp loyed the root of a

plant known as Channa or Kanna.

USAGE:CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

Employed to cause dreams in order to foretell the fu­

ture.

Folk medicine.

Shaman istic inebriation.

Religious significance; healing ceremonies.

Religious ceremonies.

Hallucinogenic intoxication (?), folk medicine, aphro­

disiac.

Ceremonial use in Native American tribes.

Employed espec ially by the medicine men as a hal­lucinogen in magic ceremonies.

Used as auditory hallucinogen.

Taken by sorce rers to enable them to approachpeople without being detected and to make peoplesick.

Witches' brews; magic infusions.Induces a clairvoyant trance.

In Oaxaca, Mexico, the Mazatec Indians cultivateS. divinorum for its hallucinogenic properties in divi­natory rituals.

It is appare ntly used when Teonanacatl or Ololiuquiseeds are rare.

Medicine men take Hikuli Mulato to make their sightclearer and permit them to commun e with sorcerers. It

is taken by runners as a stimulant and "protector" andthe Indians believe that it prolongs life.

Valuing it in witchcraft, the Tarahumara believe thatthieves are powerless to stea l when this cactus callsits soldiers to its aid.

The Huichol consider Ariocarpus to be evil, insistingthat it may cause permanent insanity.

Iboga is known to be used as a hallucinogen in magico­

religious context, especiall y the Bwiti cult, and serves

to seek information from ancestors and the spirit world,hence "a coming to terms with death." Moreover, intox­

ication is practiced in the initiation ceremonies.

The drug also has the reputatio n of a powerfu lstimulant and aphrodis iac.

PREPARATION

Smoking of the flowers, either alone or with tobacco .

The root of Fang-K'uei is employed medicinally in

China .

One or severa l mushrooms are taken sun-dried or

slowly toasted over a fire. They may also be drunk as

an extract in water or reindeer milk or with the juice ofVaccinium oliginorum or Epilobium angus tifofium. Ri­

tualistic drinking of the urine of intoxicated individua ls

in Siber ia also occurs.

The highly aromatic rhizome is valued locally as a

cond iment; a tea from the leaves is employed in folk

medicine.

The seeds are valued by Yaqui medicine men.

The fung i are eaten.

The dried herb is smoked as a cigarette or smoked in asmokehou se. The seeds are mainly smoked. The

seeds are used as a substitute for hops in making beer.

Dosage varies from person to person.

The leaves are chewed fresh or crushed on a metate,

then diluted with water and filtered for a drink.

Cactus flesh is eaten fresh or dried .

Consumed either fresh or crushe d in water.

Fresh or dried roots are eaten pure, or added to palmwine. Roughly 10 g of dried root powder induces a

psychedelic effect.

CHE MICAL COMPONENTSAND EFFECTS

It is not known to which compound the alleged halluci­nogenic activity has to be attributed.

Alkaloida l constituents have been reported from Peu­

cedanum , but whether or not they are of hallucinogenictypes is not known. Coumarins and furocoumarins are

widespread in the genus ; both occur in P.japonicum.

Ibotenic acid , Muscimole, Muscazone.

Euphoria, colored visions, macropsia; on occasionreligious fervor and deep sleep may occu r.

Beyond the high content of essential oil (to which hal­

lucinogenic activity might be due) in the rhizome of this

relative of Ginger, little is known of the chemistry.

Cytisus is rich in the lupine alkaloid cyt isine.

Hallu cinogenic activity has not been reporte d fromcyt isine, but it is known to be toxic.

There is as yet no phytochemical basis to explain the

psychotrop ic effects .

The active principles in this solanaceous genus are

tropane alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopo­lamine , the latter being mainly responsible for the

hallucinogenic effects .

The main active ingredient, salvinorin A, can bringabout extreme hallucinations when inhaled in amounts

of 250 to 500 mcg.

Alka loids and triterpenes have been reported.Thi s cactus is report edly able to drive evil people to

insanity and throw them from cliffs.

Several phenylethylamine alkaloids have been

isolated .

Iboga conta ins at least a dozen indole alkaloids, ibo­gaine being the most important. Ibogaine is a strong

psyc hic stimulant that in high doses produces also

hallucinogenic effects .

The hallucinogenic use of Mimosa hostilis in ceremo­nies seems to have nearly disappeared today. Em­

ployed in connection with warfare.

The root of Mimosa hostilis was the source of a "mira- One active alkaloid identical with the hallucinogenic N,

culous drink," known locally as Ajuca or Vinho de Jure- N-dimethyl-tryptamine has been isolated.

mao

Probably once used as a vision-inducing hallucino­gen.

In the hinterlands of South Africa, the roots and leaves

are still smoked.Appa rently, the leaves are sometimes dried after

fermentation and chewed as an inebriant.

The common name is today applied to several speciesof Sceletium and Mesembryanthemum that have alka­loids - mesembrine and mesembrenine - with sedative

act ivities capable of inducing torpor.Kanna produces a strong intoxication.

71

REF. COMMON TYPE OF BOTANICAL

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME

87- KielilKieri

~Solandra brevicalyx StandI.;

Hueipatl S. guerrerensis Martinez

Tecomaxochitl

USAGE:HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

Ment ioned by Hernandez as Tecomaxochitl or Hueipatlof the Aztec Indians .

In the mythology and symbolism of the Mexican Hui­chof and other tribes, seve ral species of Solandra areimportant.

92 Koribo [ff] Tanaecium nocturnum (Barb.-Rodr.) Emp loyed by the Karitiana Indians of the Rio Madeira in

Bur. et K. Schum. Amaz onian Brazil.

57 Kratom [!] Mitragyna speciosa Korthals In the 19th centur y, Kratom was know n as an opium

Biak-Bi ak substitute in Thailand and Malaysia.

66 Kwashi [!] Pancratium trianthum Herbert Kwas hi is employed by the Bushmen in Dobe,Botswana .

47 Latus [!J Latua oootttore (Griseb.) Baill . Formerly used by the Map uche Indian shamans ofArbol de los Brujos Valdivia, Chile.

79 Libert y Cap [IJ Psilocybe semilanceata (Fries) Ouelet It is possible that this fungu s has been used for psycho-

active purpo ses in Central Europe for about 12,000years. Earlier, it was used as a hallucino gen by the Alpennomads and has also been used in Europ ean witchcraft .

48 Lion's Tail

~Leonitis leonurus (L.) R. Br. Th is herb has been used as a narcoti c in southern Afri ca

Wild Dagga since ancient times.

Dacha

1 Maiden' s Acac ia [!] Acacia maidenii F.von Muell .; Many Acacias are used in traditional medicine. The

A. phlebophylla F. von Muell.; psychoactive use of Acaci a, which contain s DMT, is veryA. simplicifolia Druce recent and has been developed especially in Australia

and California .

86 Malva Colorada

~Sida acuta Burm .; S. rhombifolia L. Sida acuta and Sida rhombifolia are said to be smoked

Chichibe along the Gulf Coast of Mexico.

Axocatzin

54 Mandrake

~Mandragora otticinarum L. Mandrake has a comp lex history in the Old World .

(see also pages 86-91) The root of Mandra ke can be likened to the humanform , hence its magic.

17 Marijuana

~Cannab is sativa L.; C. indica Lam . In India, use of Cannabis has had religious significance.

Bhang Spec imens nearly 4,000 years old have turned up in an

Charas Egyptian site.

Dagga In ancie nt Thebes, the plant was made into a drink with

Ganja opium-like effects .

Hashish The Scythians, who threw Hemp seeds and leaves on

Hemp hot stones in steam baths to produce an intoxicating

Kif smoke , grew the plant along the Volga 3,000 years ago.TaMa Chinese tradition puts the use of the plant back 4,800(see also pages 92-101) years.

Indian medica l writing, compiled before 1000 B. c., re-

ports therapeutic uses of Cannabis.

The Gree k physic ian Galen wrote, about A. D. 160, that

general use of Cannabis in cakes produced intoxication.

In 13th-centu ry Asia Minor, organized murderers,

reward ed with Hashish , were known as hashishins, from

which may come the term assassin in Europeanlanguages.

44 Mashihiri

~Justicia pectoralis Jacq. var. The wa lka and other Indians of the uppermost Orinoco

stenophylla Leonard and the adjacent parts of northwestern Brazil cultivateJusticia.

72

USAGE:CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

The Huichol worship and fear Solandra as a god-nar­

cotic, Kieli, a powerfu l aid in sorcery. Realizing the

close relationship of Solandra, Datura, and Brugman­

sia, the Huichol sometimes combine their use: they

distinguish between Datura inoxia or Kielitsa ("badKieli") and the real Kieli or Solandra .

S. guerre rensis is known to be employed as anintoxicant in the state of Guerrero.

Folk medicine.

This species is said to be praised as an aphrodisiac

by Indians of the Colombian Choco.

In Southeast Asia, the leaves are chewed or smo ked

for use as a stimulant or a narcotic.

Repor tedly used as a hallucinog en and in folk medi­cine.

Religious importance assumed in tropicalWest Africa.

Latue is a virulent poison once used to induce delir­

ium, hallucinations, and even permanent insanity.

This mushroom has been used worldwide for its hal­

lucinoge nic and vision -inducing qualities .

PREPARATION

A tea made from the juice of the branches of both spe­cies is known to be employed as an intoxicant.

A tea is made of the leaves of this liana and those of anunident ified plant as a remedy for diarrhea.

Fresh leaves are chewed, dried, and smoked, or taken

internally as a tea or extract. The leaves are sometimes

used together with Betel.

The bulbs are cut in two and rubbed over incisions on

the scalp. This custo m most closely approac hes theWestern habit of injecting medic ine.

Dosages were a secret closely guarded. The fresh fruit

was preferentially employed.

Eaten fresh or dried . Thirty fresh mush rooms or

roughly 3g of dried mushrooms is a sufficient psyche­

delic dose .

CHEMICAL COM PONENTSAND EFFECTS

The genus Solandra , closely related to Datura, con­tains hyoscyamine, scopolam ine, nortropine, tropine,scopine, cuscohygrine, and other tropane alkaloidswith strong hallucinogenic effects .

Reports from botanical collecto rs of the odor of T.noc­

turnum suggest that cyanogenesis occu rs in this spe­

cies. Saponines and tannins have been isolated.

The entire plant contains alkaloids, of which Mitragy­

nine is the main active ingredient. Mitragyn ine, which is

chemically similar to yohimbine and psilocyb ine, is a

very powerful psychoactive substa nce.

Many of the 15 species contain very toxic alkaloids.

The toxic state may be accompanied by hallucinogenic

symptoms.

The leaves and fruit contain 0.15 % hyoscyam ine and

0.08 % of scopolamine, respons ible for hallucinogenic

activ ity.

Contains high concentrations of psilocybin, and some

psilocine and baeocys tine (the total alkaloid concen­

tration is roughly 1 % of the dried mass). This is a

potent hallucinogen.

The Hottentots and bush people smoke the plant as a The dried buds and leaves are smoked either alone or There have been no chemica l studies to date.

narcotic or as a substitute for Cannabis. mixed with tobacco.

Acacia resin is used in conjunction with Pituri by the

Australia n Aborigines. Today, various varieties ofAcacia are used as DMT source s and also in the pre­

paration of Ayahuasca analogs for hallucinogenicexperie nces.

Extracts from the husk and leaves of A. maide nii, the

bark of A. simplic ifolia , or the leaves of A. phlebophyllaare combined with the seeds from Peganum harmala.

Many varieties of Acacia contain the psychedelic sub­

stance, DMT. The bark of A. maidenii conta ins 0.36 %DMT; the leaves of A. phlebophylla contain 0.3 % DMT.

The bark of A. simplic ifolia can contain up to 3.6% al­

kaloids, of which DMTaccounts for roughly one third.

Employed as a stimula nt and subst itute for Marijuana. Smoking. Ephedr ine, which induces a mild stimulat ing effect, has

been reported from these species of Sida.

Used as a panacea, Mandrake played an extraordin ­ary role as a magic plant and halluc inogen in Eur­

opean folklore. An active halluc inogenic ingredient of

the witches ' brews, Mandra ke was probably the mostpotent admixture.

Cannabis has a long history of use in folk medicineand as a psychoactive substance.

It is the source of fiber, an edible fruit, an industrialoil, a medicine, and an intoxicant.

Use of Cannabis has grown in popularity in the past

40 years as the plant has spread to nearly all parts of

the globe. Increase in the plant's use as an inebr iant inWestern countries, espec ially in urban centers , has

led to major problems and dilemmas for Europeanand American authorities. There is a sharp division of

opinion as to whether the widesp read use of Canna­bis is a vice that must be stamped out or is an innoc­

uous habit that shou ld be permitted legally. The sub­

ject is debate d hotly, usually with limited knowledge .

The natives mix Justicia leaves with the snuff pre­

pared from Virola (see Epena) to "make the snuff

smell better:'

There existed vario us precautions in pulling the root

from the earth because the plant's unearthly shriekscould drive collectors mad.

Methods of consuming Cannabis vary. In the NewWorld, Marijuana (Maconha in Brazil) is smoked-the

dried, crushed flowering tips or leaves are often mixed

with tobacco or other herbs in cigarettes. Hashish, theresin from the female plant, is eaten or smoked, often

in wate r pipes, by millions in Muslim count ries of

northern Africa and western Asia . In Afghanistan andPakistan, the resin is commonly smoked. East Indians

regUlarly employ three preparations : Bhang consists of

plants that are gathered green, dried and made into adrink with water or milk or into a candy (majun) with

sugar and spices ; Charas , norm ally smoked or eatenwith spices , is pure resin ; Ganja, usually smoked with

tobacco, consists of resin-rich dried tops from the

fema le plant.

The leaves are dried and pulverized.

Tropane alkaloids with hyoscyam ine as the main con­stituent besides scopo lamine, atropine, mandragorine,and others are the psychoacti ve constituents . The total

content of tropane alkaloids in the root is 0.4 %.

The psychoactive principles-eannabinotic com­pounds-are found in greatest concentration in a resin

produced most abundantly in the region of the pistillate

inflorescence. A fresh plant yields mainly cannabidiolicacids, precurso rs of the tetrahydrocannabinols and re­

lated const ituents, such as cannabinol and cannabi­diol. The main effects are attributable to b.' - 3,4-trans­

tetrahydrocannabinol.The principal effect is euphor ia. Every1hing from a

mild sense of ease to hallucinations, from feelings of

exaitat ion and inner joy to depression and anxiety havebeen reported. The drug's activities beyond the centralnervous system seem to be seconda ry. They consist of

a rise in pulse rate and blood pressure, tremor, vert igo,

difficulty in muscular coordination, increased tactile

sensitivity, and dilation of the pupils.

Tryptamines have been suspec ted from several spe­

cies of Justicia.

73

REF. COMMON TY PE OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

14 Matwu

~Cacalia cordifo lia L. fil. Mexico

Huilca

88 Mescal Bean

~Sophora secundiflora (Ort.) Lag. ex DC. Use of Mesca l Bea n goes far back into prehistory in the

Coral Bean Rio Grande basin, whe re they have had ritual uses for at

Co lorines least 9,000 years.

Frijoles The Arapaho and Iowa tribes in the United States

Red Bean were using the beans as early as 1820.

At least a dozen tribes of Indians in northern Mexico

and sou thern Texas practiced a vision-seeking dance.

85 Nightshade

~Scopolia carnio /ica Jacqu es Probably used as an inqredient of witches' sa lves and

oint me nts ; used in Eastern Europe as a subs titute for

Mandrake; also used as an intoxicating ingredient in

beer.

10 Nonda []J Bo/etus kumeus Heim; B. manicus Heim; New Guinea

B. nigrovio/aceus Heim; B. reayi Heim

59 Nutm eg

~Myristica fragrans Houtt. Known as "narcotic fruit" in ancient Indian writings.

Mace Occasionally used as a surroga te for Hash ish in

Egyp t.

Unknown in classical Greece and Rome, Nutmeg was

introduced to Europe in the first century A. D. by the

Arabs, who employed it as a medicine.

Nutmeg poisoning was common in the Middle Ages,

and during the 19 th century in England and America .

95 Ololiuqu i

~Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf . The seeds of this Morn ing Glory, formerly known as

Badoh [= Rivea corymbosa] Rivea corymbosa, are valued as one of the major sacred

Xtabentum hallucinogens of numerous Indian groups in southern

(see also pages.17Q-175) Mexico. T heir use goes back to early periods, and they

we re important in Aztec ceremonies as an intoxicant

and as a magic pot ion with reputedly analgesic

properties.

42 Paguando

~/ochrom a fuchsioides Miers Used by the Indians of the Sibun doy Valley of southern

Borrachero Co lombia and the Karnsa of the southern Ande s of

Totubjansush Colombia .

Arbol de Cam panilla

51 Peyote

~Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo; Spanish chronicles described use of Peyote by the Az-

Hikuli L. williamsii (Lem .) Coult. tec Indians . Lophophora is valued today by the Tarahu-

Mes ca l Button mara, Hui chol, and other Mexican Indians as well as by

(see also pages 144-1 55) memb ers of the Native American Chu rch in the United

States and wes tern Canada.

69 Peyotillo

~Pe/ecyph ora aselliformis Ehrenb. The re are suspicions tha t th is round cactus may be

valued in Mex ico as a "false Peyote."

32 Pitallito

~Echinocereus sa/mdyckian us Scheer ; Th e Tarahumara Indians of Chihuahua consider both

Hikuri E. trig/ochidiatus Engelm. species as "false Peyotes."

31 Pituri

~Duboisia hopwoodii F. con Mue ll. Pituri leaves have bee n used for at least 40 ,000 yea rs in

Pituri Bush Australian rituals and are used for both medicinal and

Poison Bush plea surable purposes.

81

55

74

Piule

Rape dos Indios

Rhynchosia /ongeracemosa Mart. et Gal.;

R. pbeseoloities ; R. pyramidalis (Lam.) Urb.

Maquira sc/erophylla (Ducke) C. C. Berg

Th e redlblack beans of several species of Rhynchosia

may have been emp loyed in ancient Mex ico as a

hallucinogen.

Indians of the Pariana region of the Brazilian Amazon

formerly used Maquira, but encroaching civilization has

ended this custom.

USAGE:

CON TEXT AND PURPOSE

Presumed aphrodisiac and cure for sterility.

Th e arriva l of the Peyote cu lt, cente ring on Lopho­

phora, a safe r hallucinogen, led the natives to aban­

don the Red Bean Dance, which had made use of the

beans as an oracular, divinatory, and hallucinogenic

medium.

PR EPARATION

The dried herb is smoked.

A drink was prepared from the red beans of

S. secundiflora.

CH EM ICAL COMPONENTSAND EFFE CTS

One alkaloid has been reported.

No evidence of hallucinogenic properties.

Th e seeds con ta in the highly toxic alkaloid cy tisine,

whic h pharmacologically belongs to the same group as

nicotine . Hallucinogenic act ivity is unknown from cyti ­

sine , but the powerful into xication may cause a kind of

delirium comparable to a visionary trance.

In high doses, respirato ry failure may lead to deat h.

Used as an aphrodisiac and psychoactive love potion The roots are used as an ingredient in beer. The dried

in Lit huania and Latv ia. herb can be smoked alone or mixed with other herbs.The whole plant contains strong hallucinogenic tro­

pan alkaloids, especially hyoscyamine and scopola­

mine. Also co nta ins scopoletine.

Several species of Boletus are involved in the re­

po rted "mushroom madness" of the Kuma .

Th e most notable use of Nutmeg is found in Western

soc iety, especially among pr isoners deprived of other

drugs.

At the present time the small round seeds are utilized

in divination and witchcraft by Chinantec, Mazatec ,

Mixtec, Zapotec , and others and, as has recently

been stated, "today in almost all villages of Oaxaca

one finds seeds still serving the natives as an ever ­

present help in time of trouble:'

According to shamans, the aftereffects are so strong

that the plant is used for divination, prophecy, and di­

agnosis of disease only when othe r "medicines" are

unavailable, or for especially diff icult cases.

Mythological and religious significance; healing cere ­

monies.

In the Uni ted States, use of Peyote is a vision-quest

ritual with a combina tion of Christian and Native ele­

ments and high moral principles.

The cactus is used in northern Mexico as Peyote

(Lophophora williamsii) .

Th e Tarah umara sing to Pita llito duri ng collection and

say it has "high men tal qualities:'

Pit uri has been of central importance in Australian

Aborigina l society as a substance for social enjoy­

ment , a shamanic magic drug, and a valuable goo d for

trade. Pituri is chewed for its narcotic effects , as a

stimulant to dreams and vis ions , and simply to be

enjoyed.

Hallu cinogenic intox icat ion (?)

The snuff was taken during triba l ceremonials.

The dried, ground fru it is eaten.

At least one teaspoon is used when taken ora lly or

snuffed for narcotic purposes, although usually muc h

more is required to bring on full intoxication. Nutmeg is

on occasion added to the betel chew.

The seeds, which must be collected by the person who

is to be treated , are ground by a virgin on a metate,

wa te r is added, and then the dr ink is filtered. The

pat ient drinks it at night in a quiet, secl uded place.

The fresh bar k is rasped from the stem and boiled with

an equal amount of leaves, usually a handful. The re­

sulting tea , when cooled, is drunk with no admi xture.

The dose is said to be one to three cupfuls of a stro ng

decoction ove r a three-hou r period .

T he cactus may be eaten raw, dried , or made into a

mash or a tea.

From 4 to 30 tops are consumed dur ing the

ce remo ny.

Cac tus flesh is eaten fresh or dried .

Cactus flesh is eaten fresh or dried.

The fermented leaves are mixed with alkaline pla nt

ashes and other resins (suc h as Acacia resin) and

chewed.

Th e seeds are referr ed to by Indians of Oaxaca by the

sa me name used for the hall ucinogenic seeds of

Morning Glory (Turbina corymbosa).

Th e met hod of pre paration from the dried fruit is ap­

parently remembered only by the very old.

Active principles unknown.

Th e main active ingredient of nutm eg's essential oils is

myristicine; safrol and eugenol are also prese nt.

In high doses extremely toxic and dangerous, the

components of Nutmeg oil so upset normal body func­

tions that they evoke a delir ium comparable to halluci­

nati ons, usually accom panied by severe headache,

dizzi ness, nausea, etc.

Ergoline alka loids were found to be the psychoactive

principles, lysergic acid amide and lysergi c acid hydro­

xyethy lamide, closely related to the poten t hallucino­

gen LSD, being the most important constituents.

Although chemical investigation of this genus has not

been carried out, it belongs to the Nightshade family,

well recognized for its hallucinogenic effects.

The intoxication is not pleasant, having after effects

of several days.

Con tains up to 30 alkaloids of the phenylethylamine

and tetrahydroisoquinoline type . The main consti tuen t

responsible for the hallucinogenic activity is trimetho x­

yphenylethy lamine, nam ed mescaline.

Hallucinations are characterized by colored visions .

Recent investigations have indicated the presence of

alkaloids .

A tryptamine derivative has been repo rted from

E. triglochidiatus.

The leaves contain various psychoactive alkaloids

(piturine , nicoti ne, nornicotine, anabasine, and others) .

Th e roots also conta in norn icotine and scopolamine.

The chewed leaves can act as a narcotic, stimulant, or

hallucinogen.

Chem ical studies of Rhynchosia are still indecisive. An

alka loid with curare-like activity has been repor ted

from one species. Pharmacological experiments with

R. phaseoloides produced a kind of seminarcosis in

frogs .

No chemical studies have been ca rried out on

M. sclerophylla.

75

REF. COM MON TYPE OF BOTANICAL USAGE:

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

73 Reed Grass

~Phalaris arundinacea L. Although Reed Grass was familiar to writers of antiquity,

its psychoactive use is very recent.

18 Saguaro

~Carnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt. et Rose Southwestern United States and Mexico. Although there

are apparently no ethnological reports of Saguaro as a

hallucinogen , the plant is an important medicine amongthe Indians.

89 Sanango [!J Tabernaem ontana coffeoides Bojer ex DC.; There are many varieties of the genus Tabernaemon-

Tabernaemontana T. crassa Bentham ; T. dicho toma Roxburgh ; tana in Africa and South America. Especially in Africa,

T. pandacaqui Poir. some varieties seem to have been used for a long time in

[= Ervatamia pandacaqui (Poir.) Pichon] shaman ic or traditional medicine practices .

94 San Pedro

~Ti'ichocereus pachanoi Britt . et Rose Used by the natives of South America , especia lly in the

Aguacolla [= Echinopsis pachanof] Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia.

Gigant6n(see also pages 166-1 69)

67 Screw Pine

~Pandanus sp. New Guinea

75 Shang -Ia

~Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. China

71 Shanin

~Petunia violacea Lind!. A recent report from highland Ecuador has indicated

Petunia that a species of Petunia is valued as a hallucinogen.

23 Shansh i

~Coriaria thymifolia HBK. ex Willd . Peasants in Ecuador.

49 Siberian Lion's Tail

~Leonurus sib iricus L. The Siberian Motherwor t has been used medici nally

Marijuanillo from the very beginning of Chinese medicine. Since the

Siber ian Motherwort plant was transplanted to the Americas, it has been usedas a substitute for Marijuana.

36 Sinicui chi

~Heimia salicifolia (HBK) Link et Otto Although all three species of Heimia are important in

Mexican folk medicine, mainly H. salicifolia has beenvalued for its hallucinogenic properties.

37 Straw Flower

~Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench; Zulu land, South Africa.

H. stenopterum DC.

2 Sweet Flag [!J Acorus calamus L. Cree Indians of northwest Canada.

Flag RootSweet Calomel

Calamus

68 Syrian Rue

~Peganum harmala L. P. harmala is valued today from Asia Minor across to

India with extraordinary esteem , suggesting formerreligious use as a hallucinogen .

70 Taglli

~Pernettya furens (Hook. ex DC.) Klotzch; P. furens is called Hierba Loca in Chile ("maddening

Hierba Loca P. parvifolia Bentham plant") , while P. parvifolia is known as Taglli in Ecuador.Huedhued

30 Taique

~Desfontainia spinosa R. et P. Reported as a halluci nogen from Chile (Taique) and

Borrachero southern Colombia (Borrachero = "intoxicant").Latuy

76

USAGE:

CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

In connection with research on the so-called Aya­

huasca analogs , a species of Reed Grass has beendiscovered that has a high DMT content and can be

used psyc hoactive ly.

The Seri Indians of Sonora consider Sagua ro effica­cious against rheumatism.

Tabernaemontana crassa is used in West Africa as a

narcotic in traditional medic ine. T. dichotoma is used

for its psychoactive effects in India and Sri Lanka.

Hallucinogenic intoxication .

The use of T. pachanoi appears to be primarily fordivinatio n, diagnosis of disease, and to make onese lf

owner of another's identity.

A species of Pandanus is said to be used for halluci ­

nogenic purposes, while others are known to be va­lued in folk medicine , in magic , and for ceremon ial

purposes .

Shang-Ia is a well-known medicinal plant in China. It

was reportedly used by sorcerers, who valued its hal­lucinogenic effects.

PREPARATION

An extract is made from the leaves. In combination withPeganum harma/a , it has visionary effects, and can bedrunk as a subs titute for Ayahuasca.

The fruit of Carnegiea is valued as food and in wine­

making.

The seeds of T. dichotoma are used as a hallucinogen .

Unfortunately, very little is known about this interesti ng

genus.

Short pieces of the stem are sliced and boiled in water

for several hours . Several other plants, Brugmansia,

Pernettya, and Lycopodium, for example , are some ­

times added .

It has recently been reported that natives of NewGuinea employ the fruit of a species of Pandanus .

The flowers and roots enter Chinese medic ine: the for­mer for treating apoplexy, the latter for external use

only.

CHEMICAL COMPONENTSAND EFFECTS

This grass contai ns many indole alkaloids, especiallyN,N-DMT,S-MeO-DMT,MMTand [sometimes] gramine.DMTand S-MeO -DMT have very strong psychedeliceffects, while gramine is very toxic.

The plant contains pharmacologically active alkaloidscapable of psychoacti vity. Carnegine, S-hydroxycarne­gine, aad norcarneg ine, plus trace amounts of 3-meth­

oxytyramine and the new alkaloid arizonine (a tetrahy­droquinoline base) , have been isolated.

Most varieties contain ibogaine-like alkaloids ' (such as

voacangine) , which have very strong hallucinogen icand Vision-inducing effects.

T. pachanoi is rich in mescaline: 2% of dried mater ial

(or 0.12 % of fresh material).

Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has been detected in an al­

kaloid extract. Eating substantia l amounts of the nuts is

said to cause an "outbreak of irrational behavior"

known as Karuka madness among local people.

P. acinosa has a high concentration of saponines.

The toxicity and halluci nogenic effects of Shang-Ia

are commonly ment ioned in Chinese herbals.

Taken by the Indians of Ecuador to induce a sensation The dried herb is smoked .of flight.

Recent repor ts suggest that the fruit may purposef ully The fruit is eaten .

be eaten to induce intoxication.

Phytochemical studies of Petunia are lacking.

The plant is said to induce a feeling of flying .

The chemistry is still poorly known.

Levitation or sensatio ns of soaring through the air.

This herb is smoked in Brazil and Chiapas as a sub­

stitute for Cannabis.

Mexican natives report that Sin icuichi possesse s

supernatural virtues , but the plant does not appear tobe taken ritually or ceremonially.

Some natives assert that it helps them clearly to

recall happenings of long agQ--€ven prenatal events.

The flowe ring herb is dried and smoked alone or mixed

with other plants. One to 2 g of the dried plant is an

effective dose .

In the Mexican highlands the leaves of H. salicifolia areslightly wilted, crushed in water, and then allowed to

ferment into an intoxicating drink.

Contains alkaloids, flavonglycosides, diterpenes, and

an essentia l oil. The psychoactive effects may be attri­

butable to the diterpenes (Ieosibiricine, leosibirine, and

isoleosibirine) .

Alkaloids of the quinolizidine type have been isolated,among them cryogenine (vert ine), to which the psy­

chotropic activity may be attributed.

The beverage induces giddiness, a darkening of the

surroundings, shrink age of the world around, and apleasant drowsiness. AUditory hallucinations may oc­

cur with voices and distor ted sounds that seem to

come from far away.

These herbs are used by native doctors "for inhaling to The dried herb is smoked.induce trances :'

Coumarins and diterpenes are reported, but no consti­

tuents with hallucinogenic properties have been

isolated.

Antifatigue medi cine; also used against toothache,

headache, and asthma.

Hallucinogenic intoxicatio n (uncerta in)

Chewing of the rootstalk. The active principles are a-asarone and ~-asarone.

In large doses, visual hallucinations and other ef­

fects similar to those of LSD may occur.

Syrian Rue has many uses in folk medicine, as well as The dried seeds constitute the Indian drug Harmal.being valued as an aphrodisiac. Often used as

incense.

Known to be employed as a hallucin ogen, it has been Eating of the fruit.suggested that Pernettya has played a role in magico-

religious ceremonies in South America-a still unpro -ven claim .

Medicine men of the Karnsa tribe drink a tea from the Tea made from the leaves or fruit.

leaves for the purpose of diagnosing disease or when

they "want to dream ."

The plant possesses undoubted hallucinogenic princi­ples: ~-carbo line alkaloids-harmine, harmaline , tetra­

hydroharmine, and related bases known to occur in atleast eight families of higher plants. These constituents

are found in the seeds.

The chemistry of the toxic fruits of both P. furens and

p. parvifolia, which cause mental confusion and even

insanity, is not yet elucidated .

Noth ing is as yet known of the chemistry of 0. spinosa.

Visions are experi enced and some of the medicinemen assert that they temporarily "go crazy" under its

influence.

77

REF. COMMON TYPE OF BOTANICAL USAGE :

NUMBER NAME PLANT NAME HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

38 Takini

~Helicostylis pedunculata Benoist ; In the Guianas, Takini is a sacred tree.

H. tomentosa (P. et E.) Macbride

22 Teonanacat l rn Gonocybe siligin eoides Heim; Mushroom worship seems to be rooted in centuries of

Tamu Panaeolus sphinctrinus (Fr.) Ouelet; native Indian tradition of Middle America .

Hongo de San Isidro Psi/ocybe acutissima Heim; The Aztec Indians called the sacred mushrooms Teo-

64 She-to P.aztecorum Heim; P. caerules cens Murr.; nanacatl: the Mazatec and Chinantec in northeastern

To-shka P. caerulescens Murr. var. albida Heim; Oaxaca, Mexico, refer to Panaeolus sphinctrinus as

76 (see also pages 156-1 63) P. caerulescens Murr. var. mazatecorum Heim; T-ha-na-sa, To-shka ("intoxicating mushroom"), and

P. caerulescens Murr. var. nigripes Heim; She-to ("pasture mushrooms"). While in Oaxaca Psi/o-

78 P. caerulescens Murr. var. ombrophi/a Heim; cybe cubensis is named Hongo de San isidro, in the

P. mexicana Heim; P. mixaeensis Heim; Mazat ec language it is called Di-shi-tjo-Ie-rra-ja ("divine

P.semperviva Heim et Cailleux; mushroom of manure").

P. wassonii Heim;

P.yungensis Singer; P.zapotecorum Heim;

Psi/ocybe cubensis Earle

29 Thorn Apple

~Datura stramonium L. Reportediy employed by the Algonquin and others.

Jims onweed Ingredient of the witches' brews of medieval Europe.

(see also pages 106-1 11) Used in both the Old and New World, the geograp hicorigin of Jimsonweed is uncertai n.

27 Toloache

~Datura innoxia Mill.; Known also as D. mete loides, D. innoxia is used in Mex-

Toloatzin D. discolor Bernh . ex Tromms .; ico and the American Southwest.

(see also pages 106-111) D. kymatocarpa A. S. Barclay;

D. pruinosa Greenm.;D. quercifolia HBK;

D. reburra A. S. Barc lay;

D. stramonium L.;D. wrightii Regel.

50 Tupa

~Lobelia tupa L. Recognizing L. tupa as toxic, the Mapuche Indians of

Tabaco del Diablo Chile value the leaves for their intoxicating properties.Other Andean Indians take it as an emetic and

purgative .

46 Turkestan Mint

~Lagochi/us inebrians Bunge The Tajik, Tatar, Turkoman , and Uzbek tribesman on the

dry steppes of Turkestan have for centuries prepared atea made from L. inebrians.

97 Voacanga

~Voacanga africana Stapf; In Africa, a number of varieties of the genus Voacanga

V. bracteata Stapf ; have been used as hallucinogens, aphrodisiacs, and

V. dregei E. Mey. V. grandiflora (Miq.) Rolfe. medicines.

53 Wichuriki [iIJ Mammillaria craigii Lindsay; The Tarahumara Indians of Mexico value several spe-

Hikuli Rosapara M. grahamiiEngelm. ; cies of Mammillaria among the most important "false

Hikuri M. seni/ is (Lodd .) Weber Peyotes ."

Peyote de San Pedro

Mamm illaria

6Wood Rose

~Argyreia nervosa (Burman f.) Bojer The Wood Rose has been used since ancien t times in

Hawaiian Wood Rose Ayurv edic medicine. A traditional use as a hallucinogenhas been discovered in Nepal.

91 Yauhtli

~Tagetes lucida Cav. Tagetes is used by the Huichol of Mexico and valued

cerem onially for its hallucinatory effects.

15 YOn-Shih

~Gaesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. China; used medicinally in Tibet and Nepal.

[= G. decapetala (Roth) Alston]

16 Zacatechichi

~Galea zacatechichi Schlecht. Seems to be used only by the Chontal lndians of Oaxa-

Thle -Pelakano ca, even thou gh it ranges from Mexico to Costa Rica.Aztec Dream Grass

7R

USAGE :CONTEXT AND PURPOSE

Little is known of the use.

Mythological and sacramental use.

Employed today in divination and healing ceremo­nies.

Contacts with Christ ianity or modern ideas do not

seem to have influenced the deep spirit of reverencecharacteristic of the mushroom ritual.

It has been suggested that Psilocybe species maybe employed for hallucinogenic inebriation also by the

Yurimagua Indians of Amazonian Peru.

Initiation rites .

Ingredient of the witches' brews.

D. innoxia was employed medicinally and as a sacredhallucinogen by the Aztec and other Indians. The Zuni

Indians value the plant as an analges ic and as a

poultice to cure wound s and bruises . Toloache is saidto be the exclusi ve property of the rain priests . Valuedin initiation rituals .

Hallucinogenic intoxication; folk medicine.

Hallucinogenic intoxication.

PREPARATION

A mildly poisonous intoxicant is prepared from the red"sap" of the bark.

Personal preference, purpose of use, and seasonal

availability dete rmine the kinds of mushrooms used by

different shamans. P. mexicana, one of the most widely

used, may perhaps be considered the most typical

sacred mushroom.Anywhere from 2 to 30 mushrooms (depend ing on

the type used) are eaten during a typical ceremony.

They may be consumed either fresh or ground and

made into an infusion.

The roots of the Thorn Apple may have been used in

the halluCinogenic.Algonqu in drink wysoccan.

The Tarahumara add D. innoxia to their maize beer anduse the roots, seeds, and leaves.

The Zuni chew the roots and put powder prepared

from them into the eyes.Among the Yokut Indians , the seeds are said to be

taken only once during a man's lifetime .

Smoking of the leaves and taken inte rnally.

The leaves are toas ted to produce a tea. Drying and

sto rage increases the aromatic fragrance. Stems ,frui ting tops, and flowers may be added.

CHEMICAL CO MPONENTSAND EFFECTS

No specifi c hallucinogenic constituents have beenidentified. Extracts from the inner bark of both specieshave pharmacologically been shown to elicit depres­

sant effects sim ilar to those produced by Marijua na.

The indolic alkaloids psilocybine and psilocine are the

main hallucinogenic principles of the sacred mush­rooms . The conte nt var ies from species to species be­

tween 0.2 and 0.6 % of psilocybine and small amount s

of psiloc ine in dried mushro om material. The mush­rooms cause both visual and auditory hallucinations,with the dreamlike state becoming reality.

See Toloache.

All species of the genus Datura are chemically similar

with the active principles tropane alkaloids, especially

hyoscyamine and scopolamine, the latter being the

main component.

Tupa leaves contain the piperidine alkaloid lobeline , a

respira tory stimulant, as well as the diketo- and dihy­

droxy-d erivatives lobelamid ine and nor-Iobelamidine,which are not known to.be hallucinogenic.

The prese nce of a crystalline compound called lago­

chiline-a diterpene of the grindelia n type-is known.

This compound is not known to be hallucinogenic .

The seeds of various Voacanga varieties are taken by The seeds or the bark of various Voacanga varietiesAfri can magic men to create visual hallucinations . can be taken.

Many varieties of Voacanga contain psychoacti ve in­

dole alkaloid s, especially voacangine and voccamin e,both of which are chemically related to ibogaine.

Used as a visual hallucinogen.M. grahamii is taken by shamans in specia l cere­

monies.

In Ayurved ic medicine, Wood Rose is used as a tonic

and as an aphrodisiac , and it is also used to increaseinte lligence and to slow down the aging process. To­day, the seeds are of interest in Western society for

their psychoactive properties.

Used to induce or enhance visions.

M. craigii is split open, sometimes roaste d, and the

centra l tissue is used. The top of the plant , divested ofits spines, is the most powerful part ; the fruit and upper

part of M. grah amii are said to have similar effects.

The seeds are ground and mixed with wate r. Four to 8

seeds (approximate ly 2 g) are sufficie nt for a mediumpsychoactive dose.

T. lucida is occasionall y smoked alone but is some­

times mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana rustica).

N-methyl-3, 4-di-methoxyphenylethylamine has been

isola ted from M. heyderii, a close relative to M. craigii.

Deep sleep , dur ing which a person is said to travelgreat distances, and brilliant colors characterize the

intoxication.

The seeds contain 0.3 % ergot alkaloids (especially

chanoclavin -I, also ergine (LSA), ergonovine, and iso­

lysergi c acid amid e.

No alkaloids have been isolated from Tagetes, but

the genus is rich in essential oils and thiophene

derivatives.

If consumed over a long period , the flowers are said to Roots , flowers, and seeds.induce levitation and "communication with the spirits:'Folk medicine.

An unknown alkalo id has been reported .The earliest Chinese herbal stated : the "flowers en­

able one to see spirits and cause one to stagger

madly."

Used in folk medicine, espec ially as an aperitif, a feb­rifuge, and an astr ingent for treating diarrhea. The

Chontal take Zacatechichi to clarify the senses.

Tea is made of the crushed dried leaves and used as ahallucinogen. After drinking Zacatechichi, the Indians

recline quietly to smoke a cigarette of the dried leaves .

There is an as yet unide ntified alkaloid. Also contains

sesqu iterp ene- Iactone.

Restful and drowsy condition during which the In­

dians say that one's own heart and pulse can be felt.

79

TAB .N

THE MOST IMPORTANTHALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS

Of the ninety-seven hallucin ogens inthe lexicon, the most important are dis­cussed in detail in th e ensuing chapters.Several reasons underlie our selection.Mos t of these plants are or have beenso culturally and materially importantin aboriginal societies that they cannotbe overlooked. A few are of special bo­tanical or chemical interest. Others areof great antiquity. Still others have re­cently been discovered or identified.An d the use of one has spread through­out the modern wo rld and is now of vi­tal imp ortance.

Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric), oneof the oldest hallucinogens, is employedin both hemispheres and is biochemi­cally significant, since its active princi ­ple is atypically excreted unrnetabo­Iized.

The use of Peyote (Lophophora wil­liamsii), of great ant iquity, has nowspread from its original Mexican home­land to Texas in th e United States,where it is th e basis of a new Indi an re­ligion . Its main psychoactive alkaloid,mescaline, is util ized in psychiatry.

Th e religious use of mushrooms­known as Teonanacatl-e-in Mexico andGu atemala is ancient and was firmly es­tablished among the Aztec Indians at thetim e of th e Co nquest. Their psychoac­tive cons tituents are novel structuresnot known in any other plants .

Of similar imp ortance, and as an­cient , are the seeds of several MorningGlor ies. Their use has persisted untilthe present in southern Mexico. Ofgreat chem o-taxonomic interest, theirpsychoactive constitue nts are found on­ly in an unrelated group of fung i, con­tainin g Er got , which may have beenhallucinogenically important in ancientGreece.

Deadly Nightshade, Henbane, andMandrake were the main ingredients ofthe witches' brews of medieval Europe,where they long exert ed a great culturaland historical influence.

In both hemispheres, Datura playedhighly significant roles in native cul­tures. The related Brugmansia is still

employed as one of the principal hallu­cino gens in South America.

Archaeolo gy indicates that the SouthAmerican cactus Trichocereus pachanoihas a long history, although it has onlyrecently been identified as a principalhallucino gen of the central Andes.

The most significant African halluci­nogen is Iboga, employed in initiationrituals and to communicate with ances­tors. Spreadin g tod ay in Gabon and theCongo, it is a unifying culture trait de­terring the intrusion of foreign custo msfrom Western society.

The int oxicating drink pr epared fromBanisteriopsis holds a place of culturalprimacy throughout the western Ama­zon. Known in Peru as Ayahuasca("vine of the soul"), it allows the soul toleave th e body and wande r freely, com­muni cating with the spirit worl d. It spsychoactive pri nciples are ~-carbolines

and tryptamines. .Three snuffs are of importance in cer­

tain South Am erican cultures. One, inthe western Amazon, is prepared froma resin like liquid produ ced in the barkof several species of Virola. The others,made fro m the beans of a species ofAnadenanthera and used in the Orino­co, adjacent Amazon, and Ar gentina,was forme rly also valued in the West In­dies. Both snuffs play significant roles inth e life of many Ind ian groups and areof chemical inte rest, since their activeprinciples are tryptamin es.

Pituri is the most imp ortant psycho­active substance in Australia. Cannabis,an ancient Asiatic hallucinogen, is nowused in nearly all parts of the wo rld. Anunderstandi ng of its roles in primit ivesocieties may help elucidate its popu lar­ity in Western culture. Some of the fiftychemic al structures found in Cannabisare medically promising.

A long chapter could well be wr itt enabout any of the more than ninety spe­cies which have been enumerated in th eplant lexicon. But in the interest ofspace, the follow ing have been treatedin greater detail for the reasons out­lined.

The Greek lecythus isasacramentalvessel filledwith fragrantoilsandplacednext toadeathbedorgrave. Onthislecythus (450-425 B.c.),acrownedTriptolemus holds theEleusiniangrain,agrassprobably infected with Ergot; whileDemeter or Persephonepoursasacredlibation,preparedpresumably fromtheinfectedgrain.Thetwofiguresaresepa­ratedby thestaff of Triptolemusanduni­tedintoonefieldbythegrainandpouredlibation.

Page 80: Mandrake (Mandragora offici­narum), "the man-likeplant," hasacomplexhistoryof usage. In Europe, itwas employedas a stupefacient inadditionto being one of the strongestingredients added tothe brewscon­coctedbywitches oftheMiddle Ages.Therootof theMandrakewaslikenedtothe form of a man orwoman, andac­cording to superstition, if theplantwerepulled fromthe earth, its shrieks coulddrivethe collectorsmad. This image ofMandragora was engraved by thewell­known artist Matthaus Merian in theearlyeighteenth century.

81

3 AMANITAFly Agaric

(Thenumber refers to the"Plant Lexi­con"; the common namerefers to thereference chart "Overviewof PlantUse.")

MAINSTAY OF THE HEAVENS

Page 83 top:Cliff drawingofa shamanin theAltaimountainsof Asia.

Page83 right: Fly Agaric (Amanitamuscaria) is found around theworldandis associated nearly everywhere withfairy worlds, alternative realities, andshamanic practices.

Siberian shamans use elaborate sym­bolic costumesanddecorated drums intheir ceremonies. The left figure is ashaman from KrasnojarskDistrict; atright, the KamtchatkaDistrict.

R2

Soma, the god -narcotic of ancient India,attained an exalted place in magico­religious ceremonies of the Aryans,who 3,500 years ago swept down fromthe north into the Indus Valley, bringingwith them the cult of Soma . These earlyinvaders of India worshipe d the ho ly in ­ebriant and drank an extract of it in theirmost sacred rites. W hereas most halluci­nogenic plants were considered merelyas sacred mediato rs, Soma became a godin its own right. An ancie nt Indian tra ­dition recorded in the Rig-Veda assertsthat "Parjanya, the god of thunder, wasthe father of Soma" (Indra).

"Enter into the heart of Indra, receptacle

of Soma, like rivers into the ocean , th ouwho pleasest Mit ra, Varuna, Vaya ,main stay of heaven! .. . Father of th egods, pro geni to r of the movin g force,mainstay of the sky, fo undation of theearth."

Of the more than 1,000 hol y hymns inthe Rig -Veda, 120 are devoted exclu­sively to Soma, and references to th is ve­geta l sacrament ru n throu gh many of theother hymns. The cult was suppressed,and th e original holy plant wa s forgot ­ten ; other plant surrogates-with little

or no psychoactivity-were sub st itu ted.Yet the identity of Soma remained oneof the enigmas of ethnobotany for twothousand years. Only in 1968 did th e in­terdisciplinary research of Gordon Was­son provide persuasive evidence that thesacred narcotic was a mushroom, Ama­nita muscaria, the Fly Agaric. Amanitamuscaria may be the oldest of th e hallu­cinogens and perh aps was once the mostwidely used.

The curious hallucinogenic use ofAmanita muscaria has been documen­ted since 1730. It was then that a Swed ­ish military officer, a prisoner of war inSiberia for twel ve years, reported thatprimitive tribesmen there empl oyed theFly Agaric as a shamanistic inebriant .T he custom persisted amo ng scatteredgro ups of Finno -Ugrian peopl es of Si­beria. Traditio ns suggest th at othergro up s in this vast no rthern region alsoused the mu shroom.

A Koryak legend tells us that the cul­ture hero, Big Raven, caught a whalebut was unable to put such a heavy ani ­mal back int o the sea. The god Vahiyi­nin (Existence) told him to eat wapaqspirits to get th e strength that heneeded. Vahiyinin spa t up on th e earth,and littl e white plants-the wapaq spir­its-appeared: th ey had red hats andVahiyinin's spittle congealed as whiteflecks . W hen he had eaten wapaq, BigRaven became exceedingly strong, andhe pleaded: "0 wapaq, grow forever onearth." Whereupon he commanded hispeople to learn w hat wapaq coul d teachth em. Wapaq is the Fly Agaric, a gift di­rectl y fro m Vahiyinin.

T hese Siberian mu shroom users hadno other intoxicants, until th e Ru ssiansintroduced alcoho l. They dried themu shroom s in the sun and inges tedth em either alone or as an extract inwater, reindeer milk, or the juice of sev­era l sweet plants. When the mushroomwas swallowed as a solid, it was firstmoistened in the mo uth, or a womanro lled it in her mou th into a moistene dpellet for the men to swallow. T heceremo nial use of the Fly Agaric de­velop ed a ritu alist ic practi ce of urine­drinking, since th ese tri besmen learn ed

th at th e psychoactive pr inciples of themushroom pass thr ough the bod yunmetabolized, or in th e fo rm of stillactive metabolites- mo st unusual forhallucinogenic compoun ds in plants.An early account, refer rin g to the Ko r­yak, report ed that "they pour water onsome of th e mushrooms and boil them.They th en drink the liquor, which intox­icates th em; the poorer so rt , w ho cannotafford to lay in a sto re of th e mush­rooms, pos t themselves on th ese occa ­sions round the huts of th e rich andwatch th e opportunity of the gues tsco ming down to make wa ter and thenhold a wooden bowl to receive the urinew? ich the y.d rink off greedily, as havin~still some virtu e of th e mushroom in itand by this way, the y also get drunk. " ,

T he Rig-Veda defin itely refers to uri ne­dr inking in the Som a ritual: "The swol­len men piss the flowing Soma. Thelords, w ith full bladd ers, piss Somaqu ick with moveme nt ." The priests im­personating Indra and Vayu havinsdrunk Soma in milk , urinate Soma. I~th e Vedic poems, ur ine is not offensivebut is an ennobling metaphor to describerain: th e blessings of rain are likened tosho wers of urine, and th e clouds fert ilizethe earth with their uri ne.

A tra veler amo ng th e Kory ak in theearly twentieth century offe red one ofthe few descr iptions of intoxication inaboriginal use of the mus hr oom. Hewr~te tha t the "Fly Aga ric pro duces in­toxication, hallucinati ons, and delir ium.Light forms of intoxication are acco m­pa nied bv a cert ain dezree of animation. "and so me spontanei ty of mo vements.Many shamans, previous to their se­anc es, eat Fly Agaric to get into ecstaticsta tes . . . Under strong int oxication, thesenses become deranged, surroundinzobjects appear either very larg e or ver;sma ll, hallucinations set in, spontaneousmovements and convulsions . So far as Icould observe, att acks of zrea t anima-. I "non ~ te rna te with moments of deep de-

preSSIOn. T he person intoxicated by FlyAgaric sits quietly rocking fro m side toside, even taking part in conver sationswith his family. Suddenly, his eyes dilate,he begins to gesticula te con vulsively,

The Chemistry of Fly Agaric

The active principle of Ama nita muscaria was thought once, a century ago, tohave been muscarine when Schmiedeberg and Koppe isolated this sub­stance. This belief has been proved erroneous. Recently Eugster in Switzer­land and Takemoto in Japan isolated ibotenic acid and the alkaloid muscimoleas being responsible for the Fly Agaric's psychotropic effects . The mushroomis taken usually dried. The drying process induces the chemical transforma­tion of ibotenic acid to muscimole, the most active constituent.

83

Right:TheFlyAgaricisoftenandfalselyfearedas beinga poisonous mush­room; nevertheless, it is gladlyused forluck-bringingcandy.

Aboveleft:Tobringgoodluck into thecoming year, fireworks in theshape ofFlyAgaricaresetoffon NewYear's Eve.

Aboveright: Theresults of smoking FlyAgaric aredepicted in theGerman chil­dren's bookMeeki andtheDwarves.

Be/ow right: It is possible thatFlyAgaricis identical to theVedic wonder-drugSoma. Today Ephedra (Ephedra ger­ardiana) is called soma/ata, "somaplant." In Nepal Ephedra is not halluci­nogenic or psychedelic butis a verystrong stimulant.

84

converses with persons whom he imagi­nes he sees, sings and dances. Then aninterval of rest sets in again."

Th e Fly Agaric was apparently em­ployed hallucinogenically in Meso a­merica. It occurs naturally in highlandareas in southern Mexico and Guatema­la. The Maya of highland Guatemala,for example, reco gnize Amanita rnus­caria as havin g special properties, forthey call it Kakulj a-ik ox ("lightningmushroom "), relating it to one of thegods, Rajaw Kakulj a or Lord of Light­ning. It is this god who directs the oper­ating of chacs, dw arf rain-bringers nowusually known by their Christian desig­nation, angelitos. The Quiche name ofth e Amanita muscaria, Kaqulja, refersto its legendary orig in, whereas the termItz elo-cox refers to its sacred power as"evil or diabolical mushroom." Thun­der and lightning have widely andanciently been associated with mush­rooms, in both hemisph eres, especiallywith A man ita muscaria. "In any event ,th e Quiche-Maya .. . are evidently wellaware the Amanita muscaria is noordinary mushroom but relates to thesupernatural."

The first sett lers of th e Americascame from Asia, slowly crossing the

region of the Bering Strait. Anthropol­ogists have found many Asia-related orremnant culture tra its that persist in theAmericas. Recent discoveries have un­covered vestiges of the magico-reli­gious importance of the Fly Agaric thathave indeed survived in North Ameri­can cultures. Indications of undoubted

hallucinogenic use of the Fly Agarichave been discovered amo ng the Do­grib Athabascan peo ples, who live onthe Mackenzie Mo unta in range innorthw estern Canada. Here Amanitamu scaria is employed as a sacrament inshama nism. A young neophyte repor­ted that whatever the sha man had done

--~':' ..

. .• 1

"-"-~ -~'..·:i .

.. ~: ~~. ~

~ .. . . -

Ni?1~r.t"!!!lIl!Rll::=-. I

11,III

'~ ---" " " ~1-~- :j

to him, "he had snatched me. I had novolition, I had no power of my own . Idid n't eat, didn't sleep, I didn't think­I was n' t in my body any long er." Afte ra later seance, he wrote: "Cleansed andripe for vision, I rise, a bursting ball ofseeds in space .. . I have sung the not ethat shatters structure. An d the notethat shatte rs chaos, and been bloody. .. I have been with the dead and at­tempted the labyr inth." His first mush­room experience rep resented dismem­be:~ent; his second, meet ing with thesp mt.

Mo re recen tly, the religio us use ofAmanita m uscaria as a sacred hallucino­gen has been discovered in an ancient an­nual ceremony practiced by the O jibwaIndians or Ahnishinaubeg who live onLake Supe rior in Michigan. The mush­room is known in the O jibwa languageas Oshtimisk Wajashkwe do ("Red-topmushroom").

Left: A Kamtchatkashaman imploresthe Fly Agaric, herritualsubstance. toassist her in traveling to other realms.

Aboveright:The Spirit of the Fly Agaricin Japan is the long-nosed, red-facedTengu. Whoevereats Beni-Tengu-Dake(Red Tengu mushroom)will encounterthe lively entity.

Belowleft:The mythof Somastill liveson. Here it is thename ofa bar in aluxury hotel in Delhi.

85

8

40

41

ATROPADeadly Nightshade

HYOSCYAMUS ALBUSYellow Henbane

HYOSCYAMUS NIGERBlack Henbane

THE HEXING HERBS

54 MANDRAGORAMandrake

Above left:Theyellow blossom of therarevariety of Atropa belladonnavar.lutea. Theyellow Deadly Nightshadeis regarded asparticularly potentformagic andwitchcraft.

.Above right:The bell-shaped flowers oftheDeadly Nightshade clearly showitsmembership in theNightshade family.

Page 87above left:Theflowers of theMandrake (Mandragora officinarum)are rarely seen, as theybloom verybriefly andthenquickly vanish.

Page 87aboveright: Theflowers of theBlack Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)have a characteristiccoloring andanunforgettable patternonthepetals. Inearlier times, it wasthoughtto be theeye of thedevil.

86

Since antiquity several members of th eN ightshade fami ly have been asso­ciated with witchcraft in Europe. Theseplants enable witches to perform featsof occult wonder and prophecy, to hexthrough hallucinogenic communicationwith the supernatural and transp ortthemselves to far-off places for thepractice of their nefarious skills. Theseinebriating plants were mainly Hen­bane, Hyoscyamus albus and H . niger;Belladonna, Atropa belladonna; andMandrake, Mandrag ora officinarum.All four species have long histories ofuse as hallucinogens and magic pl antsconnected with sorcery, w itchcraft,and supersti tion. The extraordinary 're­putation of these plants is due primar­ily to the bizarre psychoactivity thatthey possess. Their similarity in effectsis th~ re~ult of similarity in chemicalconstitution,

T hese four solanaceous plants containrelatively high concentrations of tropanealkaloids, primarily atropine, hyoscya­mine, and scopolamine; other base s arefound in trace amounts. It is apparentlyscopolamine, not atropine or hyoscya­mine, that produces the hallucinogeniceffects . It induces an intoxication fol-

lowed by narcosis in which hallucina­tions occur during the transition statebetween consciousness and sleep.

Atropine has served chemists as amodel for the synthesis of several hallu­cinogenic compounds. T heir effects­and those of scopolamine-differ fromthose of the usual natural hallucinogens:they are extremely toxic; and the userremembers nothing experienced duringthe intoxication, losing all sense of rea­lity and falling into a deep sleep like analcoholic delirium.

Hyoscyamus has been known andfeared from earliest classical periods ,when it was recognized that there wereseveral kinds and that the black varietywas the most potent, capable of causinginsanity. The ancient Egyptians recor­ded their kn owledge of H enb ane in theEbers Papyrus, written in 1500 B. c .Homer described magic dr inks with ef­fects indicative of Henbane as a majo ringredient. In ancient Greece it servedas a poison, to mimic insanity, and toenable man to prophesy. It has beensuggested that the priestesses at theOracle of Delphi made their propheticutterances while intoxicated with thesm oke from Henbane seeds. In the

thirteent h century, Bishop Albe rtus th eGreat reported that Henbane was em­ployed by necromancers to conjure updemons.

Fro m earliest times, the pai nki llingproperties of Henbane have been recog­nized, and it has been employed to re­lieve the suffering of th ose sente nced totorture and death. Its great advantagelies in its ability not only to allay painbut also to induc e a state of co mp leteobli vion .

Henbane is best known as an ingredi­ent of the so-called "witch's salve."

W hen young peop le were to be in­ducted into mem bersh ip in groups dedi­cated to witchcraft, for example, th eywere often given a dr ink of H enbane sothat they could easily be per suaded toengage in the sabbat rituals preparato ryto the accep tance offic ially of a place inwi tchcraft circles.

Those experiencing intoxication withH enb ane feel a pressure in th e head, asen satio n as if someone we re closin g th eeye lids by for ce; sight becomes unclear,obj ects are disto rted in shape, and themost unusual visual hallucination s areindu ced. Gustatorv and olfactorv hal­lucinat ions frequent ly accompany the

The Chemistry of Deadly Nightshade, Henbane, and Mandrake

The three solanaceous plants Atropa, Hyoscyamus, and Mandragora containthe same active principles: primarily the alkaloids hyoscyam ine, atropine, andscopolamine . The difference is only one of relative concentration. Belladonnacontai ns little scopo lamine, but this alkaloid is the main component of Man­drake and especially of Henbane.

The alkaloids are found in the entire plant, with the highest concentration inthe seeds and roots. The hallucinogenic effects are due essent ially to scopo­lamine. Atropine and hyosyam ine are less active under these circumstances .

Left: Accordingto this illustration fromthe Juliana Codex. the Greek herbalistDioscorides received theMandrakeplant from Hsuresis, goddess of discov­ery.illustratingthebelief that thismedi­cine wasa plantof thegods.

87

"The Mandrake is the 'Tree of Knowledge '

and the burning love ignited by its pleasure

is the origin of the human race."

-Hugo Rahner

Greek Myths in Christian Meaning (1957)

Above:Theancient goddess of witches,Hecate, lordsoverthepsychoactive andmagical herbs, particularlythose in theNightshade family. In thiscoloredprintbyWilliam Blake, sheis depicted withhershamanic animals.

Page 89belowright:Thedesign for thecoverofa book about medicinalplantsdepictstheanthropomorphic Mandrake.

88

intoxication. Eventually sleep, disturbedby dreams and hallucinations, ends theinebriation.

Other species of Hyoscyamus have si­milar properties and are occasionallyused in similar ways. Indian Henbaneor Egyptian Henbane, or H. muticus,occurring from th e deserts of Egypt eastto Afghanistan and India, is employedin India as an intoxicant, the dried leavesbeing smoked. The Bedouins particu­larly employ this intoxicant to becomedrunk, and in some parts of Asia andAfrica it is smoked with Cannabis as aninebriant.

Belladonna or D eadly Night shade isnative to Europ e but is now spo nta­neous as an escape from cultivation inthe United States and India. It s genericname, A tropa, comes from th e Greek

Fate Atropos, the inflexible one whocuts the thread of life. The specificepi thet, meaning "beautiful lady," re­calls the use of sap of the plant to dilatethe pupils of the eyes among the fine la­dies of Italy who believed that the drea ­my, intoxicated stare thus produced wasth e height of fetching beauty. Many ver­nacular nam es of the plant refer to itsintoxicatin g properties: Sorcerer's Cher­ry, Witch's Berry, Devil's H erb, Mur­derer's Berry, D waleberry (dwale inEnglish deriving from th e Scand inavianroot meaning "trance").

The maenads of the orgies of Di ony­sus in Greek mythology dilated theireyes and th rew themselves into the armsof male worship ers of this god or, with"flaming eyes," they fell up on men totear th em apart and eat them. The wine

of Bacchanals was possibly adulteratedwith juice of the Nightshade. Anotherbelief from classical times maintainedthat Roman priests drank Belladonnabefore their supplications to the god­dess of war for victory.

It was during the early Modern period,however, that Belladonna assumed itsgreatest importance in witchcraft andmagic . It was one of the primary ingredi­ents of the brews and ointments em­ployed by witches and sorcerers. Onesuch potent mixture, containing Bella­donna, Henbane, Mandrake, and the fatof a stillborn child, was rubbed over theskin or inserted into the vagina for ab­sorption. The familiar witch's broom­stick goes far back in European magicbeliefs. An investigation into witchcraftin 1324 reported that "in rifleing the

Left: The magical conjuration of theMandrake is a durable theme in Eur­opean literature andart history. Hereis a scene froma modern comic,Caza.

Belowright: "Witches" persecutedduring the Inquisitionwereoftenac­cused of usinghallucinogenic plants oftheNightshade family, in particular,Henbane and Mandrake. Forthismanyweretortured, murdered, andburned.

89

Top: Amphibians, especially frogs(which often produce poisons in theirbodies), have always been connectedwithwitchcraft andmagic in theOld aswellastheNewWorld. These animalswereoccasionallyaddedto potentwitches'brews in Europe.They havealsofigured significantly in certain NewWorldculturesin connection with hallu­cinogenic activities.

Above left: Thedelightfully scented fruitof theMandrake (Mandragora officinar­urn) arealsocalled Applesof Love andare identical to thegolden apples ofAphrodite.

Abovemiddle:Theripeblackberries ofthe Deadly Nightshade (Atropa bella­donna).

Above right: White or yellow Henbane(Hyoscyamus albus)wasconsecratedto thegodof oracles, Apollo.

90

closet of the ladie , they found a Pipe ofointment, wherewith she greased astaffe, upon which she ambled and gal­loped through thi ck and thin, when andin what manner she listed ." Later, in th efiftee nth century, a similar account sta­ted: "But the vulgar believe and th ewi tches confess, that on certain daysand nights th ey anoint a staff and rideon it to the appointed place or anoi ntthemselves under the arms and in ot herhairy places and sometimes carry charmsunder the hair." Porta, a contemporaryof Galileo, wrote in 1589 that under theeffects of a potion of these solanaceousplants a "man would seem sometimes tobe changed into a fish; and flinging outhis arms, would swim on the ground;sometimes he would seem to skip upand then to dive down again. Anotherwould believe himself turned into agoose and-wo uld eat grass, and beat theground with his teeth like a goose ; nowand then sing and ... clap his wings ."

Man drake became famous in magicand witchcraft because of its powerfulnarcotic effects and the bizarre form ofits root. It wo uld be difficu lt to find abe~ter example of the app lication of thephi losophy of the Doctrine of Signa-

tures. For the root of this herbaceousperennial, unassuming in its growth ap­pearance, is so twis ted and branchedthat it occasionally resembles the humanbody. T his extraordinary resemb lanceled early to the belief that it exercisedgreat supernatura l powers over the hu­man body and mind, even though actu­ally its chemical compos ition gave it nogreater psychoac tivity than some othersolanaceous species.

From earliest times, curious beliefsabout th e need to exercise great care inharvesting the root grew up . Theo­phrastus in the third century B. c. wrot ethat collectors of medicinal plants drewcircles around Mandrake, and they cutoff the top part of the root whil e facingwest; the remainder of the root wasgathered after the collectors had per­formed certain dances and recited spe­cial formulas. Two centuries earlier, theGreek Pythagoras had described Man ­drake root as an anthropomorph, ortiny human being. In Roman times thatmagic began extensively to be associ­ated wi th the psychoactive propertiesof the plant. In the first century A. D.,

Josephus Flavius wrote that there grewa plant in the Dead Sea area that glowed

red at night and that it was difficult toapproach the pl ant, which hid when aman drew near it; but it could be tamedif ur ine and menstrual blood weresprinkl ed on it. It was phys ically dan­gerous to pull the plant fro m the earth,but a dog, tied to the root, was em­ployed to extract th e root, afte r which,according to belief, the anima l usuallydied. The myths surround ing Mandrakegrew, until it was said that the plant hidby day but shone lik e a star at night , andtha t when being pulled from th e gro undth e plant let out such uneart hly shrieksthat whoever heard th e no ise might die.Eventually, on ly black dogs- a colordenoting evil and dea th- were em­ployed. Early C hris tians believed th atthe Mandrake root was originally ere -

ated by God as an experiment befor ehe crea ted man in the Ga rde n of Eden.

W hen, later in the Dark Ages , Man­drake began to be cultivated in centralEurope, it was th ou ght that the plantwould grow only under gallo ws w hereurine or semen from the condemnedman fell-hence the common Germannames meaning "gallows man" and"dragon do ll."

T he apogee of Mandrake 's fame seemsto have occur red in the late sixteenthcentury. At thi s tim e, the herbalists be­gan to do ubt many of the tal es associatedwith th e plant . As earl y as 1526 the Eng­lish herbalist Turner had denied that allMandrake root s had a human form andprotested against th e beliefs connectedwi th its anthropomo rphism. Anothe rEnglish herbali st , Ge rard , fo r example,w rote in 1597: "All which dreams an dold wives tales you sha ll hencefort h castout of your books and memory; know­ing thi s, th at th ey are all and everie panof th em false and most untrue. For I m V

selfe and my serv ants also have digg..:1up, pl anted and replanted very m au y. . ." But man y superst itions su rro und iI I ;";

Ma ndrake persisted in European foi l·. ·lore even into the nin eteent h centu ry.

Above left: In theTemple of Apollo atDelphi, troll "navel of the world," theSibyland prophetess informed the Pythia ofheroracleaftershe had inhaled thesmokeof Henbane.

Abovemiddle:The rootof the Mandrake(Mandragora officinarum).

Aboveright:The Ginseng's (Panax gin­seng) rootis notonlysimilarto theMandrake,but in Korea, Ginsengroot isalsoattributed withsecret andmagicalpowers.

Belowleft:The sun andoracle godApollo at a libation in front ofa raven.(Discovered at Delphi).

9 1

17 CANNA81' ,HemplviarijuancHashish

THE N ECTAR OF DELIGHT

Trad it ion in Indi a ma intains that thegods sent man the H emp plan t so thathe might attain de light an d courage,and have hei ghtened sexual de sire s.\X!hen necta r or Arn rita dropped downfrom heave n, Cannabis sprouted fromit. Another story tells how, w he n thegods, helped by d em ons, churned themilk ocean to obtain Arnri ta, one of th eresu lt ing nectar s was Cannabis. It wasconsecrated to Shiva and was Indra's fa­vorite drink. After the churning of th e

"seeds," co nsumed by man fo r food;for its na rco tic prop ert ies; and thera­peutically to treat a wide spectrum ofills in folk medicine and in modernp harmacopoeias.

Mainly because of its various uses,Cannabis has been taken to ma ny re ­gio ns around the world . Unusua l thingshappen to plants after long associatio nw ith ma n and agricu ltu re. They aregrow n in new and strange environ­ments and often have opportunities to

Aboveleft: Wilcl I 1t' lnp plants (Cannabisindica) with Spll 'IHlld white flowers inthe Langtang [1' 1111'11 of the Himalayas(Nepal).

Above right: fv1iJ:;l'l iline plantof a Hempcross-breed (Cnll llaLJis indica x sativa).

92

oc ean, demons att empted to gain co n­tro l of A m rita, but the gods were ableto prevent this seizure, giving Cannabisth e na me Vijaya ("victory") to co m­m emorate their success. Ever sinc e, th ispl ant of the go ds has bee n held in In d iato bestow supernatural powers on itsusers.

The pa rtners hip of Cannabis and manhas existed now probably for ten th ou ­sand years-since th e di scove ry of agri ­culture in the O ld \'I;torld. O ne of ourold est cult iva rs, Cannabis has been afive-p urpose plant : as a so urce of hem ­pe n fibe rs; for its oil; for its akcncs or

hybridize th at are not offered in the irnative hab itats. They escape from culti­va tio n and freq uently become aggre s­sive we eds. T hey may be changedth rou gh human selection fo r character­istics asso ciated with a specific use.Many cu lt iva ted pl ant s are so changedfrom their ancestral types that it is notpossib le to unravel th eir evo lu tio naryhis tory. Suc h is not the case, however,wi th Cannabis. Yet despite its long his­to ry as a major crop pla nt , Cannabis issti ll characterized more bv w hat is notkn own ab out its bio log y ~han by w hatis know n.

Belowleft:The blue-skinned Hindu godShiva takesgreatpleasure in Hemp.Becauseof this, it is a sacred plantof thegodsand is usedfor rituals andTantric practices.

Right: The long-haired Sadhusor "holy men" of India devote their livesto thegodShiva. Theyhave no property andpractice yogaand meditation. In ad­ditiontheyoftensmoke a large amount of charas (handmade hash) andganja (Marijuana) sometimes mixedwith Datura leaves and otherpsychoac-

tiveplants (Sadhu at a Shivatemple, Pashupatinath, KathmanduValley,Nepal).

Bottom right: Cannabis is consumed in manycountries, usually illegally. It isoften smoked in hand-rolled cigarettes. There arecountlessproductsfor theconsumption of marijuanafor everyone from beginnersto thespecialists-forinstance, large-format rolling papers, preferably outof Hemp. Alsoshown herearea metal cigarette boxandlighter. .

The botanical classification of Canna ­bis has lon g been uncertain. Botanistshave no t agreed on the family to whichCannabis belongs: early investigatorsput it in th e N ettl e family (U rticaceae);later it was acco mmodated in th e Fig fa­mily (Mo raceae); th e genera l tre nd todayis to assign it to a special family, Canna­baceae, in which onl y Cannabis and H u­mulus, th e genus of H op s, are members.There has even been disagreement as to .how many spec ies of Cannabis exist:

whether the genus comprises one highlyvariable species or several distinct spe ­cies. Evidence now strongly indicatesthat three species can be recognized:C. indica, C. ruderalis, and C. sativa.These species are distinguished by dif­fere nt growth habits, characters of theakenes, and especia lly by major differ­ences in structure of th e wood. Al thoughall species possess cannabin ols, theremay possibly be significant chemical dif­fere nces , but the evidence is not ye tavailable.

The Indi an vedas sang of Cannabis asone of the divine nectars, able to give

93

Above: In Africa Hemp is smoked formedicinal and pleasurablepurposes, asthiswood carvingshows.

Top: Thecharacteristic Hemp leaf(Cannabis indica) was formerly a sym­bolof thesubculture andrebellion. To­day, it hasbecome a symbol of ecologi­calawareness.

94

man anything from good health andlong life to visions of the gods. TheZend-Avesta of 600 B. c . mentions an in­toxicating resin, and the Assyrians usedCannabis as an incense as early as theninth century B. C.

Inscriptions from the Chou dynastyin China, dated 700-500 B. c., have a"negative" connotation that accompa­nies the ancient charac ter for Cannabis,Ma, imp lying its stupefying propert ies.Since this idea obviously pre dated writ­ing, the Pen Tsao Ching, written in A. D.

100 but going back to a legendary em­peror, Shen-Nung, 2000 B. c., maybe ta­ken as evidence that the Chinese knewand probably used the psychoactiveproperties at very early dates . It wassaid that Ma-fen ("Hemp fruit") "if ta­ken to excess, will produce hallucina­tions [litera lly, "seeing devils"]. If takenover a long term, it makes one commu­nicate with spirits and light ens one's

body." A Taoist priest wro te in the fifthcentury B. c. tha t Cannabis was em­ployed by "necromancers, in combina­tion with Ginseng, to set forward timeand reveal future events ." In these earlyperiods, use of Cannabis as a hallucino­gen was undoubtedly associated withChinese shamanism, but by the time ofEuropean contact 1,500 years later, sha­manism had fallen into decline, and theuse of the plant for inebriation seems tohave ceased and been forgo tten . Itsvalue in Ch ina then was primarily as afiber source. There was, however, a con­tinuous record of Hemp cultivation inChina from Neolithic times, and it hasbeen suggested that Cannabis may haveoriginated in China, not in central Asia.

About 500 B. c. the Greek writer Her­odotus described a marvelous steambath of the Scythians, aggressive horse­men who swept out of the Trans­caucasus eastward and westward. He

reported that "they make a booth byfixing in the ground three sticks inclinedtoward on e another, and stretchingaround th em woollen pelts which the yarr ange so as to fit as close as possible:inside the bo oth a dish is placed up onthe ground into which the y put a num­ber of red hot stones and then add someHemp seed ... immediately it smokesand gives out such a vapor as no Grecianvapor bath can exceed; th e Scyths, de­lighted, shout for joy .. ." Only recent­ly, archaeologists have excavated frozenScythian tombs in central As ia, datedbetween 500 and 300 B. C., and havefound tripods and pelts , br aziers, andcharcoal with remains of Cannabisleaves and fru it. It has generally beenaccepted th at Cannabis originated incent ral Asia and that it was theScythians w ho sp read th e plant west­ward to Europe.

While th e Greeks and Romans mayno t generally .have taken Cannabis fo rinebriation, th ey were awa re of th e psy­choactive effects of the drug. D ernocri­tus report ed th at it was occasiona llydrunk with wine and myrrh to producevisionary sta tes, and G alen, about A. D.

200, wrote th at it wa s so metimes cus­tomary to give Hemp to guests to pro­mote hilarity and enjoy ment.

Cannabis arr ived in Europ e fro m th enorth. The Roman write r Lucilius men­tioned it in 120 B.c. Pli ny th e Elder out­lined the preparation and grades ofhemp en fibers in th e fir st century A. D.,

and hempen ro pe was found in a Romansite in England dated A. D. 140-1 80.Whether or not the Vikings used Hemprope is not known, bu t palyno logicalevidence indicates th at H emp cultiva­tion had a tremendous increment inEn gland fr om the early Anglo-Saxonperiod to late Saxon and Normantimes-from 400 to 1100.

H enry VIII fos tered th e cultivati onof Hemp in England . The maritime su­premacy of England during Eli zabethantimes greatly increased th e demand.Hemp cultivation began in the Britishcolon ies in the New World: firs t in Ca­nada in 1606, then in Virginia in 1611;the Pilgrims took the crop to New Eng-

land in 1632. In pre-RevolutionaryNorth America, Hemp was employedeven for making work clothes.

Hemp was introduced qu ite indepen­dently into Spanish col oni es in SouthAmerica: C hile, 1545; Peru, 1554.

There is no doubt that hempen fiberproduction represents an early use ofCannabis, but perhaps consumption ofits edible akenes as food predated thediscovery of the useful fiber. Theseakenes are very nutritious, and it is dif ­ficult to imagine that early man, con­stantly searching for food, would havemissed this opportunity. Archaeologicalfinds of H emp akenes in Germany, da­ted at 500 B. C., indicate the nutritionaluse of th ese plant products. From earlytimes to th e present, Hemp akenes havebeen used as foo d in eastern Europe,and in the United States as a major in­gredient of bird foo d.

The folk-medicinal value of H emp­frequ ently indistinguishable from itspsychoactive properties-may even beits earli est ro le as an econ omic plant.The earliest reco rd of th e medicinal useof th e plant is that of th e Chinese em­peror-herbalist Shen-Nung who, fIvethousand years ago, recommendedCannabis for malaria, beri-beri, consti­pation, rh eumatic pains, absent-mind­edness, and female disorders. H oa-Glio,another ancient Chinese herbalist, re ­commended a mixture of Hemp resi nand wine as an anal gesic during surgery.

It was in ancient India that thi s "g iftof th e gods" found excessive use in folkmedicine. It was believed to quickenthe mind, prolong life, improve judg­ment, lower fevers, induce sleep, curedysentery. Because of its psychoactiveproperties it was more highly valuedthan medicines with only physical ac­tivity. Several systems of Indian medi­cine este emed Cannabis. The medicalwork Sushrata states that it cured le­prosy. The Bharaprakasha, of aboutA. D . 1600, described it as antiphleg­rnatic, digestive, bile affecting, pungent,and astringent, prescribing it to stimu­late the appetite, improve diges tio n, andbetter the voice. The spectrum of med­icin al uses 'in India covered control of

Top: Feminine flower of industrial Hemp(Cannabissativa).

Above:The Chinese emperor Shen­Nung is saidto have discoveredthemedicinal propertiesof manyplants. Hispharmacopoeia, believed to have beenfirst compiled in 2737B. C., notesthatCannabis sativahasbothmale andfe­maleplants.

95

Right:There are countless strainsof Hemp thatcontain barelyanyTHe, theintoxicating andeuphoric constituent.These species are used in theproduc­tion of fiber, butarenot suited for personal consumption, as thewarning signin thebotanical gardens in Bern, Switzerland, states: ''This industrial Hempisuselessfor the productionof drugs becauseof its lackof active properties."

Bottom: Feminine plants of flowering industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa).

96

dandruff and relief of headache, mania,insomnia, venereal disease, whoopingcough, earache, and tuberculosis!

The fame of Cannabis as a medicinespread with the plant. In parts of Africa,it was valued in treating dysent ery, ma­laria, anthrax, and fevers. Even tod aythe Hottentots and Mfengu claim its ef­ficacy in treating snakebites, and Sothowomen induce partial stupefaction bysmoking Hemp before childbirth.

Cannabis was highly valued in medi­cine, and its therapeutic uses can betraced back to early classical physiciansDioscorides and Galen. Medieval herb­alists distinguished "manured hempe"(cultivated) from "bastard hempe"(weedy), recommending the latt er"against nodes and wennes and otherhard tumors," the former for a host ofuses from curing cough to jaundice .They cauti oned, however, that in excessit might cause sterility, that "it drieth up. . . the seeds of generation" in men "andthe milke of women's breasts ." An inter­esting use in the sixteenth century­source of the name Angler's Weed inEn gland-was locally important: "pou­red into the holes of earthwormes [it]will draw them forth and . . . fishermenand anglers have used this feate to baitetheir hooks."

The value of Cannabis in folk medi­cine has clearly been closely tied withits euphoric and psychoactive proper­ties; knowledge of these effects may beas old as its use as a source of fiber.Primitive man, trying all sort s of plant

materials as foo d, must have known theecstatic euphoria-inducing effects ofH emp, an int oxication int rodu cing himto an otherworld ly plane leading to re­ligious beliefs. Th us the plant early wasviewed as a spec ial gift of the gods, asacred medium for communion withth e spirit world.

Although Cannabis today is the mostwidely emp loy ed psychoactive sub­stance, its use pu rely as a narcoti c, ex­cept in Asia, app ears not to be anci ent .In classical times its eup horic propert ieswere, however, recognized. In T hebes,Hemp was made into a dr ink said tohave opium-like pr operties. Ga len re­ported that cakes with Hemp, if eatento excess, were intoxicating. The use asan inebriant seems to have been spreadeast and west by barba rian hor des ofcentral Asia, especially the Scythians,who had a profound cultural influenceon early Greece and eastern Europe.An d knowledge of the psychoactive ef­fects of H emp goes far back in Indianhisto ry, as ind icated by the deep mytho­logical and spiritual beliefs abo ut theplant . One prepa ration, Bhang, was sosacred that it was thought to deter evil,bring luck, and cleanse man of sin.Those treading upon the leaves of thisholy plant would suffer harm or disas­ter, and sacred oat hs were sealed overH emp. The favorite drink of Indra,god of th e firmament, was made fro mCannabis , and th e Hi ndu god Shivacommand ed that the word Ghangi bechanted repea tedl y in hymns during

£~~~,. .-.~

r

sowing, weeding, and harvesting ofthe holy plant . Knowledge and use ofthe intoxicating propert ies eventuallyspread to Asia Minor. H emp was em­ploy ed as an incense in Assyr ia in thefirst millenn ium B. c., suggesting its useas an ineb riant . \"Vhile there is no directmenti on of H emp in the Bible, severalobscur e passages may refer tangenti allyto the eHects of Cannabis resin orHashish.

It is perhaps in the Himalayas of In­dia and the Tibetan plateau that Canna ­bis pr eparations assum ed their greates timportance in religious contex ts. Bhangis a mild preparation: dried leaves orflowering shoots are pounded with'sp ices into a paste and consumed ascandy-known as maa-jun-or in teaform. Ga nja is made from the resin-r ichdried pistillate flowering tops of culti­vated plants that are pre ssed into acompacted mass and kept under pres ­sure for several days to induce chemicalchanges; most Ganja is smoked, oftenwith Tobacco or Datura. C haras con­sists of the resin itself, a brownish masstha t is employed genera lly in smokingmixtures.

Th e Tibetans considered Cannabissacred. A Mahayana Buddhist traditi onmaintains that during the six steps of as­ceticism leading to his enlightenment,Buddha lived on one H emp seed a day.H e is ofte n d epicted with "Soma leaves"in his begging bowl and th e mysteriou sgod-narcotic Soma has occasionallybeen ident ified with H emp. In Tan tric

Top left: In northern India the Hempleaves are soaked in water, shredded,and then rolled into balls. These aresold as "Bhang" on themarket (displayin the Governmental Ganja ShopOmVarnasi, Benares).

Top right:The Bhangballs are eithersucked on or mixed into a drink withmilk, yogurt, and water.

Page 97above left:The Cora Indians ofthe Sierra MadreOccidental of MexicosmokeCannabis in thecourse of theirsacredceremonies. Rarely is an intro­duced foreignplant adoptedand used inindigenous religious ceremonies, but itseemsthat the Cora of Mexico and theCunaof Panama havetakenup the ri­tual smoking of Cannabis, notwith­standing the factthat, in both areas, itwasbrought in by the early Europeans.

Page 97above right:These threephotographs showthe germinatingHempplant.The rounded leaves arecotyledonsor seed-leaves.The first realleaves are always simple, notsegmen­ted as are the mature leaves.

Page 96 middle (4 Photos): The use ofCannabisbypeoples of both the OldWorld and the Newiswidespread. IntheOld World (left to right) Cannabis isbeing smoked by a Kung woman fromSouth Africa, a Pygmy from the Congo.a traveler in Kashmir, andNorth AfricanHashish smokers.

97

The Chemistry of Marijuana

Whereas the psychoactive principles of most hallucinogenic plants are alka­loids, the active constituents of Cannabis are non-nitrogenous and occur in aresinous oil. The psychoactive properties are due to cannabinoids, of whichthe most effective is tetrahydrocannabinol, or THG-chemically: (-)~1-3,4­

transtetrahydrocannab inol. The highest concent ration is found in the resin ofthe unfertilized pistillate inflorescence. Even though less potent, the driedleaves are also employed for their psychoact ive effects.

Following the elucidation of the chemical structure (see molecular modelon page 184), it has recently been possible to synthes ize THC.

Psychoactive Plants that are used as a Marijuana Substitute

Botanical Name Common Name Part of Plant Used

Alchornea ttotibunde Niando Roots

Argemone mexicana Prickly Poppy Leaves

Artemisia mexicana Mexican Mugwort Herbage

Calea zacatechichi Dog Grass Herbage

Canavalia maritima Sea Bean Leaves

Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle Leaves

Cecropia mexicana Chancarro Leaves

Cestrum laevigatum Lady of the Night Leaves

Cestrum parqui Palqui Leaves

Cymbopogon dens iflorus Lemongrass Flower extract

Helichrysum toetidum Everlasting Herbage

Helichrysum stenopterum Everlasting Herbage

Hieracium pilocella Hawkweed Herbage

Leonotis leonurus Wild Dagga Herbage

Leonurus sibiricus Siberian Motherwort Herbage

Nepeta cataria Catnip Herbage

Piper auritum Root Beer Plant Leaves

Sceletium tortuosum Kougued Herbage, Roots

Sida acuta Common Wireweed Herbage

Sida rhombifolia Escob illa Herbage

Turnera diffusa Damia na Herbage

Zornia diphylla Maconha Brava Leaves

Zorn ia latifolia Maconha Brava Dried leaves

98

Bud dhism of the Himalayas of Tibet,Cannabis plays a very significant rolein the meditative ritual used to facilitatedeep meditation and heighten aware­ness . Both medicinal and recreationalsecular use of Hemp is likewise socommo n now in this region that theplant is take n for gran ted as an every ­day necessity.

Fo lklore maintains that the use ofHemp was introduced to Persia by anIndia n pilgrim during the reign ofKhursu CA. D. 531- 579), but it is knownthat the Assyrians used H emp as an in­cense during the firs t millennium B. c.Although at first prohibited among Isla­mic peoples, Hashish spread widelywest throughout Asia Minor. In 1378,authorities tried to extirpate Hempfrom Arabian territory by the imposi­tio n of harsh punishments.

Cannabis exten ded early and widelyfrom Asia Minor into Africa, partlyunder the pressure of Islamic influ­ence, but the use of Hemp transcendsIslamic areas. It is widely believed thatHemp was introduced also with slavesfro m Malaya . Commonly known inAfrica as Kif or Dagga, the plant has

"Hemp is the 'giver of joy,' 'heaven's pil ot,' 'the heavenly guide,'' the heaven of th e poor man,' ' the soo ther of sorrows.'

No god, no man is as good as the religious hemp drinker."- H emp Drug

Co mmission Report (1884)

ent ered into archaic native cultures insocial and religious contexts. The Hot­tentots, Bushmen, and Kaffirs usedH emp for centuries as a medi~ine andas an intoxicant . In an ancient trib alcerem ony in the Zamb esi Valley, parti ­cipants inhal ed vapors fro m a pile ofsmoldering H emp ; later, reed tub esand pipes wer e employed, and theplant material was burned on an altar.Th e Kasai tri bes of th e Congo haverevived an old Riamba cult in whichHemp, replacing ancient fetishes andsymbols, was elevated to a god- aprotector against ph ysical and spiritualharm. Treaties are sealed with puffs ofsmoke from calabash pipes. H emp­smoking and H ashish -snuffing cultsexist in many parts o f east Africa,especiall y near Lake Victoria.

Hemp has spread to many areas of theN ew World, but with few excepti onsthe plant has not penetrated signifi­cantly into many N ative American reli­gious beliefs and ceremonies. There are,however, exceptio ns, such as its useunder the name Rosa Maria, by the Te­pecano Indians of northwest Mexico,who occasionally employ H emp when

Peyote is not available. It has recentlybeen learn ed that Indians in the Mexi­can states of Veracru z, Hidalgo, andPuebla practice a communal curing ce­remo ny wi th a plant called Santa Rosa,identified as Cann abis sativa, which isconsidered both a plant and a sacred in­tercessor with the Virgin. Although theceremony is based main ly on Christianelements, th e plant is worshiped as anEarth deity and is tho ugh t to be aliveand to represent a part of the heart ofGod. The participants in this cult be­lieve that the plant can be dangerou sand that it can assum e th e form of aman 's soul, make him ill, enrage him,and even cause death.

Sixty years ago, when Mexican la­borers introduced the smoking of Mar­ijuana to the United States, it spre adacross the South, and by the 1920s itsuse was established in New Orleans,confined primarily among the poor andmin ority groups. The continued spreadof the custo m in the United States andEurope has resulted in a still unresolvedcontroversy.

Cannabis sativa was officially in theu.s. Ph arm acopoeia until 1937, recom-

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Aboveleft: In C. sativa, well-developedhairs of glandular and non-glandularkindsareshown invarious stages ofdevelopment.

Top right: Differenttypesof glandularhairs of Cannabis.Thecapitateglandwitha prominentpseudo-stalkonthesurfaceof theanther wall that faces thecenter of the flower.

Bottom right: Bulbous gland from adax­ialleaf surface. The stalk andheadaremade upof twocellseach.Thetipof theglandpossesses a small, disk-shapedregion below whichresin accumulatesin theextended membrane.

Page 98:Above, Cannabis sativaisbeingharvested forHempat theturnof thecentury. This species attains aheight of 18feet (6m). Below, anextre­mely potentHashish is produced fromCannabis indica, a low, pyramidal,densely branched species, asshownabovegrowingwild near Kandahar,Afghanistan.

99

Top: Drawing byW. Miller. Copyright1978 TheNewYorker Magazine,Inc."Hey, what is this stuff?It makes every­thing I think seem profound."

Below: Gustave Dote's painting"Com­position of the Death of Gerard de Ner­val,"for whichhe mayhave used Can­nabisandOpium forinspiration. ThecontemporaryAmericancartoon showsin a humorous waythe resurrectionofthis belief.

100

mended for a wide variety of disorders,especially as a mild sedative. It is nolonger an official drug, although re­search in the medical potential of someof the cannabinolic constituents or theirsemi-synthetic analogs is at present veryactive, particularly in relation to the sideeffects of cancer therapy.

The psychoactive effects of Cannabispreparations vary widely, depending ondosage, the preparation and the type ofplant used, the method of administra­tion, the personality of the user, andthe socia l and cultural background.Perhaps the most frequent characteris­tic is a dreamy state. Long forgottenevents are often recalled and thoughtsoccur in unrelated sequences. Percep­tion of time, and occasionally of space,is altered. Visual and auditory halluci­nations sometimes follow the use oflarge doses. Euphoria, excitement, in­ner happiness-often with hilarity andlaughter-are typical. In some cases, afinal mood of depression may be ex­perienced.

,0..

",-.,": :,. " .. .

Above: Marijuanais madefrom thedriedandslightlyfermented blossomsof the femin ineHempplant.

Left: In Lewis Carroll'sAlicein Wonder­land, theencounter betweenAliceandthe languorous caterpillar is asfollows:"Shestretched herself up ontiptoe, andpeeped overthe edgeof themushroom,andher eyes immediatelymetthoseofa large bluecaterpillar that wassittingonthetop, with its armsfolded, quietlysmokinga long hookah, andtaking nottheslightestnotice of heror anythingelse:'

"This marvelous experience oftenoccurs as if it were the effect of a

superior and invisible power actingon the person from without .

This delightful and singular state .gives no advance warning.

It is as unexpected as a ghost,an intermittent haunting

from which we must draw,if we are wise,

the certainly of a better existence.This acuteness of thought,

this enthusiasm of the senses andthe spirit must have appeared to

man through the agesas the first blessing."

- Charles BaudelaireLes Paradis Artificiels

Above: In thenineteenth century, a se­lectgroup of European artistsandwri­tersturned to psychoactive agentsinanattempt to achieve whathas come toberegarded as"mind-expansion" or "mind­alteration."Manypeople, such astheFrench poetBaudelaire(below), be­lieved thatcreativeabilitycouldbegreatly enhanced bytheuse of Canna­bis. In fact, Baudelairewrotevivid de­scriptionsof his personalexperiencesunder the influence of Cannabis.

101

20 CLAVICEPSErgot

ST. ANTHON Y'S FIRE

Above: WhileErgot infects a number ofdifferent grasses, it is bestknown as aparasite on the inflorescence of rye.

Page 103top: The Ergotof rye arecon­siderably bigger thanthoseof the Pas­palumgrass.

Page 103 left: Fruiting bodies of Clavi­cepspurpurea. The specific nameofthisfungusmeans "purple,"a color thatin antiquitywaslinked withpowers oftheunderworld.

Page 103 right: When grain is infectedby Ergot, long black growths appearonthe heads, calledsclerotium.

102

"The ancient testimony about Eleusis isun animous and unamb iguous. Eleusiswas the sup reme experience in an initia­te's life. It was both ph ysical and mysti­cal: trembling, vertigo, cold sweat, andth en a sight that made all previous see­ing seem like blindness, a sense of aweand wonder at a brilliance that caused aprofound silence, since what had justbeen seen and felt could never be com­municated; words were un equal to th etask. These symptoms are unmi stakablythe experience induced by a hallucino­gen. Gree ks, and indeed some of themost famous and int elligent amongthem, could experience and ente r fullyinto.such irra tio nality . . .

"E leusis was different from the con ­vivial inebriation of friends ... In theirvarious ways, other Greek cults tooenacted aspects of the ancient commu­nion practiced between gods and men,between the living and the dead, but itwas at Eleusis alone that the experi­ence occurred with overwhelming fin­ality . . .

"Fo r close on to two thousand years,a few of the ancient Greeks passedeach year through the portals of Eleu­sis. There they celebrated th e divinegift to mankind of the cultivated grain,and they were also initi ated into theawesome powers of the nether wo rldth rou gh the purple dark of the grain'ssibling . . ."

Thus in an inte rdisciplinary stu dybased on thre e different approac hes,ethnomycology, classical studies, andchemistry, the secre t rites of ancientGreece, which have remained a pu zzlefor four thousand years, are associatedwit h into xicatio n caused by the fungusClaviceps, which grows paras itica lly oncerta in cereals.

It is now believed that the intoxicantunderlyin g the ecstasy experienced inthe mysteries was induced by Clavicepspaspali, and possibly other spec ies,growing on various Loliums and othercereal grasses native to Greece. The bio­dynamical principles characteristic ofthe well-known Ergot, or Clavicepspur­purea, have been isolat ed fro m some ofth e other species of thi s fun gal parasite .

The reasons for consi dering the Eleusianmysteries to be associated with the useof Claviceps are long and complex, bu tthe arguments are most convincing andappare ntly from several disciplinessound. Basically, it has now been shownth at several species of Clav iceps can in­fect a number of wild grasses in Greece.

By far the most important species ofClav iceps is C. purpurea, the Ergot ofrye (Secale cereale). This hard , brownor purplish black sclerotium of a fun gusoriginating in the caryopsis of rye isexceedingly common in Eu rope. Thenative nomenclature of Clav iceps pU1'­purea is ind eed complex. Ergot, th eFrench word for "spur " of a cock, nowgenera lly employed in numerous lan­guages, was first applie d to the fung usin a region not far fro m Paris. Thereare, however, two dozen ot her wordsfor the sclerotium in French; sixty-tw overnacular names in German, Mutter­korn being the most commonly used.There are twe nty-one in Dutch, fifteenin the Scandinavian languages, fourteenin Italian, and seven in English in addi ­tion to the borrowed word Ergot. Thisproliferati on of vernacular terminologyind icates the importance of the fun gusin European countries.

Although its medicinal use was un­known in classical times, it was early re­cognized as a poi son. As far back as 600B. C., the Assyri ans called the spurlikegrowth or Ergot a "noxious pustul e inth e ear of the grain." The sacred booksof the Parsees (about 350 B. c.) reported:"Amo ng the evil things created by An­gro May nes are noxious grasses thatcause pregnant women to drop th ewomb and die in childbed." Althoughthe ancient Greeks appare ntly em­ployed the fungus in their religious ri­tuals, they did not eat rye because ofthe "b lack malo dorous produce ofThrace and Macedonia." Rye was notint roduced into classical Europe untilthe beginning of the Christian era, soErgot poisoning did not enter into Ro­man pharmaceutic al literature.

Th e earliest undoubted reports of Er­got po isoning appe ared dur ing the Mid­dle Ages, when bizarre epidemics broke

•

out in various parts of Euro pe, takingthousands of lives and causing untoldagony and suffering. These epidem icsmanifested themselves in two forms:those with nervous convulsions and epi­leptic symp toms; those with gangrene,mum mifications, atrophy, and occa­sional loss of extremities- noses , ear­lobes, fingers, toes, and feet. D elirium

and hallucinations were common symp­toms of the intoxication, whic h was fre­quently fatal. An early European visita­tion of ergotism described it as "a greatplague of swollen blisters [that] con­sumed the people by a loathsome rot."Abortions of women were general dur­ing these attacks. The "Holy Fire" wasalways characterized by a feeling ofburning in the feet and hands .

St. Anthony, after whom the "fire"was named, lived as a religious hermitin Egyp t; he died at the age of 105 inA. D. 356. He is the protecting saintagainst fire, epilepsy, and infection.During the Crusa des, the knightsbrought back his remains to Dauphine,in France, for burial. It was here in D au­phine that the earliest recognized plagueof "Holy Fire " occurred in 1039. Awealthy citizen, Gaston, and his sonwere among the afflicted, and Gaston

The Chemistry of Ergot

The active ingredients in Ergot are indole alkaloids, all derived from the samebasic compound , lysergic acid. The most important alkaloids in Ergot of ryeare ergotamine and ergotoxine, in which lysergic acid is connected with apeptide radical consist ing of three amino acids. These alkaloids and theirderivatives have various medicinal uses.

In toxic doses they cause gangrene because of their vasoconstr ictingpropert ies. Ergot from wild grasses, however, contains essentially simplelysergic acid amides, ergine, and lysergic acid-hydroxyethylamide (foundonly in traces in Ergot of rye). These psychotrop ic alkaloids may have playeda role in the convulsive form of ergotism. They occur as the main activeprinciples in the Mexican Morning Glory Ololiuqui (Turbina corymbosa) [seepage 187 for the molecu lar model of the chemical structure ] and other Bind­weeds (Ipomoea violacea, Argyreia nervosa).

103

{flU/,I: It is possible thatthealkaloid-richEIU'I! 01 thePaspalumgrass wasusedas " secret ingredient in Kykeon, theill lllqlory drink of Eleusis.

Al l, 'I 'e left: The goddess Demeter withsll"nves of grain andopiumpodsin herh 1l1 1l1.

AI" 'I 'e righl: The Plutoniuonof Eleusis.

Pave' 105 bottom:One of the rare out­brenksof ergotismin England attacked0 11" family inWattishamin 1762. SoUllltt'ualwas this plaguethatit has beenmSlllorializedwitha plaque in theparishctHlidl .

10-1

promised to give all his wealth to aidother victims if St. Anthony would curehim and his son . Thus it was that in thisFrench town a hospital to care for suf­ferers was founded and the Order of St.Anthony was also estab lished.

A pilgrimage to shrines consecratedto St. Anthony was believed to curethe disease. But a change in diet-breadfree of Ergo t-may have had a benefi­cial effect. It was not until 1676-somefive hundred years after the height of St.Anthony's fire-that the real cause ofergotism was discovered, whereuponmeasures of control were set up. Millersin the Mid dle Ages frequently keptclean rye flour for the affluent, sellingflour made from "spur red rye "-thatinfected with Ergot-to poorer custo ­mers. O nce the cause was known, vigi­lance in the mills quickly reduced theepidemics of St. Anthon y's fire.

Even today, however, there are occa­siona l outbreaks of epidemics in whichwhole villages are affected. The mostnotorious recent attacks have occurredin France and Belgium in 1953 and inthe Ukraine and Ireland in 1929. Thereare suggestions that the alleged out­breaks of witchcraft in colonial N ewEngland, especially in Salem, Massachu-

sett~, may have been due to Ergot poi ­sonmg.

European midwives had long knownthat Ergo t could aid in cases of difficultchildbirth and had used the fungus fortha t purpose. Chemicals isolated fro mErgot are still official drugs to indu cecontraction of involuntary muscles instubborn childbi rth. The earliest medi­cal report of the obstetric value of Ergo twas published in 1582 by Lonicer ofFrankfurt, who stated that Ergot­parasitized rye is of sovereign efficiencyin pre gnancy pains . Although widelyemp loyed by midwives , Ergot was firstemployed by a physician when Des ­granges of Lyons experimented with itand pu blished his observations in 1818.The Swiss botanist Bauhin describedErgot in 1595, and his son later pro­duced the first illustration of Ergot in1658. In 1676, the French physician­botanist Dodart added much scientifickno wledge to the story of Ergot . H e ad­vised the French Academ y that the onlyway to control plagues of ergotism wasto sift the rye to extract the Ergo t sporesfrom it. But even as late as 1750, bota­nists still were uncertain how Ergo tgrew and why it was toxic. In 1711 andagain in 1761, learned botanists accepted

\,.-. .-...J

', :e:d)u~rdjrift

f''''bd ::- ....

..At.: .

~~.9Jllltterfo t·n,:;:~; . : . ,' ..,. ...~ . al~ tijlcr .ollgcbfidjm Urfodjc!:.-.-" \ . ' •~:" . ber 'rogcntl.nn ten

stricD ~(fr~ti{fbdt: .

~;r~ ------~--'.i.. (!}ottillgc n?t.} lin lUcrlolO tit mJilr;c lU4I\tm~td' lii f ,

t~·~;: .the view that the black spur was formedby the germinating embryo, which cau­sed a hypertrophied growth in place ofa normal caryopsis. Only in 1764 didthe German botanist von Miinchhausendeclare that Ergot was a fungal infec­tion, but his opinion was not accepteduntil the famous bot anist A. P. de Can­dolle proved it in 1815. A widely ac­claimed report of Ergot efficacy waspublished by Dr. John Stearns in 1808.A few years later, a Massachusetts doc ­tor, Prescott, gave a dissertation on the"natural history and medicinal effects"of Ergot, wh ich, when publ ished in1813, called the attention of medicalscience in the N ew World to th e re -

markable properties of the fungus .From that time on, Ergot was increas ­ingly employed in medicine, although itwas not- accepted in the Pharmacopoeiaunt il 1836.

It was not, however, until th e 1920sth at the active prin ciples of Clavicepspurpurea were kn own: ergotamine in1921; ergo novine in 1935. Subsequently,a number of other related alkalo ids havebeen discovered in the plant. Eventhough this dangerous infection of ryenever had a major magico-religious rolein European culture, it did earn a specia lplace as a plant having connections withspiritual forces-a kind of malevolentplant of the gods.

Above left: Persephone, theQueen ofthe Dead, making an offering of shaftsof grain~ is enthroned beside herhus­band, Hades, Lord of the Underworld.Originally a goddess associatedwithgrain, shewasabducted to the Under­worldbyHades, and her return from therealmof thedeadwasconnected withsymbolic rebirthexperiencesin theEleusinian mysteries, wherethewor­shipers believed that the restoration ofthegoddess to the upper world ensuredthe faithful a resurrection. It is possiblethattheseamazing events in Perse­phone's lifemighthavebeenlinked withintoxication fromErgot, sinceGreeksophistication in thechemical proper­ties of plants waswell developed.

Aboveright: The title page of a Germanbook from 1771, Ergot: AnAI/egedCause of theSo-celled St. Anthony'sFire.

105

27

28

29

DATURAINNOXIAToloache

DATURA METELDatura

DATURA STRAMONIUMThornApple

HOLY FLOWEROF THE NORTH STAR

Aboveleft:TheDaturastramoniumvar.tatula is the most common in theHima­layas. It is easily recognized by thevioletcolor of the flower.

Above right:The sacred Thorn Apple(Datura metel) isoften found in theHimalayason altarsto thegods of themountains (photo taken in Tukche,Nepal).

Belowright: Ayellow-flowered Daturametelin full bloom.

106

A beauti ful Zuni Ind ian legend tells ofthe divine origin of Aneglakya, Daturainn oxia, their most sacred plant:

"In the olden tim e a boy and a girl,brother and sister (the boy's name wasA'ne glakya and the girl's name A'n egla­kyatsi'tsa), lived in the interior of theearth, but they often came to the outerwo rld and walked about a great deal,observing closely everything they sawand heard and repeatin g all to theirmother. Thi s constant talking did notplease the Divine Ones (twin sons ofth e Sun Father). On meetin g th e boyand the girl the D ivine Ones asked,'How are you ?' and the brother and sis­ter answered, 'We are happy.' (Some­times A'neglakya and A'n eglakyatsi't saappeared on Earth as old people.) Th eytold the Divine Ones how th ey couldmake one sleep and see ghosts, andhow they could make one walk about alittl e and see one who had committedtheft. After this meeting the D ivineO nes concluded that A'n eglakya andA'neglakyatsi' tsa knew too much andthat they should be banish ed for all tim efrom this wo rld; so the Divine O nes

caused the brother and sister to disap­pear into the earth forever, Flowerssprang up at the spo t where the two des­cended- flow ers exactly like th ose th atthey wore on each side of their headswhen visiting the earth. Th e DivineO nes called the plant 'a 'neglakya' afterthe boy's name. Th e original plant hasmany children scattered over the earth ;some of the blossoms are tinged withyellow, some with blue, some with red,some are all white-the colors belon g­ing to the four cardinal points. "

This and related species of Datura

The Chemistry of Datura

The various species of Datura contain the same major alkaloids as relatedsolanaceous plants (Angel's Trumpet, Belladonna, Henbane, and Mandrake)hyoscyamine and, in greatest concentration , scopolamine. Meteloidine is acharacteristic secondary alkaloid of D. mete!.

have long been emp loyed as sacred hal­lucinogens, espec ially in Mexico and theAmerican Southwest, and have playedmajor ro les in native medicine andmagico-religious rites . Their undoub teddanger as potent narcotics, however, hasnever been cha llenged, even from ear­liest times.

In the O ld World, Datura has had along history as a medicine and sacredhallucinogen, although the genus hasapparently never enjoyed the ceremo­nial role that it has had in the NewWorld. Early Sanskrit and Chinesewritings mention Datura metel. It wasundoubtedly this species that the Ara­bian doctor Avicenna reported in theeleventh century under the name [ou z­mathal ("metel nut"); this report wasrepeated in Dioscorides' writings. Thename metel is taken from this Arabicterm, while the generic epithet Daturawas adapted to Latin by Linnaeus fromthe Sanskrit Dhatura. In China, thep lant was considered sacred: when Bud­dha was preaching, heave n sprinkled theplant with dew or raindrops. A Taoistlegend maintains that Datura metel is

one of the circumpolar stars and thatenvoys to earth from this star carry aflower of the plant in their hand. Severa lspec ies of Datura we re introduced intoChina from India between th e Sung andMing dynasties-that is, between A. D.

960 and 1644- so they were not re­co rded in earlier herbals. The herbalistLi Shih-chen reported the medicinaluses of one of the species known asMan-r'o-lo in 1596: the flowers andseeds were employed to treat eruptionson the face, and the plant was prescribedinternally for colds, nervous disorders,and other problems. It was taken to­gether with Cannabis in wine as an an­esthesia for minor surgical operations.Its narcotic properties were known tothe Chinese, for Li Shih-cheri person­ally experimented on himself and wrote:"According to traditions, it is allegedthat w hen the flowers are picked foruse with wine while one is laughing,th e wine wi ll cause one to producelaughing movements; and w hen theflowers are picked while one is dancing,th e wine wi ll cause one to produce dan­cing movements. [I have found out] that

Top:Traditional depiction of theThornAppleon a Tibetanmedicinal painting.

Above left: The hangingfruit of Daturainnoxia.The seeds that are chewed byshamans to inducea clairvoyant tranceare clearly visible.

Abovemiddle: Many species of Daturahaveplayed avitalmedicinalandineb­riant rolein Mexicosinceearlytimes.This pagefromthe"Badianus Manu­script" (Codex Berberini Latina241,Folio 29)depicts twospecies of Daturaanddescribestheirtherapeutic uses.Thisdocument of 1542 is thefirstherbalto bewrittenin theNewWorld.

Aboveright: A Datura flower is left asanofferingon a ShivaLingam at Pashupa­tinath(Nepal).

107

Right: Thetypical fruitof the Dafurametel. In Indiait is given to thegodShivaas an offering.

Below:It wasbelieved thatwhen Bud­dha preached, dewar raindrops fellfrom heaven on Datura. This bronzeshrine fromthe Sui periodof China de­pictsAmitabha Buddha seated underthe jeweled trees of Paradise.

108

such movements will be produced whenone beco mes half-drunk wi th th e wineand someone else laughs or dances toinduce these actio ns."

In India, it was called tuft of Shiva, thegod of destruction. Dancing girls some­times dru gged wine with its seeds, andwhoever drank of the po tion, appearingin possess ion of his senses, gave answersto questions, although he had no contro lof his will, was ignorant of whom he wasaddressing, and lost all memory of whathe did w hen the intoxication wore off.For this reason, many Indians called theplant "drunka rd," "madman," "decei­ver," and "foolmaker," The Britishtravele r Hardwicke found this plantcommon in mounta in villages in Indiain 1796 and reported that an infusion ofth e seeds was used to increase th e intox­ication from alcoholic drinks. Duringthe Sanskritic period, Indian medicine

valued Datura metel for trea ting menta ldisorders, various fevers, tumors, breastinflammations, skin diseases, and diar­rhea.

In other part s of Asia, D. metel wasvalued and similarly employe d in nativemedicine and as an intoxicant. Even to­day, seeds or powdered leaves of thisplant are often mixed with Cannabis orTobacco and smoked in Indochina. In

1578, its use as an aphrodisiac in theEast Indies was reported. From earliestclassical times, the dange rs of D aturaw ere recognized. The En glish herbalistGerard believed that Datura was th eH ippomanes that the Greek writerTheocritus mentioned as driving horsesmad.

Datura stramonium var. [erox, a spe­cies now widely distributed in th e war­mer parts of both hem ispheres, has usesalmost identi cal with th ose of D. m ete!.It is employed especially in parts ofAfrica. In Tanzani a, it is added toPombe, a kind of beer, for its inebri ating

to induce visual hallucinations but also:,.'\, for a great variety of medicin al uses,

-~. :.:;.,~~ especially when applied to the body to. .Jti.~ " l reli eve rheum atic pains and to redu ce

sw ellings. "Writing shortly after the conquest of

Mexico, Hernandez mentioned its med­icinal value but warned that excessiveuse would drive patients to madnesswith "various and vain imaginations."Neither its magico-religious nor its th er­apeutic use has diminished in Mexico.Amo ng the Yaqui, for examp le, it is ta­ken by women to lessen the pain ofchildbirth. It is considered so powerfulthat it can be handled only by "someo neof aut ho rity." One ethnobotanist wro te:"My collecting these plants was oftenaccompanied with warn ings that Iwould go crazy and die because I wasmistreatin g them. Som e Indians refusedto talk to me for several days afterward."

Page 108 bottom right:The openingblossomof a Datura innoxia. TheMayanscall it xtohk'uh, "toward thegods,"andstill use it for shamanicpur­posessuch as divination andmedicinalhealing.

Aboveleft:A Datura fruithas been leftasanoffering at theimage of Nandi,Shiva's sacred steer.

CH·AMICO~' : " :: "

LaunleaS<llueion! Canoeido par lastribus amazanicasdelAlta Ueayal i. EI perlume CHAMICO Ie dO energio

,para hater el amor cLIO'nlas veces quieros yamarrar a10 persona que quieros . . OUieres ser sensual? Usa este .

perlume. ~"" ." . ".'Unis~x ". ".._~~;,''':;$ .~ ..r · ~b··: ,r' .". ~

effects. A commo n medicalu se in Africais smoking the leaves to relieve asthm aand pulm onary pro blems.

In the N ew World, the Mexicans callDatura Toloache, a mod ern version ofthe ancient Aztec Toloatzin (that is,"inclined head," in reference to its nod ­ding fruit). It was also kn own in theN ahuatl language as Tolohuaxihuitland Tlapatl. It was employed not only

Toloache is rather widely added to mes­cal, a distilled liqu or fro m Agave, or toTesguino, a fermented maize drink, as anadded intoxicant-"as a catalyst and toinduce a good feeling and visions."Some Mexicans prepare a fatty ointmentcontaining seeds and leaves of Toloache,which is rubbed over the abdomen to in­duce visual hallucinations.

Among the Indians of the Southwest ,

Bottom left: In northern India Daturafruit is threadedintogarlands andoffered to the Hindugod Shiva.

Bottomright:The Curanderos (localhealers)of northern Peruenjoy using aperfume that is named Chamico (ThornApple).

109

Top left:Thethorn-protected fruit of ararespecies of ThornApple.

Bottom left: The blossoms of the ThornApple (Datura stramonium) open in theevening, exude a delightful scentthroughout thenight, andfadein themorning.

Right:A purplevarietyof the Daturametel, betterknown as Datura fastuosa.Inparticular, thisplantis usedin Africaas an inebriant in initiation rites.

"I ate the thorn apple leavesAnd the leaves made medizzy.

I ate the thorn apple.leavesAnd the leaves made medizzy.

I ate the thorn apple flowersAnd the drink made mestagger.

The hunter's bow remainingHe overtook and killed me .

Cut and threw my hornsaway,The hunter, reed remaining.

He overtook and killed meCut and threw my feet away.

Now the flies become crazyAnd drop with flappingwmgs.

No drunken butterflies sitWith opening and shuttingwings."

-F. RusselPima hunting song

110

D. innoxia has assumed extraordinaryimportance as a sacred element and isthe most widely used plant to inducehallucinations. The Zunis believe thatthe plant belongs to the Rain PriestFraternity and rain priests alone maycollect its roots. These priests put thepowdered root into their eyes to com­mune with the Feathered Kingdom atnight, and they chew the roots to askthe dead to intercede with the spiritsfor rain . These priests further use D. in­noxia for its analgesic effects, to deadenpain during simple operations, bone­setting, and cleaning ulcerated wounds.The Yokut, who call the plant Tanayin,take the drug only during the spring,since it is considered to be poisonous inthe summer; it is given to adolescentboys and girls only once in a lifetime toensure a good and a long life.

Boys and girls of the Tubatulobaltribe drink Datura after puberty to"obtain life," and adults use it to obtainvisions. The roots are macerated andsoaked in water for ten hours; afterdrinking large amounts of this liquor,the youths fall into a stupor accompa­nied by hallucinations that may last upto twenty-four hours. If an animal-aneagle, a hawk, for example-is seen dur­ing the visions, it becomes the child's"pet" or spiritual mascot for life: if"life" is seen, the child acquires a ghost.The ghost is the ideal object to appear,since it cannot die. Children never maykill the animal "pet" that they see intheir Datura vision, for these "pets"may visit during serious illness and ef­fect a cure .

The Yuman tribes believe that the re­action of braves under the influence ofToloache may foretell their future.These people use the plant to gain oc­cult power. If birds sing to a man in aDatura trance, he acquires the powerto cure.

The Navajo take Datura for its vi­sionary properties, valuing it for diag­nosis, healing, and purely intoxicatinguse. Navajo use is magic-oriented. Vi­sions induced by this drug are especiallyvalued, since they reveal certain animalspossessing special significance. Uponlearning from these visions the cause ofa disease, a chant may be prescribed. If aman be repulsed in love by a girl, heseeks revenge by putting her saliva ordust from her moccasins on a Datura,then the singing of a chant will immedi­ately drive the girl mad .

Datura stramonium is now believedto be native to eastern America, wherethe Algonquins and other tribes mayhave employed it as a ceremonial hallu­cinogen. Indians of Virginia used a toxicmedicine called wysoccan in initiatoryrites: the Huskanawing ceremony. Theactive ingredient was probably Daturastramonium. Youths were confined forlong periods, given "no other substancebut the infusion or decoction of somepoisonous, intoxicating roots" and"they became stark, staring mad, inwhich raving condition they were kepteighteen or twenty days." During theordeal, they "unlive their former lives"and begin manhood by losing all mem­ory of ever having been boys .

There is in Mexico a curious species

Right: A magicianof Kuma in northeastAfrica leadsentranced women in a ritualdance. The substancethattheyingest con­sists of a secret mixture of many differentplants, most of which are unknown. Evi­dence suggests that Datura is among them.Thewomen arepossessedby thespiritswho use themas their medium.

of Datura, so distinct that a sepa ratesection of th e genus has been set up forits classification. It is D. ceratocaula, aflesh y plant with thick, forking stemsof bo gs, or gro wing in water. Know n asTorna Loco ("maddening plant"), it ispowerfu lly narcot ic. In ancient M exico,it was considered "siste r of O loliuqui"and was held in grea t veneration. Littleis kn own concern ing its use today forhallucinogenic purposes.

T he effects of all spec ies are similar,since their cons tituents are so mu chalike. Physiological activity begins w itha feeling of lassitu de and progresses intoa period of hallucinations foll owed bydeep sleep and loss of consciou sness. Inexcess ive doses, death or permanent in­sanity may occur. So potent is th e psy­choactivity of all spec ies of Datura th atit is patentl y clear why peop les in indi­geno us cultures aro und the wo rld haveclassed th em as plants of the gods.

Left: The illustration from the earlywritingsof Sahagun, the Spanish friarwho wrote shortly after the conquestof Mexico, pictures the utilization of

an infusion of Datura to relieverheumatism. This use is still foundrecommended in modernpharmacopoeias.

~'/~~'.. '~". '-, !II-

'''~>o. ' ..

III

90 TABERNANTHEIboga

GUIDE TO THE ANCESTORS

Page 113 top: Dried Iboga roots.

Page 113 middleleft: Old wooden fetishobjects of theFang, whowereonceassociated withan Ibogacult.

Page 113middle right:Theconspicu­ous brightyellowfruitsof the Iboga.

"Zame ye Mebege [the last of the crea­tor gods] gave us Eboka. O ne day .. . hesaw . . . the Pygmy Bitamu, high in anAtanga tree, gathering its fruit . H e madehim fall. He died, and Zame brought hisspirit to him . Zame cut off the little fin­gers and the little toes of the cadaver ofthe Pygmy and planted th em in variousparts of the forest . The y grew into theEboka bush."

open the head," thus inducing a contactwith th e ancesto rs through collapse andhallucin ations."

The dru g has far-reaching social in­fluence. According to the natives, theiniti ate cannot ent er the cult until hehas seen Bwiti, and the only way to seeBwiti is to eat Iboga. The compl ex cere­monies and tribal dances associatedwith consumption of Iboga vary greatly

Left:The rootsof the Ibogabushare ri­tuallyeatenbythe Bwiticult in order tocall forth the ancestors.

Right: Iboga, necessary for rituals, isgrownat the temple of the Bwiti cult.

112

One of the few members of the Apo­cynac eae utilized as a hallucinogen, thisshru b attains a height of 4 to 6 feet (1.5­2 m). Its yellowish root is th e active partof the plant, containin g the psychoac­tive alkaloids. Th e root bark is raspedand eaten directly as raspin gs or as apowder or is drunk as an infusion .

Iboga is basic to the Bwit i cult andother secret societi es in Gabon andZaire. The drug is taken in two ways:regularly in limited doses before and inthe early part of the ceremonies, fol­lowed after midni ght by a smallerdos e; and once or twice during the in­itiati on to the cult in excessive doses ofone to three basketfuls over an eight­to twenty-four-hour period, to "break

from locality to locality. Iboga entersalso other aspects of Bwiti's cont rol ofevents. Sorce rers take the dru g to seekinformat ion from the spirit world, andleaders of the cult may consume Ibogafor a full day before asking advice fromancestors .

Iboga is intimately associated withdeath : the plant is frequently anthropo­morphi zed as a supernatural being, a"generic ancestor," which can so highlyvalue or despise an individual that it cancarry him away to the realm of the dead.There are sometimes deaths from theexcessive doses taken during initiations,but the int oxication usually so interfereswith motor activity that the initiatesmust sit gazing intently into space,

eventually collapsing and having to becarried to a special house or for est hide­out. Durin g this almost comatose peri­od, the "shadow" (soul ) leaves the bodyto wander with the ancestors in the landof the dead. The banzie (angels)- theiniti ates-relate their visions as follows :"A dead relative came to me in my sleepand told me to eat it"; "I was sick andwas counseled to eat Iboga to cure

myself"; "I wanted to know God-tokn ow things of the dead and the landbeyond"; "I walked or flew over a lon g,multicolored road or over many riverswhich led me to my ancesto rs, who th entook me to the great gods."

Iboga may act as a po werful stimu­lant , enabling the partaker to maintainextraordinary physical exertion withoutfatigue over a lon g period. The bodymay feel light er, and levitation-a feel­ing of floating-is often experienced.Spectrums or rainbowlike effects areseen in surrounding objects, indi cationsto the banzie that the ini tiate is ap­proaching the realms of the ancesto rsand of the gods. Time perception is al­tered; time is length ened, and initi ates

The Chemistry of Iboga

As with other hallucinogens, especially Teonanacatl (Psilocybe spp.) andOloliuqui, the active principles of Tabernanthe iboga belong to the large classof indole alkaloids. Ibogaine , which can be produced synthetically, is the mainalkaloid of T. iboga. Its hallucinogenic effects are accompanied by strong sti­mulation of the central nervous system.

Addiction Therapy with Ibogaine

Iboga roots contain an alkaloid known as ibogaine. This substance was firstintroduced in the 1960s by the Chilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo as a''fantasy-enhancing drug" for psychotherapy. Today, ibogaine is in the spot­light of neuropsychological research , which has shown that the alkaloid canease drug addiction (to such drugs as heroin and cocaine) and make way fora cure. Ibogaine calms the motor activity that is present when under the influ­ence of an opiate. The chiropractor Karl Naeher says that "Ibogaine, whentaken in one high dose by an opiate addict , drastically reduces withdrawalsymptoms and, at the same time, causes a 'trip' that reveals such deep in­sights into the personal causes of the addiction that the majority of those whoundergo this type of therapy can go for months without a relapse. But severaladdit ional sessions are required before a lasting stabilization is evident."

Research into the potential use of ibogaine as a treatment for substanceabuse is being carried out by Deborah Mash and her team in Miami.

113

/ 'age 115top: The seeds of the Ibogahushcan germinate only under particu­1:lr conditions. They themselves contain110 activecompounds.

Page 115right: Music plays a centralrole in the Switi cult.Theharpplayernot onlyallowsthestrings to resonate,but alsosings liturgies in which thecosmology and worldviewof the tribeareexpressed.

Top left: The typical leaves of the Ibogabush.

Top right:A herbariumspecimen ofTabernantheiboga in a comparativebotanical collection.

feel that their spiritual trip has takenmany hou rs or even day s. The bod y isseen as detached: one user reported,"H ere I am, and th ere is my bod y goingthrough its action." Large doses indu ceauditory, olfacto ry, and gustato ry syn ­esthes ia. Mood may vary greatly fro mfear to eup horia.

An En glishm an writing on Gabonmenti oned "Ero ga" under "fetish plants"as early as 1819. De scribing it as a"favori te bu t violent medicin e," heundou btedly saw it powd ered and as­sumed that it rep resented a charredfungus. French and Belgian explorersencounte red thi s remarkable drug andthe cults using it a lit tle over a centuryago. Th ey sta ted that th e drug greatlyincreased muscular strength and endur­ance and that it had aphrodisiac proper­ties. An early repo rt , in 1864, insistedtha t Iboga is not tox ic except in highdoses, that "warriors and hunters use itconstantly to keep themselves awake

. ".:,

f~ -~.~~:;- alL:::---- '--- J

description of th e exper iences of an in­itiate un der high dosage of the drug:"Soon all his sinews str etch out in anextraordinary fashion . An epilepticmadnes s seizes him, during which, un ­conscious, he mouths words which,when heard by th e initiated ones, havea prophetic meaning and prove that thefetish has entered him."

Other plant s of reputed narc oticproperties are involved in the Iboga

A/JOve left and right: During the initiationril(l[; of the Switi cult, the novices ingestextremely highdoses of the Iboga rootin order to attain contact with thean­cestors during thepowerfulritual.

11-1

during night watches ... " In the 1880s,th e Germans met it in Ca mer oon(northern Gabon), and in 1898 it wasreported that th e root had an "excitingeffect on the nervou s system so that itsuse is highly valued on long, tiringmarche s, on len gth y canoe voyages,and on diffi cult night wa tches."

The earliest report of its hallucino­genic effects dates from 1903, with the

cults, sometimes used alone, sometimesas admixtures wi th Tabernantbe ibogaitself. Cannabis sativa-known as Yamaor Beyama-may often be smoked fol­lowing ingestion of small doses of Ibo­gao In Ga bon, Cannabis resin may onoccasion be eaten with Iboga. Alan, theeupho rbiaceous A lchomea f/ oribunda,is often con sumed in large amounts to

help produce the collapse experienced

in Bwiti initi ations; in southe rn Ga bon ,it is mixed with Iboga. Another euphor­biaceou s plant- Ayan-beyem or Elaeo­pho rbia dmpifera-m'J.Y be taken dur­ing Bw iti initi ations, w hen Alan is slowto take effect; the latex is applied di ­rectly to the eyes with a parrot feather,a~f~cting the op tical nerve and induc ingVISIO ns.

T he Bw iti cult has been growing innumber of conve rts and in socia lstre ngth, not waning, in recent decades.It repr esents a stro ng native element in achangi ng society being rapidly engulfedin fo reign cultural influ ences. They co n­sider that the drug and its asso ciatedcul ts enable th em mor e easily to resistthe vert iginous transitio n fro~ the ind i­vidualism of trad itional tribal life to th ecollec tivism and loss of ident ity in th eencroaching Western civilization. Itmay we ll offe r the stronges t single forceagainst the missionary sp read of Chris­tian ity and Islam, since it un ifies manyof th e once hostile, wa rring tribes in re­sistance to European innovatio ns. Asone ini tiate state d: "Catho licism andProtestantism is no t our religion. I am'not hap py in the missio n churc hes ."

T he cultural impo rta nce of the drug iseverywhere seen. The name Iboga isused for the who le Bwit i cult; ndzi­eboka ("eater of Iboga" ) means a mem ­ber of the cult; nyiba-eboka signifies thereligion surrounding the narcot ic plant.

Iboga in every sense of the term is in ­deed a plant of th e gods. It appears to behere to stav in the native cultures ofwes t-centra! Africa.

,J

115

5 ANADENANTHERAPEREGRINAYopo

BEANS OF THE HEKULA SPIRIT

Left: The beans of the Yopo Tree (Ana­denantheraperegrina) are usedbymany Indians asa shamanic snuff(specimen collected in Guyana).

Right: Baron AlexandervonHumboldtandhisco-collectorAirneBonplandcarefully explored thefloraof theOrino­co River, the frontier between ColombiaandVenezuela , andwhiletheretheyencountered thepreparationanduseofYoposnuffin 1801.

116

In the beginning, the Sun created variousbeings to serve as intermediaries betweenHim and Earth. He created hallucino­genic snuff powder so that man couldcontact supernatural beings. The Sunhad kept this powder in His navel, butthe Daughter of the Sun found it . Thusit became available to man-a vegetalproduct acquired directly from the gods.

As far back as 1496, an early Spanishreport mentioned that the Taino of H is­paniola inha led a powder called Cohobato communicate with the spirit world. Itwas so strong that those who took it lostconsciousness; when the stupefying ac­tion began to wane, the arms and legsbecame loose and the head nodded, andalmost immediately they believed thatthey saw the room turn ups ide-down sothat men were walking with th eir headsdownward . Mainly because of the dis­appearance of aboriginal peoples in theWest Indies, this snuff is no longer em ­ployed anywhere in the Antilles.

In 1916, ethnobotanical researchestablished the identity of this Coho­ba-quite generally until then thoughtto have been a very potent kind of To ­bacco snuff-with the hallucinogenicsnuff of the Orinoco called Yopo andderived from the beans of Anade­nanthera peregrina, bett er kn own in theliterature as Piptadenia peregrina. The

center of use of this snuff is and prob­ably always has been the Orinoco. TheWest Indian tribes are thought to havebeen, in the main, invaders from north­ern South America. It is very pr obablethat the custom of snuffing the drug, aswell as the tree itself, was introduced byinvaders from the Orinoco area .

It is now suspected that Yopo was

used much more widely in earlier peri­ods . There is evidence that in pre­Hispanic times, this snuff was used byChibchan tribes from the ColombianAndes east across the llanos, or plains,to the upper Orinoco.

In 1560 a missionary in the Colom ­bian llanos wrote that the Indians alongthe Rio Guaviare "are accustomed to

take Yopa and Tobacco, and the formeris a seed or pip of a tree .. . they become

Belowleft:The finely pinnate leaves ofthe Yopo treeare important for identifi­cation, butcontain no activeproperties.

Right: In theopengrasslands, or earn­pas,of the northern Amazon of Brazil,Anadenanthera growsprofusely. Thetreebears long podswith usuallysix totwelve seeds,which are the source ofthehallucinogenic snuff.

Belowright:Over125 yearsago, theEnglish explorer Richard Spruce col­lected on theOrinoco theseartifactsassociated with the preparation anduseof Yoposnuff. They arestill pre­servedin themuseumat the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew.

drowsy while th e devil, in their dre ams,shows them all th e van ities and corrup­tions he wis hes them to see and whichthey take to be true revelations in whichthey believe, even if to ld they will die.This habit of takin g Yopa and Tob accois general in the New Kin gdom. " An­other chro nicler wrote in 1599: "Theychew H ayo or Coca and Jopa and

Tob acco . .. going out of the ir minds,and then the devil speaks to them ...Jopa is a tree wi th sma ll po ds like th oseof vetches, and the seeds inside are simi­lar bu t smaller." Yopo was so importantin pre-Conquest Colombia that Indiansof th e highlands, where th e tree will notgrow, traded the drug up from th e tro­pical lowl and s: th e Muisca of th eC olombian Andes, according to anearly Spanish historian, used the snu ff:"Jop: herb of divination, used by th emojas or sun-priests in Tunja and Bogo­ta." The Muisca "will not travel norwage war nor do any other thing of im­portance without learn ing beforehandwhat will be the outcome, or this th eytry to ascertain with two herbs whichthey consume, called Yop and Osca .. ."

Yop o snuff may sornetim esvas amongthe Guahibo, be taken daily as a stimu­lant. But it is mo re commo nly employedby payes (shamans) to induce trancesand visions and communicate with th e

The Chemistry of Yopo

The active principles of Anadenanthera peregrina belong to both open­chained and ringed tryptamine derivatives and, therefore, to the importantclass of indole alkaloids. Tryptamine is also the basic compound of the aminoacid tryptophane , widely distributed in the Animal Kingdom. Dimethyltrypta­mine (DMT) and 5-hydroxydimethyltryptamine (bufotenine) are representa­tives of the open-chained Anadenanthera tryptam ines. Bufotenine has alsobeen found in the skin secretion of a toad (Buto sp.)-hence its name. Ringedtryptamine derivatives found in Anadenanthera are 2-methyl- and 1,2-di­methyl-67methoxytetrahydro-~-carboline .

117

Drawings right (pages 118-19):Countless artifacts relatedto the ritualuse of snuff have beendiscoveredinarchaeologicaldigs in theCaribbeanand in South America (for example,Haiti, CostaRica,Colombia, andBrazil).

Photosequencepages 118-19:Undoubtedlythe mostintense use ofYopo snuff prepared from Anade­nanthera peregrina is found among thevariousgroups of Waikciliving insouthernmost Venezuela andadjacentparts of northernmost Brazil. Thesepeoples consume enormous amountsof thehallucinogenic powder, blowing itforcefully into the nostrils throughlongtubes made fromthestems ofmaranthaceous plants.

Beforesnuffing Yopo, theWaikci sha­mans gather andchant, invoking theHekula spirits with whom theywill becommunicatingduring theensuingintoxication.

Thesnuffactsrapidly, causing firstaprofuse flowof mucus fromthe nasalpassages andoccasionallya notablequiveringof themuscles,especially inthearms, anda contorted expressionon theface.

This periodquicklygiveswayto onein which the shamans begin to prance,gesticulating andshriekingviolently,calling on the Hekula.

The expenditureof energylastsfromhalfanhour to an hour; eventually, fullyspent, theyfall intoa trancelikestupor,duringwhich visions are experienced.

118

H eku la spirits; to prophesy or divine; toprotect the tribe against epidemics ofsickness; to make hu nt ers and even th eirdogs more alert. There has been a longand complicated confusion between thehallucinogenic snuff prepared fromA nadenanthera and that from Virolaand other plants. Consequ entl y, th e nu ­merous distribution maps in ant hropo­logical literature showing immenseareas of Sou th American using Anade­nanthera-derived snuff must be usedwith due caution.

In 1741, the Jesuit missionary Gumil­la, who wrote extensively on the geo­graphy of the Orinoco, described theuse of Yopo by the Otomac: "They haveanother abominable habit of intoxicat­ing themselves through the nostrils withcertain malignant po wders which theycall Yupa which quite takes away the irreason , and they will furiously take uparms . .. " Following a description of thepreparation of the snuff and a custom ofadding lime from snail shells, he re­ported that "before a battle, the y wouldthrow themselves into a frenzy withYupa, wound themselves and, full ofblood and rage, go forth to battle likerabid jaguars."

The first scientific report of Yopo w asmade by the explorer Baron von Hum­boldt , who botanically identified thesource and reported that the MaypureIndians of the Orinoco, where he wi t­nessed the preparation of the drug in

1801, broke the lon g pod s, mo iste nedth em, and allowed th em to ferment;when they turned black, the softenedbeans were kneaded into cakes with cas­sava flour and lime from snails. Thesecakes were crushed to · make snuff.H umbo ldt, qu ite erroneously, believedtha t" it is not to be believed that the .. .pods are the chief cause of the .. . effectsof the snuff . .. These effects are due tothe fresh ly calcine d lime."

Later, Spruce offered an ext remelydetailed report on the preparatio n anduse of Yopo among the Guahibo of theOrinoco. He collected a complete set ofethnographic material connected wi ththe substance, and seeds that he col ­lected for chem ical study in 1851 wereche mically analyzed on ly in 1977.

"A wandering horde of Guahibo In ­dians . .. was encamped on the savannasof Maypures, and on a visit to theircamp I saw an old man grinding Niop oseeds, and purchased of him his appara­tu s for making and taki ng the snuff . ..T he seeds , being firs t roas ted, are pow­dered on a wooden platt er .. . It is hel don th e kne es by a br oad thin handle,w hich is grasped in th e left hand, w hileth e fingers of the right hold a small spa-tula or pes tle with which th e seedsare crushed The snuff is kept in amull made of a bit of th e leg-b one ofthe jaguar . .. Fo r taking th e snuff, th eyuse an apparatus made of the leg bones

of herons or other long-shanked birdsput together in the shape of th e letter Y

A contemporary observer describedthe effects of Yopo snuffing as follows:"His eyes started from his head, hismouth cont racted, his limbs tr embled.It was fearful to see him. He was ob ­liged to sit down or he would have fall­en. He was drunk but only for aboutfive minutes; he was th en gayer."

T here is appreciable variation fromtribe to trib e and fro m one area to an­other in the preparation of Yopo. T heseeds are usually toasted and pulver­ized. Lime from snails or the ashes ofcerta in plants are normally adde d, butsome Indians use th e snuff witho ut thi salka line admix ture. It appears th at ot herplant admixtures are never employedwith Anadenanthera snuff.

Anadenanthera peregrina occurs na­turally and sometimes app arently culti­vated in the plains or grass land areas ofth e O rinoco basin of Colombia and Ve­nezuela, in light fo rests in southernBri tish Guyana, and in th e Rio Branc oare a of the northern Amazonia of Bra­zil. It may occur also in isolated savannaareas in th e Rio Me deira region. W hen itis found elsew here, it may pro bablyhave been introduced by Indi ans. T hereis evide nce that, a century ago , it wascultivated in more localities outs ide ofits natural range th an at present.

119

4 ANADENANTHERACOLUBRINACebil

SEEDS OF CIVILIZATION

The Chemistry of Anadenanthera colubrina

Some varieties of Cebil seed contain exclusively bufotenin (C12H160N 2) asthe psychoactive ingredient. In tests of other seeds, 5-MeO-MMT, DMT, DMT­N-oxide , bufotenin, and 5-0H-DMT-N-oxide were found. Old tests of theseeds contained 15 mg/g of bufotenin .

In the dried seeds from the trees of northeast Argentina (Salta), there hasbeen found mostly bufotenin (more than 4 %), and a related substance (per­haps serotonin) , but othe rwise no other tryptamines or alkaloids. In tests ofother seeds taken from the garden of a Mataco shaman, 12% bufoten in con­tent was found. The ripe pods of the fruit also contain some bufoten in.

Above fromleftto right:The Matacousea decoction of fresh(stillgreen) Cebilpodsas a head wash for headaches.

Cebil, the "Seedsof Civilization"(seeds of the Anadenanthera colubri­na). Bufotenine is the main activecon­stituent.

Theripeseedpods of the Cebil tree(Anadenanthera colubrinavar. cebil)collect underneath the leaf canopy.The knottybarkof theArgentinianCebiltree(Anadenanthera colubrina bvar.cebi~ .

Page 121:The Cebil tree (Anade­nan/hera colubrina var. cebil)with ripeseedpods.

In the Atacama Desert of northernChile there is an oasis called San Pedrode Atacama. The art histo rian and ar­chaeo logist C. Manuel Torres excava tedand studied over six hundred prehisto­ric graves there. The results were aston­ishing. Nearly every interred personwas accompanied for the last journeyby num erous tools dedicated to th e ri­tua l sniffing of Cebil,

The name Cebil designates a tree(Anadenanthera colubrina) as well asits seeds, which can indu ce a strong psy­choactive effect.

In the Puna region of northwest Ar­gentina is the oldest archaeologicalproof of the ritual or shamanic use ofCebil. They have been smoked therefor over 4,500 yea rs. Numerou s cera micpipes have been discovered in certaincaves of this region. Occasionally the

bowls of the pipe still contain Cebilseeds. The psychoactive use seems inparticular to have influenced the cultureof Tiahuanaco (literally, "City of theGods"). The Tiahuanaco culture is the"mother" of Andean civilizations. Allsubsequent high cultures of the regionhave been influenced by it.

Ma ny examp les of pre-Columbiansnuff paraphernalia (snuff tablets, snuffpipes) disp laying the iconography of theTiahuanaco culture have been found inPu na and the Atacama Desert. They ap­pear to be significantly inspired by thevisions of the Ceb il seeds .

The use of Cebil as a snuff powder inthe southern Andean region is firstmentioned in 1580 by the Spanishchronicler Cristobal de Albornoz in hiswork Relacion. A psychoactive sub­stance cited in sources from colonialtimes called Villca is possibly identicalto Cebil ,

The shamans of the Wichi (MatacoIndians) of northwest Argentina stilluse a snuff made of Cebil today. Theshamans of the Mataco smoke thedried or roasted seeds, preferably in apipe or rolled in a cigare tte . The Cebflseeds are .for them a means to ente rand influence ano ther reality. Cebil is,in a manner of speaking, a gateway toa visionary world; this is how the sha­man Fortunato Rufz expresses it. Hesmokes th e seeds with to bacco and Ar­omo-just as his ancestors did fivethousand years ago . This makes the

120

In the colonial literature of New Spain, there are.numerous references to thepsychoactive use of certain seeds or fruits that were known variously asHuilca Huillca, Vilca, Vilcas, Villca, WiI'ka, Willca, or Willka. The ethnohistor i­cally documented vil/ca (fruit) is today known as the seed of Anedenenmerecolubrina . Villca was of great ritual and religious significance in Peru in thetime before the arrival of the Spaniards, and was known to the Incan highpriests and soothsayers (umu) as Vil/ca or Villca cemeyo. A holy Indian relic(huaca) was known as Vil/ca or Vilcacona and an especially holy mountain isknown as Villca Coto. On the peak of Villca Coto, it is said that a couple ofhumans saved themselves during the primeval deluge.

Villca seeds had a ceremonial significance for the Incas as a psychoactivesubsitute for beer. The "juice" of Villca was added to a fermented corn bev­erage and taken by the soothsayer, who would then be able to look into thefuture.

Villca was also the name for enemas , which were used for medicinal orshamanic purposes.

Below: The German artist Nana Nauwald de­picted herexperience with Cebfl seeds in apainting in 1996. The picture bears the title"Nothing is separate from me" andshowsthetypical"worm-like"visions.

What Was Villca?

Right: Recently it wasreported thatthe Matacoin northern Argentinasmoke andsniff Anade­nanthera colubrina. With this, the Spaniards'assumption, that the snuffsCebfl andVillca aremade fromthis plant, is confirmed.

~~lr

~.;"~,~;*?-=~..~~r:"...~....-~ -..,.~.~

.,.- __~- • c." ... .~~

.~ .~~. -_:..

northwest of Ar gentina the place withthe longest uninterrupted ritu alistic orsham anic use of psychoactive sub ­stances in the world.

As som e Matacos have converte d toChristianity in recent years, they havecome to identify Cebil with the biblicalTree of Knowledge. But th ey do not seeCe bil as a "forbidden fruit"; rather, theysee it as th e frui t of a holy tree, which isused by shamans for healing.

The hallucinations triggered by C ebflseem to have been very influential inthe icono graphy of the so-called Tia­huanaco Style. The iconography of ar­tist Chavin de Huantar is full of similarmotifs: intertwined snakes comin g outof the head of the oracle god are clearlyCe bil hallucinations.

The vision-inducing effects of Cebilsnuff last for roughly twenty minutesand include strong hallucinations,which are often only black and white,and seldom in color. They are not (orare on ly very rarely) geometric in nat ­ure, but are strongly flowing and "d e­centralized ." They are very reminiscentof the images produced by the pre ­Colum bian Tiahuanaco culture .

Cebil seeds also have psychoactive ef­fects if th ey are smoked. The effects arevery strong for about thirty minutes andth en fade away. The effects begin with afeeling of heaviness in the body. Afterfive to ten minutes, visual hallucinationsbegin with the eyes closed, often featur­ing worm- and snakelike images flowinginto one another. Sometimes geometric,symmetrical, or crystallographic hallu­cinati ons can occur, but very seldom arethere any stro ng visions of a realisticnature (such as the experience of flyin g,traveling in another world, transforminginto an animal, contact with helpingspirit s, and so on).

122

Far left: Pre-Columbian snuff tools froma graveat San Pedro de Atacama.

Left: Pre-Columbian snuff vessel madefrom a carvedbone (San Pedro deAtacama, Chile).

Above: The northwestArgentinianregion of Puna is the area in which thelongest continueduseof visionary andshamanic plantscan be proved. In thisregionthe Cebfl seedshave beensmokedor sniffed for 4,500years forhealing ceremonies.

Lett: The painting(oil on canvas, 1996)by the Columbian-American artistDonna Torres shows thestudyofanethnobotanist whois researchingAnadenanthera colubrina.

123

80

9 BANISTERIOPSISAyahuasca

PSYCHOTRIAChacruna

THE I\1AGIC DRINKOF THE AMAZON

68

93

PEGANUMSyrian Rue

TETRAPTERISYage

124

There is a magic intoxic ant in northw es­ternmo st South America that the In­di ans believe can fr ee the so ul fromcorporea l confin ement, allow ing it towande r free and return to the bo dy atwi ll. The soul , thu s untrammeled, liber­ates it s ow ner from the reali ties ofevery day life and introduces him towondrous realms of w hat he considersrea lity and permits him to communicat ew ith his ancestors. The Quechua termfo r this inebriating drink-Ayahuasca(" vine of the sou l")-refers to th is fr ee­ing of th e sp irit . T he p lants involve d aretruly p lants of the gods, fo r their poweris laid to sup ern atu ral forces res id ing intheir tiss ues , and they were divine giftsto th e earli est Indians on earth .

Ayahuasca has m an y native names:C aapi, D apa, M ihi , Ka hi, N aterna,Pinde, Yaje. The drink, employed fo rp ro p hecy, div ina tio n, so rce ry, and m ed­ical purposes, is so deepl y rooted in na ­tive mythology and philosophy thatthere can be no doubt of its great age asa pa rt of abo riginal life.

Tw o closely related sp ecies of th emal pighiaceous genus Banisteriopsis­B. caapi and B. inebrians- are the mostimportant pl ants used in preparing Aya­huasca. But other sp ecies ar e ap pa rentlyused locally on occas io n: B. quitensis;Mascagnia glandu lifera, M. psilopbyllava r. antiiebrills; Tetrap ten s rn etlrysticaand T mucronata. All of th ese plantsare large forest liana s of the same fami ly.Banisteriopsis caapi and B. inebrians arefre quently cult ivated in orde r to have asupply close at hand for use.

Many plants of diverse famili es are of­ten added to the ba sic drink to alter theintoxicating effects . The most com­m only used adm ixtu res are leaves ofDiplopterys cabrerana and of the rubiac­eo us Psycbotria cartbaginensis or P. vi r­idis. O ther known psych oact ive p lants,suc h as Brugm ansia suaueolens, Brun­fe lsia cbiricaspi, and B. grandijlora, ma yalso be added. A mong the m any p lantsemployed are Tobacco; Malouetiatamaquarina and a spe cies of Tabe rnae ­montana of the Apocynaceae; th e acan­thaceous Teltostacbya lanccolata va r,crispa or Toe negra; Ca lathea -oeitchian a

of th e Marant haceae; the arnaranthac­eous Alternan tbera lebrnannii and a spe­cies of I resine; several fern s includingLygodium uenusturn and L om anopsis[apurensis; Pbrygylantbus eugenioldesof the M iste ltoe fam ily; the AmericanBasil Ocimum micrantbum; a sp ecies ofthe sedge gen us Cypeius; several cactiincl uding species of Opuntia and Epi­pbyllum; and m embers of the familiesC lus iaceae and Guttiferae.

The natives often have special namesfor diverse "kinds" of Ayahuasca, al­though the botan ist frequently findsthem all representative of the same spe ­cies. It is usually difficult to understandthe aboriginal m ethod of clas sifi cation;so me ma y be age fo rms ; othe rs may com efrom differe nt parts of the liana; st illo thers may be eco logical forms growingunder vary ing conditions of so il, sha de,moisture , and so on. The natives assertthat these "kinds" have a va riety of ef­fects , and it is conceivable th at they mayactually have di fferent chemical compo­sitions. This possibi lity is one of th e leastinvesti gat ed ye t most significa nt aspe ctsin the study of Aya hua sca .

A mong the Tukano of the ColombiaVau pes, fo r example, six "kinds" ofAyahuas ca or Kahi ar e recogni zed. Bo­ta nical id entification has not yet beenpossible in all cases, but the "kinds"have definite native nam es. Kahi-riarna,the st rongest, produces audito ry hallu ­cinat ions an d announces future events .It is said to caus e death if improperlyemployed. T he second strongest, Me ­ne- kahi-rna, reputed ly causes visions ofgre en snakes. The bark is used, and it isalso said to cause death, unl ess cau­tious ly taken. These two "kinds" n~ ay

not be lo ng to Banisteriopsis or even toth e fam ily M alpi ghiaceae.

The thi rd in strength is call ed Suana­Ka hi-rna (" Kahf of the red jaguar"),p ro ducing .visions in red. Kahf-vaiBucura-rij orna (" Kahf of the monkeyhead") causes m onkeys to hallucinateand howl. The w eakest of the hallucino­gen ic "kinds" of Kahi or Ajiiwri-kahi-mahas little effec t but is used in th e drinkto help the Menc-Kahi - rna. A ll of these"kinds" are referable prob ably to Banis-

;f

Top:The Chacrunashrub (Psychotriaviridis) is the second most importantingredient in theAyahuasca drink.

Aboveright: The shoots of theAya­huasca Iiana.

Left: A Shipibo Indian with anAyahuasca liana that hehas cultivatedin his garden.

Page 124 above: TheAyahuascaliana(Banisteriopsis caapi) is a powerful andvigorously growingtropical vine.

Page 124below: The pieces ofbranch are thebaseof theAyahuascapreparation.

125

"Ayahuasca, medicine, enrapture me fully!Help me by opening your beautiful world to me!You also are created by the god who created man!

Reveal to me completely your medicine worlds. I shall heal the sick bodies:These sick children and this sick woman shall I heal by making everything good!"

-Ayahuasca Song of the Shipibo

Above left:TheBritish plantexplorerSpruce collected thefirstbota~ical spe­cimens of Banisteriopsis caapiin 1851 .Hesentmaterial from thesame plantforchemical analysis.Thematerial waslo­cated in the Museum at the Royal Bota­nicGardens at Kew in 1969.

Above right: Among thekoran of Co­lombia andEcuador, special medicinemen prepare Curare andYaje. Thereisan association between thesetwoplantproducts, andYaje is taken before hunt­ingin thebeliefthat thevisions will re­veal thehiding places of theanimals tobesought.

Farright: Tomake Ayahuasca or Caapi,thefreshly stripped barkmustbe vigor­ouslypounded before being boiled inwateror kneaded thoroughly in coldwater.

Page 127left: Thenumerous Tukanoantribes of the Vaupes River basin in Co­lombia andBrazil practice a male­oriented ancestor ceremony. TheYuruparf dance, inwhich Caapi is amajorelement, enables theparticipantstocommunicate withspirits of thedead.

Page 127right: Linedancing with intri­catesteps andgourd rattles accompa­nying chants is typical of Barasanaceremonies in which Caapi is taken,Piraparana River.

126

teriopsis caapi. Kahi-somoma or Kahi­uco ("Kahi that makes you vomit"), ashrub, the leaves of which are added tothe drink, an emetic agent, is undoubt­edly Diplopterys cabrerana, the sameplant known among the western Tu­kanoan Siona of the Colombian Putu­mayo as Oco-yaje.

Although not so famous as Peyote orthe sacred Mexican mushrooms, Aya­huasca has received popular attentionbecause of news articles extolling theso-called telepathic powers of the drink.In fact, in the chemical investigation ofBanisteriopsis, the first alkaloid isolatedwas named telepatbine.

The hallucinogen may be prepared indiverse ways. Usually, bark is scrapedfrom freshly harvested pieces of thestem. In the western areas, the bark isboiled for several hours, and the bitter,thick liquid is taken in small doses . Inother localities, the bark is pulverizedand then kneaded in cold water; muchlarger doses must be taken, since it isless concentrated.

The effects of the drink vary accord­ing to the method of preparation, thesetting in which it is taken, the amountingested, the number and kinds of ad­mixtures, and the purposes for which itis used, as well as the ceremonial controlexercised by the shaman.

Ingestion of Ayahuasca usually in­duces nausea, dizziness, vomiting, andleads to either a euphoric or an aggressive

state . Frequently the Indian sees over-, powering attacks of huge snakes or ja­guars . These animals often humiliate himbecause he is a mere man. The repetitive­ness with which snakes and jaguars occurin Ayahuasca visions has intrigued psy­chologists. It is understandable that theseanimals play such a role, since they are theonly beings respected and feared by theIndians of the tropical forest; because oftheir power and stealth, they have as­sumed a place of primacy in aboriginalreligious beliefs. In many tribes, the sha­man becomes a feline during the intoxica­tion, exercising his powers as a wild cat.Yekwana medicine men mimic the roarsof jaguars. Tukano Ayahuasca-takersmay experience nightmares of jaguar jawsswallowing them or huge snakes ap­proaching and coiling about their bodies.Snakes in bright colors climb up anddown the house posts. Shamans of theConibo-Shipibo tribe acquire greatsnakes as personal possessions to defendthemselves in supernatural battles againstother powerful shamans.

The drug may be the shaman's tool todiagnose illness or to ward off impend­ing disaster, to guess the wiles of an en­emy, to prophesy the future. But it ismore than the shaman's tool. It entersinto almost all aspects of the life of thepeople who use it, to an extent equaledby hardly any other hallucinogen. Par­takers, shamans or not, see all the gods,the first human beings, and animals, and

,,~, .f. ;-. .--:-::-.- -

. - . ,;i§~';:' =: _.--',;.

~.•, "-

.-- ..:.--~.-.=--~ -:-

The Chemistry of Ayahuasca

Plants Containing the MAO-Inh ibi ting ~-Carbo l i ne Alkaloids:

In the belief that they were new disc overi es, the first alkaloids isola ted fromBanisteriopsis were called telepat hine and banisterine. Further chem ical in­vestiga tions revealed that these prepa rat ions were identical with the alkaloidharmine, previous ly isolated from Syrian Rue, Peganum harmala. Further­more, the secondary alkaloids of Paganum, harmaline and tetrahydrohar­mine, also occur in Banisteriopsis. The act ive principles are indole alkaloidsfound in several other hal lucinogenic plants .

The drink made from Ayahuasca is a unique pharmacologica l combinationof Banisteriopsis caapi, a liana that contains har maline, and Chacru na (Psy­chotria viridia) leaves, which conta in DMT. Harm aline is an MAO inhibitor; itreduces the body's production and distribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO).MAO normally breaks down the vision -inducing ingred ient DMT before it cancross the blood-brai n bar rier into the central nervous system . Only with thiscombination of ingredients can the drink have its consciousness-expandingeffects and trigger visions.

come to understand the estab lishmentof thei r social order.

Ayah uasca is, above all, a medicine­the great medicine. The Ayahuasca lea­der among the Campa of Peru is a reli­gious prac tit ioner who, follow ing astrict apprenticeship, maintains and in­creases his shamanistic power th rou ghthe use of Tobacco and Ayahuasca.The Ca mpa shaman under Ayahuascaacquires an eerie, distant voice and aquivering jaw that indicates the arr ivalof good spirits who, splend idly clad,sing and dance before him; the sha­man's singing is merely his ow n voiceechoing their song. D uring th e singing,his soul may travel far and wide-aphenomenon not interfering with per­for mance of the ceremony nor withthe shaman's abilitv to communicatethe wishes of the spirits to part icipants.

Among the Tukano, the partaker .ofthe drug feels himself pu lled along bypowerful winds that the leading shamanexplains as a trip to the Milky Way, thefirst stop on the way to heaven. Simi­larly, the Ecuadorea n Zaparo experiencea sensation of being lifted into the air.The souls of Peruvia n Conibo -Shipiboshamans fly about in the form of a bird;or shamans may travel in a superna turalcanoe manned by demons to reconquerlost or sto len souls.

The effects of the drink are greatly al­tered when leaves of D ip!oterys cabrer­ana or of Psych otria are added . The

Banis teriopsis spp .Kochia scoparia (L.) SCHRAD.Passiflora involucrataPassiflora spp.Peganum harmala L.

Strychnos usambarensis GILGTribuius terrestris L.

HarmineHarmine , Harmane~-Carboline

Harmine, Harmane, etc.Harmine , Tetrahydroharmine,Dihydroharmaline, Harmane, lsohar­mine, Tetrahydroharmol, Harmalol,Harmol , Norharmine,HarmalineHarmaneHarmine, among others

127

"Practically all decorativeelements ... are said ...

to be derived fromhallucinatory imagery .. .

The most outstandingexamp les are the paintings

executed on the front walls ofthe malocas ... sometimes . . .

representing the Lord ofGame Animals . . .

When asked about thesepaintings, the Indians simply

reply: 'This is what we seewhen we drink Yaje . . .'"

-G. Rcich cI-D olmatoff

128

trvotamines in the se additives are be­li ~;ed to be inactive when taken orally,unless mo noamine oxidase inh ibitorsare present. The harmine and its deriva­tives in B. caapi and B. inebrians are in­hib itors of this kind, potenti ating thetryptamines. Bo th typ es of alkaloid s,however, are hallucinogenic.

Length and vividne ss of the visual hal­lucinations are no tab ly enhanced whenthese additives are present . Whereasvisions with the basic drink are seenusually in blue, pur ple, or gray, thoseinduced when the tryptamin ic add itivesare used may be bri ghtl y colored in redsand yellows .

Th e Ayahuasca intoxication may be avery intense experience with visions oflight setting in with the eyes closed aftera period of giddines s, nervousness, p ro­fuse sweating, and sometimes nausea. Aperiod of lassitude initiates the play ofcolo rs-at first white, then mainly a hazy,smoky blue that later increases in inten­sity; eventually sleep, interrupted bydreams and occasional feverishness, takesover. Serious diarrhea, which continuesafter the int oxication, is the uncomforta­ble effect most frequ ently experienced.With the tryptaminic additives, many ofthe se effects are intensified, but tremblingand convulsive shaking, mydriasis, andincrease of pulse rate are also noted.Frequently, a show of recklessness, some­tim es even aggressiveness, marks ad­vanced states of the inebriation.

Th e famous Yuruparf ceremony of theTukanoans is an ancestor-communicationritua l, the basis of a man's tribal societyand an adolescent male initiation rite. 1;ssacred bark trumpet, whic h calls the Yur­up arf spirit, is taboo to the sight of wo­men; it symbolizes the forces to whomthe ceremony is holy, favora bly influen­cing fertili ty spirits, effecting cures of pre ­valent illnesses, and improving the maleprestige and power over wo men. TheYurupari ceremony is now little practiced.One of the most detailed reports of a re­cent dance describes it as follows:

"A deep booming of drums fromwithin the maloca heralded the appear­ance of the mystic Yuruparf horns . Withonly very slight urging from one of the

older men, all females from babes in armsto w ithered, toothless hags betook them­selves to the fringing fores t, to hear onl yfrom afar the deep, mysterious notes ofthe trumpets, sight of whic h is believedto spell certai n death for any woman .. .Payes shamans and older men are no tabove aiding the workings of the mys­tery by the judicious administra tion ofpo ison to any overcurious female.

"Four pairs of horns had been takenfro m places of concealment , and theplayers now ranged themselves in arough semi-circle, producing the firstdeep, lugubrious notes . . .

"Many of the older men had mean­while opened their tang atara boxes ofceremo nial feathers and were selectingwith great care brilliant feather ruffs,which were bound to the mid-sectionof the longer horns . ..

"Four olds ters, with perfect rhy thmand dramatic timing, paraded th rou ghthe maloca, blowing the newly decoratedhorns, advancing and retreating withshort dancing steps.At intervals, a coupledanced om of the door, their horn s raisedhigh, and returned after a brief turn, theexpanding and contracting feather ruffsproducing a beaut iful burst of translu­cent color against the stronger light.Younger men were beginning the first ofthe savage whippings, and the master ofceremonies appeared with the red, cur­iously ' shap ed clay jar containing thepo werful narco tic drink called Caapi.The thic k, brown , bitter liqui d wasserved in pairs of tiny round gourds ;many drinkers promptly vomited . ..

"Whipping proceeded by pairs . Thefirst lashes were applie d to the legs andankles, the w hip flun g far back in a de­liberately calculated dramatic gestu re;the blows resounded like pistol sho ts.Places were immediately exchanged .Soon the whips were being freely ap­plied, and all the yo unge r men werelaced with bloody welts on all parts ofthe bod y. Tiny lads not more than six orseven years old wo uld catch up th eabandoned whips, merrily imitatingtheir elder s. Gradually the volume ofsound diminished, until only tw o loneperfo rmers remained, enchanted with

Top: Many speciesof Passion flower(Passiflora spp.) contain the activesub­stances harmine and harmaline.

Above right:Syrian Rue (Peganumharmala) with fruit capsules.

Page 128 above:The mural in theCuzco Airport (Peru) reveals thevisionary worldof Ayahuasca.

Page 128 below: Shipibo Indians intraditionalcostumesdecorated withAyahuascapatterns (Yarinacocha.Peru).

129

Left: A beer mugof theConibo-ShipiboIndiansthat has been completelypaintedwiththe Ayahuasca pattern.

Right:Shipibowomen communallypaint a ceramicwith Ayahuascapat­terns.

130

their art, bowing, advancing, and re­treating, with great delicacy and gracein the center of the maloca. About adozen of the older men were outfittingthemselves with their finest diadems ofresplendent guacamayo feath ers, tall,feathery egret plumes, oval pieces ofthe russ et skin of the howler monkey,armadillo-hide disks, pri zed loops ofmonkey-hair cord, precious quartzitecylinders, and jaguar-tooth belts. Be­decked with the se triumphs of savageart, the men formed a swaying, dancingsemi-circle, each with his right handrestin g on his neighb or 's shoulder, allshifting and stamping in slow uni son .

Leading the group was the ancient paye,blowin g Tobacco smoke in benedictionon his companions from the huge cigarin its engraved ceremonial fork, whilehis long, polished rattle-lance vibratedcon stantly. The familiar, dignified Ca­chiri ceremonial chant was intoned bythe group; their deep voices rose andfell, mingling with the myster iousbooming tones of the Yurup ari horns."

The Tukano believe that when, at thetime of creation, humans arrived to po­pulate th e Vaupes region, many extraor­dinary happ enings took place. Peoplehad to endure hardship before settlingth e new regions. Hideous snakes and

dangerous fish lived in the rivers; therew ere spirits with cannibalistic procliv­ities; and th e Tukano received in trepida­tion the basic elements of their cultu re.

There lived amo ng these early Tukanoa woman- the first woman of crea ­tion- wh o "drowned" men in visions .Tukanoans believe that during coitu s, aman "drowns" - the equivalent of see­ing visions. The first wo man found

th e sensual, to a mystical un ion wi th themythic era, the intrauterine stage, is theultimate goal, attained by a mere hand­ful bu t coveted by all."

All or much of Indian art, it has beenproposed, is based on visionary experi ­ence . Colors, similarly, are symbolicallysignificant: yellow or off-white has aseminal conc ept , indicating solar fert ili­zation; red- color of th e ut erus, fire,

Above: Many species of thegenus Ba­nisteriopsis, like this B. muricata fromsouthernMexico, are rich in MAO­inhibiting~-carbo lines . Because of this,they areparticularly suited in thepreparation of Ayahuasca analogs.

herself with child. The Sun-fath er hadimpregnated her th rough the eye. Shegave birth to a child who became Caapi,the narco tic plant. The child was bornduring a brilliant flash of light . The wo ­man- Yaje-e-cut the umbilical cord and,rubbing the child with magical plants,shaped its body. The Caapi-child livedto be an old man zealously guarding hishallucinogenic powers. From this agedchild, owner of Caapi or the sexual act,the Tukanoan men received semen. Fo rthe Indi ans, wrote Gerardo Reichel­D olm atoff , "the hallucinatory experi­ence is essent ially a sexual one . . . tomak e it sublime, to pass from the ero tic,

heat-symbolizes female fecundity;blue represents thought th rou gh To­bacco smoke. These colors accompanyAyahuasca intoxications and have pre­cise int erpretations. Many of the com­pli cated rock engravings in th e rivervalleys of th e Vaupes region areundoubtedly based up on drug ex­periences. Likewise, th e stereotypedpaintings on the bark wall of Tukanoancommuna l houses represent themesfro m Ayahuasca hallucinations.

Pictures and deco rations on pot s,hous es, basketry, and other householdobjects fall int o two categories: ab­stract design and figurative mot ifs.

Above left: A Shipibowoman paintsa pieceof fabric with her traditionalAyahuasca pattern.

Above right:Thejunglepharmacyof theShipibo Indians. Countless medicinalplants aretaken withAyahuasca, whichstrengthen theeffects.

131

"The caji plants(Ayahuasca) reveal them­selves to the experiencer,it grows, becomes green,blooms, and ult imately

vanishes. The moment ofthe blossoming is valued

as the apexof the experience."

- Florian Delr gen (1993)

Above:A Barasana Indian tracesinsandnearhis maloca patterns seenduringthe course of Caapi intoxication.It hasbeensuggested that many of thedesign motifs induced byCaapiare,ontheone hand, culture-bound and, on theother hand, controlled byspecific bio­chemical effectsof the activeprinciplesin theplant.

132

The Indians know the difference be­tw een the tw o and say that it is du e toC aapi intoxication. "Someone watchinga man at work or finding a drawingwould say: 'This is w hat one sees afte rthree cups of Yaje, ' occasion ally spe ci­fying the kind of plant that had beenused and thus giving an indic ation ofthe nature of the narcotic effects th eyattributed to different concoctions,"speculated G. Reichel -Dolmatoff.

It would seem that suc h an importantdrug would have attracted th e att ent ionof Europ eans at a very earl y date . Suchwas not th e case . In 1851, however, theEnglish bo tanist Spruce, who was co l­lecting among Tukanoan tr ibes in the

Rio Vaupes region of Brazil, met withCaapi and sent material for chemicalstudy to England. Three years later, heob served C aap i use again among theGuahibo Indians along the upper

Orinoco . Later, he encountered Aya ­hu asca am on g the Zaparo of Ecuadorand identified it as th e same hallucino­gen as Caapi.

"In the course of the night," Sprucewrote of Caapi, "the young men par­to ok of C aapi five or six times, in th eintervals between th e dances; but onlya few of them at a tim e, and a very fewdrank of it twice. T he cup -bearer- whomust be a man, for no wo man can touchor taste C aapi- starts at a sho rt runfro m th e opposite end of the house,w ith a small calab ash containing abouta tea cupful of Caapi in each hand, mut­tering 'Mo-mo-mo-rno-mo' as he runs,and gradually sinking down until at lasthis chin nearl y touches his knees, whenhe reaches out one of his cups to thema n who stands ready to recei ve it . . .In tw o minutes or less after dri nking it,the effects begin to be appa rent . The Incdian turns deadl y pale, trembles inevery limb, and horror is in his asp ect .Suddenly contrary symptoms succeed;he bursts into p erspiration and seemspossessed with reckless fury, seize swhatev er arms are at hand ... andrushes to th e door, while he inflicts vio ­lent blows on the ground and door­posts, calling out all the while: 'Thuswould I do to mine enemy [naminghim by name] were this he!' In aboutten minutes, the excitement has passedoff, and the Indian grows calm but ap­pears exhausted."

Since Spruce's time, thi s drug hasbeen mentioned often by many travelersand explorers, but little has been accom­plished until recently..In fact, it was notuntil 1969 that . chemical ana lysis ofSpru ce's material, collected for such ex­am ina tio n in 1851, w as carried out.

Much remains to be learned aboutAyahuasca, Caapi, Yaje. There is littletime before increasing acculturationand even extinction of whole tri bes willmake it forever impossible to learnabout these age-old beliefs and uses.

Left: Thisbeautiful engravingon a gran­ite rock atNyf on thelower PiraparanaRiverin Colombia is obviouslyancient.The rapidsat this pointon theriverareat theearth's equator, a zoneverticallyrelatedto therising and setting constel­lations. It hasbeensuggestedthat thisturbulent areaof theriverwas theplacewhere the Sun Father married EarthMother to create the firstTukanoans.The Indians interpretthetriangular faceasa vaginaandthestylized humanfigure asa winged phallus.

Above: The talented Peruvian artistYando, thesonof anAyahuasquerofrom Pucallpa, drewthis Ayahuasca vi­sion. Notice thatthecomplexitiesof thehallucinations aretreated inanimageryinwhich microscopic andmacroscopicdimensionsareskillfullyblended.

133

Ayahuasca Ingredients

A selection of plants used in the preparation of the Ayahuasca drink to give it its desiredhealing powers or specific qualities:

"sweetens" the Ayahuasca drink

to treat delusions,illnesses caused by magic arrows(chonteado) ,and enchantment

to enable a better diagnosis

strengthens the body

purgative

for fever, rheumatism , and arthritis

for cooling and reduction of visions

to stimu late visions

fr ight; promotes spiritualdevelopment; for abortions

fever

sexual weakness

to treat intest inal problems

diarrhea, intestinal problems

strengthens the vision

strengthens;used to treat allergies,kidney problems, stomach ulcer,venereal disease

strengthens the vision

to treat diarrhea

for better singing

protects against spirits

for purification and treatmentof vomiting

purgat ive

tonic

poor memory;for spiritual development;arthritis, rheumatism

to strengthen the Ayahuasca drink

strengthens the Ayahuasca drink

to extract magic arrows

Erythrina spp.

Euphorbia sp.

Brugmans ia spp.

Capsicum frutescens

Psychotria sp.

Hura crepitans

Thevetia sp.

lochroma fuchsioides

Couroupita guianensis

Brunfelsia spp.

flex guayusa

Virola spp.

Malouetia tamaquarina

Uncaria tomentosa

Himatanthus sucuuba

Batsikawa

Ai curo

Ajf

Cabalonga

Angel's Trumpet

Amacisa

Ayahuma

Catahua

Cat's claw

Chiricaspi

Cuchura-caspi

Cumala

Guat illo

Hiporuru Alchomea castanaefolia

Kana Sabicea amazonensis

Kapok tree Ceiba pentandra

Lupuna Chorisia insignis

Pfaffia Pfaffia iresinoides

Pichana Ocimum micranthum

Piri piri Cyperussp.

Pulma Calathea veitchiana

Rami Lygodium venustum

Remo caspi Pithecellobium laetum

Sanango Tabemaemontana sananho

Sucuba

" Guayusa

FliUli l, '(flung cultivatedChacruna(psycl lfllria viridis),

I1" ItOm.· The fruit 01;, " pecies of Theve­Ih l called Cabalony.I uonce is added to!··vi ,l1uasca to prolecl l!Je drinker from" " .liclous spirits.

II /,ove: Farmer's 11l!J;ICCO (Nicotiana1II .' .liea) is one of llu -most important·.h;,man plants in [;f1' llh America.

Tobacco Nicotiana rustica for poisoning

Toe Ipomoea cam ea strengthens the vision

I ', I

6

7

1: The Chiricaspi bush (Brunfelsiagrandifloraspp. schultesii) is an impor­tantshaman plantin the northernregions of South America.

2: Cat's Claw (Uncaria tomentosa) isone of theimportant medicinal plants fortreating chronic illnesses among thePeruvian Indians.

3: For many Indians, the Kapok tree(Ceiba pentandra) is theworld tree.

4: The bindweed Ipomeacarneacon­tains potent psychoactivealkaloids andis used in the PeruvianAmazon basinas an ingredient in Ayahuasca.

5:The Sanango leaves (Tabernaemon­tana sananho) strengthen the memory.

6: The Palo de Borracho"treeof drun­kenness" (Chorisia insignis) is a worldtree in thecosmology of theshaman. Itsastringent barkis added to Ayahuasca.

7:A leaf cutting from Psychotria viridis(grown in California).

135

5

136

AYAHUASCA ANALOGS

The pharmacological agent that hasbeen identified in Ayahuasca can be imi­tated in plants with similar active ingre­dients (harmaline/harmine, DMT/5­MeO-DMT). Nontraditional combina­tions of plants with these ingredients aretoday known as "Ayahuasca analogs"or Anahuasca. Combinations made ofthe isolated of synthesized ingredientsare called "pharmahuasca."

Jonathan Ott, a chemist specializingin natural substances, writes: "Psycho­nautic pharmahuasca research is so dis ­tant from the scientific mainstream thatit took nearly three decades of no onesupporting, or independent scientistsdoing 'underground' research beforethe enzyme inhibitor theory of Aya­huasca pharmacology was put to thetest. Paradoxically, this research canrightfully claim that is stands exactl y inthe center of the research on the bio­chemistry of consciousness and the ge­netics of pathological brain functions!... Ayahuasca research is not just onthe vertex of neuro-scientific research,but it is possible that the reversibleMAO-inhibiting effects of Ayahuascacould present a practical, less toxic alter­native to the harmful substances that arefinding medical uses!"

The value of these Ayahuasca analogslies in the entheogenic effects th at leadto a deeper spiritual ecology and anall-encompassing mystical insight. Aya­huasca and its analogs bring about-butonly with the right dosage-a shamanicecstasy:

"Shamanic ecstasy is the true ancientreligion, of which modern churches aremerely pale imitations. Our ancestorsdiscovered in many places, and at manytimes, that suffering humanity couldfind in ecstatic entheogenic experiencesthe reconciliation between the cultiva­ted intelligence that separates each hu­man being from other creatures andeven from other humans, and the wild,untamed, magnificent animal physical-

ity that we all possess ... It is notnecessary to have faith because the ec­static experience in and of itself givesone the belief in the true unity and in­tegrity of the universe, and in ourselvesas an integral part of the whole. Ecstaticexperience is what reveals to us thesublime grandeur of our universe andthe fluctuating, shimmering alchemicalwonder that constitutes our everydayconsciousness. Entheogens such asAyahuasca could be the appropriatemedicine for hypermaterialistic human­ity on the threshold of the new millen­nium, where it will be decided if ourway will be continuing to grow andprogress or if we will be destroyed in amassive biological holocaust unparal ­leled by anything that has happened inour realm in the last 65 million years .. .The entheogenic reformation is ourgreatest hope for healing our dearMother Gaia, because it is bringingabout a true religious revival that willhelp to bring in the new millennium."

All formulas for Ayahuasca analogsmust contain an MAO inhibitor and aDMT supplier.

Until now, most experiments havebeen with Banisteriopsis caapi, Banister­iopsis spp., and Peganum harmala , Butthere are other MAO inhibitors in nat­ure, such as caltrop (Tribulus terrestris) .Preferred DMT suppliers include Psy­chotria viridis and Mimosa ten uiflo ra,although there are numerous other pos­sibilities (see tables).

Page 136: TheGerman artistNanaNauwald renders herAyahuascavisions in thispainting, allowing theviewer a glimpse into the"alternatereality:'

Above: Many species of theNorthAmerican plant genus Desmodiumcontain thepotent substance DMT intheir rootbark, making them suited inthepreparation ofdrinks similar toAyahuasca.

Above: Theseeds of theMimosa sceb­rella contain DMT and areusable in thepreparation of Ayahuasca analogs.

137

5

1: The leafof the extremely rare Acaciaphlebophylla is rich with DMT. It growsonly onone mountain in Australia.

2: TheAustraliannativeAcacia maideniicontains a highconcentrationof DMTinits bark.

3: The seedsof the SouthAmericantree Dictyloma incanescens.This treecontains ample amounts of 5-MeO­DMT.

4: Theseeds of the tropical Mucunapruriensare preferred by the traditionalpeople to make jewelry. In addition theycontain highconcentrations of DMTand5-MeO-DMT.

Ayahuasca Analogs: Plants that contain DMT

Plant Family Drug Tryptamine

Gramineae (Poaceae)Arundo donax L. Rhizome DMT

Phalaris arundinacea L. Grass, root DMT

Phalaris tuberosa L. (Italian strain) Leaves DMT

Phragmites australis (Cav.) TR. et ST. Rhizome DMT, 5-MeO -DMT

Leguminosae (Fabaceae)Acacia maideniiF.v. Muell. Bark 0.36 % DMT

Acacia phlebophylla F.v. Muell. Leaves 0.3% DMT

Acacia simplicifolia Druce Leaves, bark 0.81 % DMT

Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Spag . Bark DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

Desmanthus iIIinoensis (Michx.) Macm . Root-bark up to 0.34 % DMT

Desmodium pulchellum Benth. ex. Bak. Root bark DMT

Desmodium spp. DMT

Lespedeza capitata Michx. DMT

Mimosa scabrella Benth. Bark DMT

Mimosa tenuit/ora (Willd.) Poir. Root bark 0.57-1 % DMT

Mucuna pruriens DC. Seeds DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

MalpighiaceaeDiplopterys cabrerana (Cuatr.) Gates Leaves DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

MyristicaceaeVirola sebifera Aub. Bark DMT

Virola theiodora (Spruce ex Benth.) Warb. Flowers 0.44 % DMT

Virola spp. Bark, resin DMT, 5-MeO-DMT

RubiaceaePsychotria poeppigiana MUELL. -ARG. Leaves DMT

Psychotria viridis R. et P. Leaves ' DMT

RutaceaeDictyoloma incanescens DC Bark 0.04 % 5-MeO-DMT

5:A species of the DMT-containinggenus Desmodium.

6: TheTurkey Redvariety of the grassPhalaris arundinacea contains liberalamounts of DMT.

7:The root bark of the MexicanMimosatenuit/ora (Mimosa hostillis) is full ofpsychoactive alkaloids. The dried rootbark containsabout 1% DMT. It iswellsuited for theproduction of anAyahuasca analog.

138

6

2 3

Juremahuasca or Mimohuasca

This Ayahuasca analog is known among people knowledgeable in the field asa preparation that is the most psychoactive and easiest to tolerate. Per per­son, prepare:

3 g Peganum harmala, finely ground9 g root husk of Mimosa tenuit/oraLemon or lime juice

The ground seeds of Syrian Rue (Peganum harmala) are soaked in water andswallowed or taken in a gelatin capsule. Fifteen minutes later, drink the boiledmixture of lemon or lime juice and Mimosa husk.

After 45 to 60 minutes-often after brief nausea or vomiting-the visionsbegin. They often take the form of fireworks or kaleidoscope-like designs,flashing colors, fantastic mandalas, or travels to another world. The effectsare equal to the effects of the Ayahuasca preparations from the Amazon.

Ayahuasca Churches

In addition to the true shamanic use of Aya­huasca, recently various syncretic churcheshave been established that also use Aya­huasca as part of their religious rituals. TheSanto Daime cult as well as the Ayahuascachurch, Uniao do Vegatal, hold regularmeetings in which the members-the great

_majority of whom are mestizos from the low­er c1asses-drink Ayahuasca together andsing pious songs. Led by a priest, the grouptravels to the spirits of the trees as well as tothe Christian holy spirits. Many cult mem­bers discover a new meaning to life and findhealing for the soul. For the members ofthese Brazilian churches, which have alsomade headway in Europe, the use of thismagic potion is just as legal as it is for theshamans of the jungle.

Santo Daime, the ritual drink of a cult, andhoesce, the sacrament of another church,are both made according to an originalIndian recipe in which the Banisteriopsiscaapi vine and the leaves of the charcrunashrub (Psychotria viridis) are boiled to makean extremely psychedelic mixture.

The Santo Daime cult also has mission­aries active in Europe, and this Braziliangroup has been especially successful inGermany and the Netherlands. In Amster­dam, they have their own church. Also inthe ' Netherlands, the potential use of Aya­huasca to treat addictions is being tested.

7

139

12

BRUGMANSIAAUREA11 Golden Angel's Trumpet

BRUGMANSIA SANGUINEABlood-Red Angel's Trumpet

TRUMPETS OF THE ANGELS

1

3

1: Theshamanic useof thegold-yellowfloweringBrugmansia occurs primarilyin ColombiaandnorthernPeru.

2:Theflowers andleaves are used bymany Indian shamans formedicinalpurposes.

3:The ripe fruit of the Brugmansiasanguinea. ThisAngel's Trumpet putsoutfar more fruitthan doesany otherspecies.

4:Theflowerof Brugmansiasanguinea.

140

The Gu ambiano of southern Colombiasay of Brugmansia vulcanicola: "H owpleasant is th e perfume of the long,bell-like flowers of- the Yas, as one in­hales it in the afternoon . . . But the tre ehas a spirit in the form of an eagle whichhas been seen to come flyin g throughthe air and th en to disapp ear .. . Thespirit is so evil that if a weak person sta­tions himself at th e foot of the tree, hewill forget every thi ng, . . . feeling up inthe air as if on wings of the spirit of theYas ... If a girl . . . sits restin g in thetree's shade, she will dream about menof the Paez tribe, and later a figure will

be left in her womb which will be borne 'six months later in the form of pips orseeds of the tree."

The species of Brugmansia are nativeto South Am erica. Brugmansia in thepast has usually been considered to re­present a section of the genus Datura.Thorou gh studies of the biology ofthese plants have shown that they de­serve to be classified in a distinct genus.The behavior of the species-as well asth eir location-indicates long associa­tion with man.

The hallucinogenic use of Brugman­sia may have come from kno wled ge ofthe closely related Datura, knowledgethat pro to-Indian Mo ngoloids brou ghtto the N ew World in late Paleolithicand Mesolithic times. As they migratedsouthw ard, they encountered ot her spe­cies of Datura, especially in Mexico,and bent them to shamanic use. Uponarr iving in th e Andes of South America,they recog nized the resemblance of th eBrugmansias to Datura and found th eirpsychoacti ve pr operties very similar. Atany rate, everyth ing about the use ofBrugmansia bespeaks great antiquity.

Littl e is known, however, of pr e­Conquest use of Brugmansia. Th ereare, nevertheless, scatte red referencesto th ese hallucinogens. Th e Frenchscient ist de la Condamine ment ionedits use among the Omagua of the Rio

2 Ma rafion, The explore rs von Humbold tand Bonpland remarked on Tonga, thered-flowered B. sanguinea, as a sacredplant of the priests in the Temple of theSun at Sogamoza in Colombia .

Brugm ansia arborea, B. aurea, andB. sangu inea usually occur above an al­titude of six thousand feet. The seeds arewidely employe d as an additive to chi­chao The crushed leaves and flowers areprepared in hot or cold water to be ta­ken as a tea. Leaves can be mixed withan infu sion of Tobacco. Some Indiansmay scrap e off the soft green bark ofthe stems and soak it in water for use.

The Brugm ansia int oxication variesbut is always character ized by a violentph ase. There is pr obably no more suc­cinct description than that of Johann].

4 Tschudi in 1846, who saw the effects in

The solanaceous Brugmansia arborea, B. aurea, B. sanguinea, B. suaveo­lens, and B. versicolor contain the same tropane alkaloids as the Daturas:scopo lamine, hyoscyamine , atropine, and the various seconda ry alkaloids ofthe tropane group, such as norscopo lamine, aposcopolamine, meteloidine,etc. Scopolamine, respons ible for the hallucinogenic effects, is always foundin the largest quantity. The leaves and stems of B. aurea, for example, with atotal alkaloid of 0.3 percent, contain 80 percent scopolamine, which is alsothe main alkaloid in the roots of Brugmansia.

Peru. The native "fell into a heavy stu­por, his eyes vacantly fixed on theground, his mouth convulsively closed;and his nostrils dilated. In the course ofa quarter of an hour, his eyes began toroll, foam issued from his mouth, andhis whole body was agitated by frightfulconvulsions. After these violent symp­toms had passed, a profound sleep ofseveral hours' duration followed, andwhen the subject had recovered, he re­lated the particulars of his visit with hisforefathers ."

At Tunja, among the Muisca, accord­ing to a report in 1589, a "dead chief wasaccompanied to the tomb by his womenand slaves, who were buried in differentlayers of earth ... of which none was

.without gold . And so that the womenand poor slaves should not fear theirdeath before they saw the awful tomb,the nobles gave them things to dr ink ofinebriating Tobacco and other leaves ofthe tree we call Borrachero, all mixed intheir usual drink, so that of their sensesnone is left to foresee the harm soon tobefall them." The species employedwere undoubtedly Brugmansia aureaand B. sangu inea.

Among the Jivaro, recalcitrant chi l­dren are given a drink of B. sanguineawith parched maize; when intoxicated,the children are lectured so that the spir­its of the ancestors may admonish them.In the Choco, Brugmansia seeds putinto magic chicha beer were thought toproduce in children an excitement dur­ing which they could discover gold.

Indians in Peru still call Brugmansiasanguinea by the name Huaca or Hua­cachaca ("plant of the tomb") from thebelief that it reveals treasures ancientlyburied in graves .

In the warmer parts of the wes ternAmazon, Brugmansia suaveolens, B. ver­sicolor, and B. x insignis are employed ashallucinogens or as an admixture withAyahuasca.

Perhaps no locality can equal the Val­ley of Sibundoy in the Andes of Colom­bia for Brugmansia use. Th e Kamsa andIngano Indians use several species and anumber of local cultivars as hallucino­gens. The Indians of this region, espe -

cially shamans, have a developedknowledge of the effects of these plantsand grow them as private possessions.

Usually the property of specific sha­mans, these cultivars have native na­mes. The leaves of Buyes (B. aurea) areemployed mainly to relieve rheuma­tism, an effective medicine with its highconcentration of trop ane alkaloids.Biangan was employed formerly byhunters: the leaves and flowers weremixed with dogs' food to enable themto find more game. The tongue-shapedleaf of Arnaron is valued as a suppurantand in trea ting rheumatism. The rarest

The Chemis try of Brugmansia

Above: Theseeds of Brugmansia sua­veo/ensareusedin Peruasan intoxi­cating additive to cornbeer. Theyaretaken bytheshamans inhigher dosesandoften produce a delirium thatcanlastfordayswiththemost powerful ofhallucinations.

Be/ow: The Blood-Red Angel'sTrumpetisoften planted in sacredplaces andcemeteries. Here is a large plant grow­ingwithan image of theMadonna insouthern Chile.

141

Right: The Valley of Sibundoy in south­ernColombia is a locationof intensiveuse of Brugmansia. One of the mostrenownedmedicine men of the Karnsatribe is Salvador Chindoy. Here heispictured inhisceremonial garbat thebeginningofa Brugmansia-inducedintoxicationfor purposes of divination.

Left: AyoungKarnsa Indian boyofSibundoy, Colombia, holdsa flower andleaves of Culebra Borracherapriortobrewing a teafor thepurpose of intoxi­cation in preparationfor learning thesecrets of useofhallucinogensinmagicandmedicine.

142

cultivar is Salaman, with bizarrely atro­ph ied leaves; it is employe d both intreating rheumat ism and as a hallucino­gen. The extreme in aber ration is foundin Q uin de and Munchira: these two areused as hallucinogens but also in thetreatment of rheumatism and as emetics,carminatives, vermifuges, and suppur­ants; Munchira likewise is empl oyed totreat erysipelas. Quinde is the mostwidel y employed culti var in Sibundoy;Munchira the most toxic. The rareDientes and Ochre find their most im­portant use in the treatment of rheu­matic pains.

"A spirit so evil, our grandparents tellus, was in these trees with flowers likelon g bells, which give off the ir sweetperfume in the afternoon, that theywere the foo d of those Indians at whosename people trembled: fierce Pijaos."

Culebra borrachero is tho ught bysome botanists to be one of those mon­strous cultivars . More potent than any

of the cult ivars of Brugmansia, it is usedhallucinogenically for the most difficultcases of divination and as an effectivemedicine for rheumatic or arthriticpams.

The cultivars Quinde and Munchiraare most frequently used for their psy­choactive effects. The juice of thecrushed leaves or flowers is drunk eith eralone in a cold-water preparation orwith aguardiente (an alcoholic distillateof sugar). In Sibundoy only shamansusually take Brugmansia. Most shamans"see " fearful visions of jaguars andpoisonous snakes. Symptoms and un­pleasant aftereffects probably havecontribut ed to the limitation of Brug­mansia as a hallucinogen.

The ] fvaro believe that nor mal life isan illusion, that the true powers behinddaily life are supernatural. The shaman,with his potent hallucinogenic plants,can cross over into the world of ethere­al wonder and deal wi th the forc es of

evil. A ]fvaro boy at the age of six mustacquire an external soul, an arutamwakani, th e vision-producing soul thatcan allow him to communicate with an­cestors. To get his arutam the boy andhis father make a pil grimage to a sacredwa terfall, bathing, fasting, and drinkingTobacco water. Maikoa or Brugmansiajuice may also be taken to effect contactwith th e supernatural during which theboy's arutam appears as jaguars andanacondas and enters his body.

The Jfvaro frequently take Natema(Ayahuasca) or Banisteriopsis to acquireth e aruta m, since it is a strong intoxi­cant, but Brugm ansia must be used ifN atema is not successful. Maikoa intox­!catio.n, the ]fvaro assert , may causeInSamty.

From all viewpo ints , species of Brug­mansia have had a difficult tim e of it inspite of their great beauty. They areplants of the gods, but not the agreeablegifts of the gods, like Peyote, the mush­rooms, Ayahu asca. Their powerful andwholly unpleasant effects, leading toperiods of violence and even temporaryinsanity, toge ther with their sickeningaftereffects, have conspired to put the min a place of second category. They areplants of th e gods, true, but the gods donot always strive to make life easy forman-so the y gave man the Bru gman­sias, to which he must on occasion re­pair. The evil eagle hovers over man,and his Borrachero is an ever-presentreminder that it is not always easy toattain an audience with the gods .

Right: The beautiful flowers of the An­gel'sTrumpet inspiredthe Symbolists(fabric printed aftera designbyAlphonse Mucha, Paris 1896; originalisin the WOrttemburg State Museum,Stuttgart, Germany).

Left: This drawing by a Guambiano In­dian of the southernAndes of Colombiadepicts a nativewoman under a Berra­chero tree, Brugmansia vulcanicola.The portrayal of an eagle associatedwith an evilspirit indicates the danger­ous toxicity of this tree, whichcauses aperson tarrying under it to become for­getful and to feelas if hewereflying.

143

51 LOPHOPHORAPeyote THE TRACKS OF THE LITTLE DEER

Page 145top: The Peyote crowns takeon manydifferent forms, dependingonage and growing conditions.

Page 145below:A group of largePeyote cacti in their native habitat ofsouthernTexas.

Ever since the arrival of the first Euro­peans in the N ew \X!orld, Peyote hasprovoked controversy, suppression, andpersecution. Condemned by the Span ­ish conquerors for its "satanic trickery,"and attacked again and again by localgovernment s and religious groups, th eplant has nevertheless continued to ph.ya major sacramentalrole among th e In­dians of Mexico, while its use has spreadto the northern tr ibes in the U nitedStates in the last hundred years. Thepers istence and growth of the Peyotecult constitute a fascinat ing chapter inthe history of the New World-and achallenge to the anthropologists andpsychologists, botanists and pharmaco­logists who continue to studv the plant

lished in native religions , and their ef­forts to stamp out th is practice drove itinto hiding in the hills, where its sacra­~ental use has persisted to the presenttune.

H ow old is the Peyote cult ? An earlySpanish chron icler, Fr ay Bern ardino deSahagun , estimate d on the basis of sev­eral histori cal events record ed in Indianchrono logy that Peyote was known tothe C hichimeca and Tolt ec at least1,890 year s before the arr ival of the Eur­opeans. This calculation wo uld give the"d ivine plant" of Mexico an economichistory extending over a period of sometwo millennia. Then Carl Lumholtz, theDanish ethnologist who did pioneerwork among the Indians of Chihuahua,

Left: The flowering Peyote cactus(Lophophora williamsii).

Right: A Huicholyarnpainting showsthe nurturing andfertile giftsof thePeyote cactus.

144

and its con stituent s in connection withhu man affairs .

We might logically call this need le­less Mex ican cactu s the prototype ofth e New World hallucino gens. It wasone of the first to be discovered by Eu­ropeans and was unquestionably th emost spectacular vision-inducing plantencounte red by the Spanish conquer­ors . T hey found Peyote firmly estab-

suggested that the Peyote cult is far old­er. He showed that a symbol employedin th e Tarahumara Indi an Peyote cere­mony appeared in ancient ritualistic car­vings preserved in Mesoamerican lavarocks. Mo re recently, archaeologicaldiscoveries in dry caves and rock shel­ter s in Texas have yielded specimens ofPeyot e. Th ese specimens, fou nd in acontext suggesting cerem onial use, indi-

cate that its use is more th an seven th ou ­sand years old .

The earliest European records con ­cerning this sacred cactus are those ofSahagun, who lived fro m 1499 to 1590and who dedicated most of his adul t lifeto the Indians of Mexico. His precise,firsthand observations were not pu b­lished until th e nineteenth century.Consequently, credi t for the earliestpubl ished account must go to JuanCardenas, whose observations on themarvelous secre ts of the Indies werepublished as early as 1591.

Sahagun's writings are among themost important of all the early chroni­clers . H e described Peyote use amongth e Chichimeca, of the primitive desertplatea u of the north, recording for pos­terity: "There is another herb like tunas[Opuntia spp. ] of the earth. It is calledpeiotl. It is white. It is fou nd in th enorth country. Those who eat or drinkit see visions either frightful or laugh­able . This intoxication lasts two or threedays and th en ceases. It is a commonfood of the Chichimeca, for it sustainsthem and gives them courage to fightand not feel fear nor hunger nor thirst.And they say that it protects them fromall danger."

It is not known whether or not theChichimeca were the first Indians todiscover the psychoactive properties ofPeyote. Some students believe th at th eTarahumara Indians, living where Pe­yote grew, were the first to discover itsuse and that it spread from them to theCora, th e H uicho l, and other trib es.Since the plant grows in many scatteredlocalities in Mexico, it seems probablethat its intoxicating properties were in­dependently discovered by a number oftribes.

Several seventeenth-century SpanishJesuits testified that the Mexican In­dians used Peyote medicinally and cere ­monially for many ills and th at whenintoxicated wi th the cactus they saw"horrible visions." Padre Andrea Perezde Ribas, a seventeenth-century Jesuitwho spent sixteen years in Sinaloa, re­ported that Peyote was usually drunkbut that its use, even medicinally, was

The Chemistry of Peyote

The active principle of Lophophora williamsii, the first hallucinogenic plant tobe chemically analyzed , was already identified at the end of the nineteenthcentury as a crystallized alkaloid (see page 23). Because the dried cacti fromwhich the alkaloid was extracted are called mescal buttons , it was namedmescaline . In addition to mescaline, responsible for the visual hallucinogeniceffects, several related alkaloids have been isolated from Peyote and relatedcacti.

When the chemical structure of mesca line was determined, it could beproduced synthetically. The chemistry is relatively simple: 3,4,5,-trimethoxy­phenylethylamine. The model of this structure is shown on page 186.

Mescal ine is chemically related to the neurotransmitter noradrena line (nor­epinephrine), a brain hormone, also shown here. The active dose of mesca­line is 0.5-0.8 gram when applied orally.

145

. _ ~ " ' -~'"""0J.

' . . '.

Left: Following visions received duringthePeyote ritual, theHuichol bringbeaded "Peyote snakes" decorated withdesigns of the Peyote to remote moun­tainshrines of EarthMother asanoffering of gratitude.

Right: Anoldandverylarge Peyotecactus that is addressed as "Grand­father" bythe Indians. Notice theyoungcrowns.

146

forbidden and punished, since it wasconnected with "heathen rituals andsuperstitions" to contact evil spiritsthrough" diabolic fantasies."

The first full description of the livingcactus was offered by Dr. FranciscoHernandez, who as personal physicianof King Philip II of Spain was sent tostudy Aztec medicine. In his ethnobo­tanical study of New Spain, Dr. Her­nandez described peyotl, as the plantwas called in the Nahuatl language of .the Aztecs: "The root is of nearly med­ium size, sending forth no branches orleaves above the ground, but with acertain woolliness adhering to it on ac­count of which it could not aptly befigured by me. Both men and womenare said to be harmed by it. It appearsto be of a sweetish taste and moder­ately hot. Ground up and applied topainful joints, it is said to give relief.Wonderful properties are attributed tothis root, if any faith can be given towhat is commonly said among themon this point. It causes those devouringit to be able to foresee and to predictthings . . ."

In the latter part of the seventeenth

century, a Spanish missIOnary in Na­yarit recorded the earliest account of aPeyote ritual. Of the Cora tribe, he re­ported: "C lose to the musician wasseated the leader of the singing, whosebusiness it was to mark time. Each hadhis assistants to take his place when heshould become fatigued. Nearby wasplaced a tray filled with Peyote, whichis a diabolical root that is ground upand drunk by them so that they maynot become weakened by the exhaust­ing effects of so long a function, whichthey begin by forming as large a circleof men and women as could occupythe space that had been swept off forthis purpose. One after the other, theywent dancing in a ring or marking timewith their feet, keeping in the middlethe musician and choir-master whomthey invited, and singing in the sameunmusical tune that he set them. Theywould dance all night, from fiveo'clock in the evening to seven o'clockin the morning, without stopping norleaving the circle. When the dance wasended, all stood who could hold them­selves on their feet; for the majority,from the Peyote and wine which they

"In conscious ness dwells the wondro us,with it man attains the realm beyon d th e material ,

and the Peyot e tells us,where to find it."

-Antonin Artaud, The Tarahumnrs (1947)

drank, were un able to utili ze thei rlegs."

T he ceremony among the Cora, Hui­chol, and Tarahu mara Indians has prob­ably changed little in content over thecenturies: it still cons ists, in great part,of dan cing.

Th e modern H uichol Peyote ritualis the closest to the pre-Columb ianMe.xican ceremonies. Sahagun's de­scr iptio n of the Teochichimeca ritualcould very well be a description ofthe contemporary H uichol ceremony,for these Indians still assemble to ­gether in the desert th ree hundredmiles northeast of their homeland inthe Sierra Madres of wes tern Mexico,still sing all night, all day, still weepexceedi ngly, and still so esteem Peyoteabo ve any other psychotropic plantthat the sacred mushrooms, MorningGlories, Datura, and other indigeno ushallucinogens are consigned to therealm of so rcerers .

Most of the early records in Mexicowere left by missia'naries who opposedthe use of Peyote in religious practice.To them Peyote had no place in Chris­tianity because of its pagan assoc iatio ns.Since the Spanish ecclesiastics were in­to lerant of any cult but their ow n, fiercepersecution resulted. Bu t the Indianswere reluctant to give up thei r Peyotecult s estab lished on centuries of tradi­tion .

The sup pression of Peyo te, however,went to great lengths. Fo r examp le, a

priest near San Antonio, Texas, pub ­lished a manual in 1760 containingquest ions to be asked of converts . In ­cluded were the follow ing: "Have youeaten the flesh of man? Have you ea­ten Peyote ?" Another priest, Pad reNicolas de Leon, similarly examinedpo tential converts: "Art thou a sooth­sayer ? Dost thou fore tell events bvreading omens, interpreting dreams ~rby tracing circles and figures onwater ? D ost thou garn ish with flow ergarlands the places where idols arekept ? D ost th ou suck the blood ofothers ? Dost thou wander about atnight , calling up on demons to helpthee ? Hast thou drunk Peyote or givenit to others to drink, in order to dis­cove r secrets or to discover where sto­len or lost arti cles were?"

During the last decade of the nine­teent h century, the explorer Carl Lu m­holtz observed the use of Peyote amonzthe Indians of the Sierr a Madre O cci­dent al of Mexico, pri marily the Huicholand Tarahumara, and he reported on th ePeyote cerem on y and on various kind sof cacti employe d with Lophoph orawilliamsii or in its stead.

Above: Different cacti that areknown inMexicoas Peyote, Hikuli, Peyotillo, orFalse Peyote. They primarily containthe substancemescaline andotherpsychoactive alkaloids.Above left: AriocarpusretususAbove right:Astrophyton asteriasBelow left: AztekiumriteriiBelowright:Ariocarpus fissuratus

Left: The earliest known botanical illus­tration of Lophophora wiJliamsii, pub­lished in 1847. It has been foundinarchaeological sites more than seventhousandyearsof age. Itwasprobablythe first and most spectacular vision­inducing plantencounteredby theSpanish conquerors of Mexico.

147

"You see how it is when we walk for the Peyote.How we go, no t eating, not dr inking, with much will.

All of one heart . H ow one goes being Huichol.That is our unity. That is what we must defend ."

- Ramon Medina Silva

Left: In Huichol geography, Wirikuta, theplace of the ancestor-gods, is the local­ity of the origin of thesacred life of thetribe. Peyote grows here and is col­lected on theannualpilgrimages madebysmallgroupsof devout Huichols.Thetrip to Wirikutais longandarduous, withthe pilgrimstraveling asAncient Ones.Like the gods, theyrefrain from food,sex, andsleep during thisextraordinarytrip. When they first enterthe domainoftheir Paradise, the mara'akame RamonMedina Silvagesturestoward Kau­kayari (powerspots) thatoncewerethelivingformsof thegods.

148

H owever, no anthro pologist ever par­ticip ated in or observed a Peyote huntuntil the 1960s, when anthropo logistsand a Mexican writer were perm itt edby Huichols to accompany several pil­grimages. O nce a year, the H uicholsmake a sacred trip to gather Hikuri, asthe sacred cactus is called. The trek isled by an experi enced mara'aleam e orshaman, who is in contact with Tatewari(O ur grandfather-fire). Tatewari is theoldest H uichol god, also known as H i­kuri, the Peyote-god. He is personifiedwith Peyote plant s on his hands andfeet, and he interprets all the deities toth e mod ern shamans, often th rough vi­sions, sometimes indirectly throu gh

Kauyumari (the Sacred De er Personand culture hero). Tatewari led th e firstPeyote pilgrimage far from the presentarea inhabited by the nine thousa ndHuichols into Wirikuta, an ancestral re­gion where Peyote abound s. Guided bythe shaman, the participants, usually tento fifteen in number, take on the iden­tity of deified ancesto rs as they followTatewari "to find their life."

The Peyote hunt is literally a hunt. Pil­grims carry Tobacco gourds, a necessityfor the journey's ritual. Water gourds areoften taken to transpo rt water backhome from Wirikuta. Often th e on ly

foo d take n for the stay in Wirikuta iscorn tortillas. The pilgrims, however,eat Peyo te while in Wirikuta. The y musttr avel great distances. Today, much ofthe trek is done by car, but forme rly theIndians walked some two hundredmiles .

The preparation for gathering Peyoteinvolves ritual confession and purifica­tion. Public recitation of all sexual en­counte rs must be made, but no show ofshame, resentment , or jealousy, nor anyexpression of hostility, occurs. For eachoffense, the shaman makes a kno t in astring that, at the end of the ritual, isburned. Following the confession, thegroup, preparing to set out for Wirikuta-

an area located in San Luis Potosi­mu st be cleansed before journeying toparadise .

U po n arr iving within sight of thesacred mountains of Wirikuta , the pil­grims are ritually washed and pray forrain and fert ility. Amid the praying andchanting of the shaman, the dangerouscrossi ng into th e O therworld begins.This passage has two stages: first, theGateway of the Clashing Clouds, andseco nd, the opening of the Clouds.These do not represent actua l localitiesbut exist on ly in the "geograph:v of themind"; to the participants the passing

from one to the othe r is an event filledwith emo tion .

Upon arr ival at the place w here thePeyote is to be hunted, the shaman be­gins ceremonial practices, telling sto riesfrom the ancient Peyot e tradi tion andinvoking pro tection for the events tocome. Those on their firs t p ilgrimageare blindfolded, and th e participantsare led by th e shama n to the "cosmicth reshold," which onlv he can see. Allcelebrants stop, light candles, and mur­mur pra yers, while the shaman, imbuedwith supernatural forces, chants.

Finally, Peyote is fou nd. The shaman

Right: A Peyote hunter spreads out his harvestathome.

Left:The basketscarried to Wirikutacontain onlya fewpersonal andceremonial objects. On the return trip theyare filled with the Peyote buttons collected on the pil­grimage. TheHuichol say that Peyote is ''very delicate,"so theheavily ladenbasketsarecarefully transportedback to the Sierras in order to avoid bruising the cactus.Leaning against the basket is a Huichol violin, usedtoprovidemusic for the Peyote dancing.

Belowright:Huichol lndians returning from apilgrimage.

Below left: A Peyote hunter with a basketfulof Peyotecacti.

has seen the deer tracks. H e draws hisarrow and shoots the cactus. The pil­grims make offe rings to thi s first Hi­kuri. More Peyot e is sought, basketfulsof the plant eventually being collected.O n the following day, more Peyot e iscollected, some of which is to be sharedwith those who remain at hom e. Th erest is to be sold to the Cora and Tara­humara Indians, who use Peyote hut dono t have a quest.

T he ceremonv of distribu tiu.; To­bacco is then c~rried out. Am ) \~' s areplaced po inting to th e Jour po ints ofthe compass; at midnight a fire is bu ilt.

Page 148 right: Each pilgrim hasbrought offeringsto Peyote. After thesegiftsarecarefully displayed,thepilgrimsraise candles in thedirection of the as­cendingsun.They weep and pray thatthegodsaccept their offering, whileRamon (second from r:ght) ferventlychants.

149

Page 1S1/eft: The Huichol "trinity" ofdeer, maize, and Peyote is a hypersym­bolic complex, a concept harkeningbackto the timeof creation. This para­disiacal eraantedates the separationofplants fromanimals, with Peyote repre­sentingthe trans-temporal link with thesupernatural. Onthe annual Peyotehuntof the Huichol, thepilgrimsshootthe first found Peyote with an arrow andthatspecial Peyote is likened to a dyingdeer andaccordedparticularchants;offerings of maize seeds are likewisemade.

Page 151 right:TheYaqui Indiansofnorthern Mexico symbolize the Peyotecactus as a buck, as in this woodcarving.

Above: "It is one, it is a unity; it is our­selves:' Thesewords of Huicholmara'akame Ramon MedinaSilvade­scribe the mystical rapport unfoldingamong communicants in the Peyoteceremonies that is suchan importantdimension in the livesof thesepeople.In thisyarn painting,six peyoterosandthe shaman (on top) achievethat unityin a field of fire. In thecenter of thepeyoteros is Tatewari, the First Sha­man, as a five-plumedfire.

150

Right: A Huichol sacrificialbowl deco­rated with Peyote designs.

According to the H uicho l, Tob accobelo ngs to fire.

The shaman prays, p lacing the offer­ing of Tob acco before the fire, to uchingit with feathers, th en distributing it toeach pilgr im, who puts it into his gourd,symbolizing th e birth of Tobacco.

The H uichol Peyote hunt is seen as aretu rn to Wirikuta or Paradise, th e arche­typal beginning and end of a mythical

past . A modern Huichol mara'ak am eexpressed it as follows: " O ne day allwill be as yo u have seen it th ere, in Wir­iku ta, The First Peopl e will come back.The fields will be pure and crystalline,all thi s is not clear to me, but in fivemore yea rs I will know it, throu gh morerevela tions. The world will end , and th eunity will be here again . But only forpure Huichol. "

Amo ng the Tarahumara, the Peyote

cult is less import ant. Many buy th eirsupplies of the cactu s, usually fromH uichol. Althoug h th e two trib es liveseveral hundred mile s apart and are notclosely relat ed, th ey share the samename for Peyote- Hikuri-and thetwo cults have many points of resem­blance .

The Tarahumara Peyote dance maybe held at any tim e du ring the year forhealth, tr ibal prosperity, or for simpleworship. It is sometimes incorporatedint o other established festivals . Theprincipal part of the ceremony consis tsof dances and praye rs followed by a dayof feasting. It is held in a cleared area,neatly swept. Oak and pine logs aredragged in for a fire and oriented in aneast -west direction. The Tarah umaraname for th e dance means "mov ingabout th e fire," and except for Peyoteitself, the fire is the most important ele­ment.

The leader has several women assis­tan ts who prepare the Hiku ri plantsfor use, grinding th e fresh cacti on ametate, being car eful not to lose onedrop of the resulting liquid. An assis­tant catc hes all liqu id in a gourd, eventhe water used to wash the metate.The leader sits west of th e fire, and across may be erected opposite him. Infront of the leader, a small hole is duginto which he may spit. A Peyote maybe set before him on its side or in­sert ed into a root-shaped hole bor edin th e ground. He inverts half a gourdover the Peyote, turning it to scratc h acircle in the earth around the cactus.Removing the gourd temporarily, hedraws a cross in th e dust to representth e world, th ereupon replacing thegourd. This apparatus serves as a reso ­nator for the rasping stick: Peyote isset under the resonator, since it enjoysthe sound.

Incense from burning cop al is thenoffered to th e cross . After facing east,knee ling, and crossing themselves, theleader 's assistants are given deer-hoofrat tles or bells to shake during thedance.

bois-the deer, the Peyote, the maize of fivecolors­all, all thatyou have seen, there in Wirikuta, when wego to hunt the Peyote-these are beautiful. Theyarebeautiful becausethey are right:' (From BarbaraMyerhoff, PeyoteHun~

legislators and engendered heated and,unfortunately, often irrespo nsible op­pos ition to its free use in American In­dian ceremonies.

It was the Kiowa and Comanche In­dians, apparently, who in visits to a na­tive group in northern Mexico firstlearn ed of this sacred American plant.Indians in the United States had beenrestricted to reservations by the last half

Below: The Huichol shaman Ramon Medina Silvasilently awaits his Peyote visions. Wrapped in his blan­ket, gazing into the ceremonial fire, he sits motionlessfor many hours as he receives messages from thegods. He said of the Peyote pilgrimage: "Our sym-

T he ground-up Peyote is kept in a potor crock near the cross and is served in agourd by an assistant: he makes threerounds of the fire if carrying the gourdto the leader, one if carrying it to an or­dinary participant. All the songs praisePeyote for its protection of th e tr ibe andfor its "beaut iful intoxication ."

H ealing ceremonies are often carr iedout like the Huichol's,

The Tarahumara leader cures at day­break. The first terminates dancing bygiving three raps. He rises, accompaniedby a young assistant, and, circling thepatio, he touches every forehead withwater. He touches the patient th rice,and placing his stick to the patient'shead, he raps three times . The dust pro­duced by the rapping, even though infi­nitesimal, is a powerful health- and life­giver and is saved for medicina l use.

T he final ritu al sends Peyote hom e.The leader reaches toward the risingsun and raps thrice. "In the early morn­ing, Hikuli had come from San Ignacioand from Satapolio riding on beautifu lgreen doves, to feast with the Tarahu­mara at the end of the dance whe n th epeopl e sacrifice food and eat and drink.H aving bestowed his blessings, Hikuliforms himself into a ball and flies to hisshelter at the time ."

Peyote is employed as a religious sa­crament among more than forty Amer­ican Ind ian tr ibes in many parts of th eUnited States and wes tern Canada. Be­cause of its wide use, Peyote early at­tracted the attention of scientists and

151

Right.·The redMescalbeans (SophorasecundifJora).

Above left: The roadman in theNativeAmericanChurch officiates at thePeyote meetingasa representativeoftheGreatSpirit. It ishisdutytoshowthe"Peyote road" to theparticipants. Theroadman in Stephen Mopope's paintingholds traditional ceremonial objects as­sociated with thereligion: the fan, staff,andrattle. Onhis cheek is painted thecrown ofa Peyote plant. Inthecenterpicture, alsobyMopope, chanting parti­cipantssit inside thesacredtepee,inthemiddleof which is FatherFire andthecrescent moon altar. Above the te­peeis thePeyote waterdrum. Thephotograph onthefar rightdepicts theSioux medicinemanHenryCrowDogchantingat a Peyote meetingon theRosebud Reservation.

Abovemiddle:AlsobyMopope, Thisshows theparticipant who sitssingingintheinterior of his sacred tipi. In the mid­dle is Father Fireandthesickleshapedaltar. Above thetipi is thewatercon­tainer.

Aboveright:Sioux Medicine ManHenryCrow Dogat a Peyote Gathering on theRosebud reservation.

152

of the nineteenth century, and much ofth eir cultural heritage was disintegrat­ing and disappearing. Fac ed with thi sdisastrous inevit ability, a number of In ­dian leaders, especially from tribes relo­cated in Oklahoma, began actively tospread a new kind of Peyote cult adap ­ted to th e needs of the more advancedIndian groups of the United States.

The Kiowa and Comanche w ere ap­parently the most active proponents ofthe new religio n. Today it is the Kiowa­Comanche type of Peyote ceremonythat, with slight modifications, prevailsnorth of the Me xican border. This cere ­mony, to judge from the rapid spread ofthe new Peyote religion, must have ap ­pealed strongly to the Plains tribes andlater to other groups.

Success in spreading the new .Peyotecult resulted in strong opposition to itspractice from missionary and local gov­ernmental gro ups . The ferocity of thisopposition often led local governmentsto enact rep ressive legislation, in spite ofove rw helming scientific opinion th atIndians should be permitted to usePeyote in religious practices. In an at­tempt to protect th eir rights to free reli -

gious activity, American Indians orga­nized th e Peyote cult into a legallyrecognized religious group, th e N ativeAmerican Church. This religious move­ment, unknown in th e United Statesbefore 1885, numbered 13,300 membersin 1922. In 1993 there were at least300,000 members among seventy differ­ent trib es.

Indians of the United States, livin g farfrom the natural area of Peyote, mustuse the dried top of the cactus, the so­called mescal button, legally acquiredby either collection or purchase and dis­tribution through the U.S. postal ser­vices . Some American Indians still sendpilgrims to gather the cact us in thefields, fo llowing the custom of Me xicanIndians, but most tribal gro ups in theUnited States must procure their sup­plies by purchase and mail.

A member may hold a meeting in gra­titude for the recovery of health, thesafe return from a voyage, or the successof a Peyote pil grimage; it may be held tocelebrate th e birth of a bab y, to name achild, on th e first four birthdays of achild, for doctoring, or even for generalth an ksgivin g.

Left: The Peyote rattle is an importantinstrument for thePeyote ceremony ofthe Native American Church.

The Kickapoo hold a Peyote servicefor the dead, and the bod y of the de­ceased is brought int o the ceremo nialtepee. The Kiowa may have five servicesat East er, four at Christmas andTh ank sgiving, six at the New Year.Especially among the Kiowa, meetingsare held only on Saturday night. Any­one who is a memb er of the Peyote cultmay be a leader or "roadman." Thereare certain taboos that the roadman,and sometimes all participants, mu stobserve. The older men refrain fro meating salt the day before and after ameeting, and they may not bathe forseveral days following a Peyot e service.Th ere seem to be no sexual tab oos, as inthe Mexican tribes, and the ceremony isfree of licentiousness. Women are ad­mitted to meetings to eat Peyote and topray, but they do not usually participatein the singing and drumming. After theage of ten, children may attend meet­ings, but do not take part until the y areadults.

Peyote ceremoni es differ from tribeto tribe. T he typical Plains Indian ser­vice takes place usually in a tepee erectedover a carefully made altar of eart h or

clay; the tepee is taken do wn as soon asth e all-night ceremony is over. Som etr ibes hold the ceremony in a woodenround-house with a permanent altar ofcement inside, and the O sage and Qua­paw Indians oft en have electricallylight ed round-houses.

Th e Father Peyot e (a large "mescalbutton" or dried top of the Peyot eplant) is placed on a cros s or rosette ofsage leaves at the center of the altar. Thiscrescent -shaped alt ar, sym bol of th espirit of Peyot e, is never taken from th ealtar during the ceremony. As soon asthe Father Peyote has been put in plac e,all talking stops, and all eyes are direc­ted toward the altar.

Tobacco and corn shucks or black­jack oak leaves are passed around thecircle of worshipers, each maki ng a ci­~arette for use during the leader 's op en­mg prayer.

The next procedure invo lves purifica­tion of the bag of mescal buttons in ce­dar incense. Following this blessing, theroadman takes four mescal buttonsfrom the bag, which is then passedaround in a clockwise dir ection , each

.wo rshiper taking four. More Peyote

Above'fighf:The photograph portraysthe roadman's feathered staffof author­ity: two smoking sticks for lightingtheritualcigarettes, one ofwhich indicatesin thecombination of the thunderbirdandthe crossthemelding of Christianand Nativeelements; cornshucks forcigarettes; a drumstick; several gourdrattles; two Mescalbean necklaces,partof the roadman'sdress; a bundle ofsagebrush; Peyote buttons; a Peyoteceremony necktie; a black"Peyotecloth," an eagle wing-bone fluteanda small pileof "cedar" needles forincensing.

153

Above: A Huichol shaman(mara 'akame) singswithhisassistantsin frontofthetemple inwhich thePeyoteceremonywill takeplace.

Page 155top: The groundPeyoteismixedwithwater andgivento theparti­cipantsat the intoxicatingceremony.

154

may be called for at any time during theceremony, the amount consumed beingleft to personal discretion . Some peyo­tists eat up to thirty-six buttons a night,and some boast of having ingested up­wards of fifty. An average amount isprobably about tw elve.

Singing starts with the roadman, theinitial song always being the same, sun gor chanted in a high nasal tone. Trans­lated, the song means : "May the godsbless me, help me, and give me powerand understanding. "

Sometimes, the roadman may beasked to treat a patient. This procedurevaries in form. The curing ritual is al­most always simp le, consisting of pray­ing and frequent use of the sign of thecross.

Peyote eaten in cerem ony has as­sumed th e role of a sacrament in partbecause of its biological activity: thesense of well-being that it induces andthe psychological effects (the chief ofwhich is the kaleid oscopic play of richlycolored visions) often experi enced bythose who indulge in its use. Peyote is

Top left:ThePeyote Goddess, or EarthMother, of the Huichol in a modern de­piction. Her dress is decorated withsymbols of the sacred cactus. ThePeyote is her gifttohumans inorderthatthey mayenter into contactwithher. Byknowing her, manlearns to respect andhonor the earth anduse her wisely.

Top right:A Huichol man withthesmallPeyote garden he hasplanted in his vil­lage andwhich he lovingly cares for.

cons idered sacred by N ative Am ericans,a divine "messenger" enabling the indi­vidual to communicate with God with­out the medium of a priest. It is anearthly representative of God to manypeyotists. "God told the Dela wares todo good even before H e sent Christ tothe whites who killed Him .. 0'" an In­dian explained to an anthropologist."God made Peyote. It is His power. Itis the power of Jesus. Jesus came after­wards on this earth, after Peyote ...God (through Peyote) told the Del a­wares the same things that Jesus toldthe whites."

Correlated with its use as a religioussacrament is its presumed value as amedicine. Some Indians claim tha t ifPeyote is used correctly, all other medi­cines are superfluous. Its supposed cura­tive properties are responsible pr obablymore than any other attr ibute for the ra­pid diffusion of the Peyote cult in theUnited States.

The Peyote religion is a medico­religiou s cult . In considerin g NativeAm erican medicines, one must always

· :i\...I : .K..: f'..

"j, ....t

bear in mind th e differe nce betweenth e aboriginal concep t of a medicinalagent and that of our modern \'\1esternmedicine. Indigenous societies, in gen ­eral, cannot conceive of natural deathor illn ess but believe that th ey are du eto superna tural interference. T here are

tw o types of "medicines" : th ose withpurely physical effects (that is, to re­lieve too th ache or digestive up sets);and the medicines , par excellence, thatput the medicine man int o communica­tion, th rou gh a variety of visions, wi ththe malevolent sp irits that cause illnessand dea th.

The factors responsible fo r th e rapidgrowth and tenacity of the Peyote re­ligion in the United States are manyand int errelated. Among the most ob­vious, however, and th ose most oftencited, are: th e ease of legally ob tainingsupp lies of the hallucinogen; lack offederal restraint; cessat ion of intertri­bal warfare; reservation life with con­sequent intermarriage and peacefulexchange of social and religious ideas;ease of transport ation and postal com­munication; and th e general atti tude ofres ignation toward encroaching \'\1es­tern culture.

In th e year 1995 the use of peyote bymembers of the N ative AmericanChurch was made legal by Bill C linton !

Above: A modern Peyote bird of theNavajo.

Left: A Peyote ian (Navajo) madeirompeacockieathers is used by the Indiansto induce visions.

155

LITTLE FLOWERS OF THE GODS22

63

64

65

76

77

78

79

CONOCYBE

PANAEOLUS CYANESCENSBlueMeaniesPANAEOLUS SPHINCTRINUSHoop-petticoatPANAEOLUS SUBBALTEATUSDark-rimmed MottlegillPSILOCYBE CUBENSISSan IsidroPSILOCYBECYANESCENSWavy CapPSILOCYBE MEXICANATeonanacatlPSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATALiberty Cap

Above:Oneofthelargest fruiting bodiesof Psilocybeazurescens everfound.

1. Psilocybe mexicana2. Psilocybe semperviva3. Psilocybeyungensis

"There is a world beyond ours, a worldth at is far awa y, nearb y, and invisible.And th ere is where God lives, wherethe dead live, th e spirits and the saints,a world where everything has alrea dyhapp ened and everything is known.That world talks. It has a language ofits own. I report what it says. The sacredmushroom takes me by the hand andbrings me to the world where every­thing is known. It is they, the sacredmu shrooms, th at speak in a way I canunderstand. I ask them and th ey answerme. When I return fro m the trip th at Ihave take n with th em, I tell what th eyhave to ld me and what they have shown

"me.Thus does th e famous Mazatec sha­

man Marfa Sabina reverent ly descri bethe god-given po wers of the intoxicat­ing mu shrooms that she uses in hercer emony, which has come down fromages past.

Few plants of th e gods have ever bee nheld in greater reverence than th e sacr edmushro oms of Mexico. So hallow edwere th ese fungi that th e Aztecs calledthem Teonanacatl ("divine flesh ") andused them onl y in th e most ho ly of th eirceremonies. Even th ough, as fungi,mu shrooms do not blossom, the A ztecsreferred to them as "flower," and the In­dians who still use them in religious ri­tuals have endearing terms for them,such as " little flowers. "

When the Spaniards conquered Mex­ico, they.were aghast to find the nativesworshiping their deities with the help ofinebriating plants: Peyotl, Ololiuqui,Teonanacatl. The mushrooms were es-

4. Psilocybe caerulescensvar. mazatecorum5. Psilocybe caerulescensvar. nigripes

pecially offensive to the Europe an ec­clesiastical authorities, and th ey set outto eradicate thei r use in religiou s prac­tices.

"They possessed another meth od ofintoxication, which sharpened theircruelty; for if they used certain smalltoadstools . . . th ey would see a th ou ­sand visions and especially snakes . . .They called these mushrooms in theirlan guage teunamacatlth, which means'God 's flesh,' or of th e De vil whom the yworshiped, and in thi s wise wi th thatbitter victual by th eir cru el God wereth ey hou seled. "

In 1656, a guide for mission aries ar­gued agains t Indian idolatries, includingmu shroom ingestion, and recomm en­ded th eir extirpation. Not only do re­ports condemn Teonanacatl, but actualillustrations also denounce it. One de­picts the devil enti cing an Indian to eatth e fungus; another has th e devil per­fo rming a dan ce up on a mu shroom .

"But before explaining this [ido la­try] ," one of the clerics said, " I wish toexplain the natu re of the said mush­room s [that] were small and yellow ish,and to collect th em th e priests and oldmen, appointed as ministers for theseimpostures, went to the hills and re­mained almost the whole night in sermo­nizing and in superstitious praying. Atdawn, when a certa in little breeze whichthey know begins to blow, the y wouldgather them, attributing to th em deity.When they are eaten or drunk, th ey in­toxicate, depriving those who partake ofth em of thei r senses and making thembelieve a thousand absurdities."

Dr. Francisco H ernandez, personalphysician to the king of Spain, wrotethat three kinds of intoxicating mush ­rooms were worshiped. After describ­ing a lethal species, he stated th at"others when eaten cause not death bu tmadness that on occasion is lasting, ofwhich the sympto m is a kind of uncon­trolled laughter. U sually called teyhuin­tli, these are deep yellow, acrid and of anot displeasing fre shness. There areothers again which, without inducinglaughter, bring before the eyes all kindsof visions, such as wars and th e likenessof demons. Yet others are there not lessdesired by princes for their fiestas andbanquets , of great price. With night­lon g vigils are they sou ght, awesomeand terrifying. This kind is tawny andsom ewh at acrid. "

For four centuries nothing waskn own of th e mushroom cult; and itwas even doubted that mushrooms wereused hallucinogenically in ceremony.The Church fathers had done such asuccessful job of drivin g the cult intohiding through persecution that noanthropologist or botanist had ever un­covered the religious use of these mus h­rooms unt il this century.

In 1916 an American bo tanis t finallyproposed a "solution" to the identifica­tion of Teonanacatl, concluding thatTeon anacatl and the Peyote were thesame drug. Motivated by distrust of thechroniclers and Indians , he int imatedthat the natives, to p rotect Peyote, wereindicating mushrooms to th e aut hori­ties. He argued that the dried, brownish,disk like crown of Peyote resembles a

Below: In 1979the largest andmost potent mushroomin the Psilocybe genus wasfound in Astoria, Oregon.Psilocybe azurescenscontains the highest concentra­tionof psilocybine of all mushrooms.

6. Psilocybe cubensis7. Psilocybe wassonii8. Psilocybe hoogshagenii

9. Psilocybe siligineoides10. Panaeolus sphinctrinus

Below: In Europe andNorthAmericathere are countless modern artifactsthat reflect the contemporary mush­roomcult.

Above: Mushrooms withpsychoactivepropertiesare foundaround theworld.In manyplaces 'f-shirtswithmushroommotifs are available for the travelingmushroomlover. Embroidery fromKathmandu, Nepal.

Aboveright:The Psilocybepelliculosais a relativelyweakmoderatelyactivemushroom fromthe Pacific NorthWest.

158

dried mushroom-so remarkably that itwill even deceive a mycologist. It wasnot until the 1930s tha t an understand­ing of the role of hallucinogenic mush­rooms in Mexico and a kno wled ge oftheir botanical identi fication and chemi­cal composition started to becomeavailable . In the late 1930s the first twoof the many species of sacred Mexicanmushrooms were collected and asso­ciated with a modern mushroom cere­mony. Subsequent field research hasresulted in the discovery of som e twodozen species. The most imp ortant be­long to the genus Psilocybe, twelve ofwhich have been reported, not includ ­ing St ropharia cub ensis, sometimes con-

sidered a Psilocybe. The most impo rtantspecies appear to be Psilocybe mexicana,P. cubensis, and P. caerulescens.

These various mushrooms are nowknown to be employed in divinatoryand religious rites among the Maz atec,

.Chinantec, Ch atino, Mixe, Zapotec,and Mixtec of O axaca; the Nahua andpossibly th e Otorni of Puebla; and theTarascans of Michoacan. The presentcenter of intensive use of the sacredmushrooms is among the Mazatec.

Mushrooms vary in abundance fromyear to year and at different seasons.There may be years when one or morespecies are rare or absent- they varyin their distribution and are not ubi-

Left:Thesixteenth-century Spanishfriar Bernardino de Sahagundenounced the Aztec'ssacramentaluseof Teonanacatl, the"wondrousmushroom." Thisdrawing, whichappears inSahagun's famous chronicle,Codex Florentino, depicts a demonlikespirit overcrudely drawn mushrooms.

The Chemis try of Teonanacatl

Teonanacatl, the sacred mushrooms of Mexico, owe their hallucinogenic ef-fects to two alkaloids known as psilocybine and psilocine. .

The main component , psilocybine , is the phosphoric acid ester of psilocine,which occurs usually only in trace elements. Psilocybine and psilocine, beingtryptamine derivatives, belong to the class of indole alkaloids. Their crystalsare shown on page 23; their chemical structure on page 186. The chemicalrelationship of these hallucinogens to the physiological compound serotonineis especially signif icant. Serotonine, the molecular model of which is shownon page 187, is a neurotransmitter and, therefore , important in the biochem­istry of psychic functions. Both psilocybine and psilocine can be producedsynthe tically. The active dose in man is 6-12 mg. Twenty to 30 mg inducestrong visions.

Above right: The tropicalMagic Mush­room Psilocybecubensis (Strophariacubensis)wasfirstgathered in Cubaand mycologically ascertained. It growsin all tropical zones, preferringcowmanure.

Above left: In Mexico an unusualsaintnamed EINinois worshiped in theCatholic Church. TheMexican Indiansunderstand himasan embodiment ofthesacredmushroom, which theyalsocallNino. (AltarinSan Cristobal deLasCasas, Chiapas)

"Woman who thunders am I, womanwho sounds am 1.Spiderwoman am I, hu mmingbirdwoman am I ...Eagle woman am I, important eaglewoman am 1.Whirling wo man of the whirlw indam I, wo man of a sacred, enchantedplace am I,Woman of the shooting stars am 1."

R. Gordon Wasson, th e first non­Indian fully to witness the Mazatec

rooms. Excerpts from her chant, all inthe beautiful tonal Mazatec language,give an idea of her many"qualifications."

quitous. Furthermore, each shamanhas his own favorite mushrooms andmay forgo others; Maria Sabina, forexample, will not use Psilocybe cuben­sis. And certain mushrooms are usedfor specific pu rposes. This means thateach ethnobotanical expedi tion maynot expect to find the same assortmentof species employe d at one tim e, evenin the same locality and by the samepeople.

Chemica l studies have indicated thatpsi locybine and, to a lesser extent, psi­locine are present in many of the speciesof the severa l genera associated wi th theMexican ceremony. In fact, these com­po unds have been isolated from manyspecies of Psilocybe and other genera inwidely separated parts of the world,although the evidence available suggeststhat only in Mexico are psilocyb ine­containing mushrooms at present uti ­lized in native ceremonies.

The modern mushroom ceremony isan all-night seance that may include acuring ritual. Chants accompany themain part of the ceremony. The intoxi­cation is characterized by fantas ticallycolored visions in kaleidoscopic move­ment and sometimes by auditory hallu­cina tions , and th e part aker loses himselfin unearthly flights of fancy.

The mushrooms are collected in theforests at the time of the new moon bya virgin girl, then taken to a church toremain briefly on the altar. They arenever sold in the marketplace. T he Ma­zatec call the mushrooms Nti-si-tho, inwhich "Nti" is a particle of reverenceand endearment; the rest of the namemeans "that which springs forth." AMazatec explained this thought poeti­cally: "The little mushroom comes of it­self, no one knows whence, like thewind that comes we know not whencenor why."

The male or female shaman chants forhours, wit h frequ ent clapping or percus­sive slaps on th e thighs in rhythm withth e chant. Maria Sabina's chanting,which has been reco rded, studied, andtranslated, in great part proclaims hum­bly her qualifications to cure and to int er­pre t divine power thr ough the mush-

159

In 1958, thefamous MazatecshamanMaria Sabina performed a Ve/ada (nightvigil) onbehalfof a seventeen-year-oldyouth, PefectoJose Garcia, whowasseriously ill.

Left to right: Pefecto awaits thecom­mencement of the Ve/ada.

Pefecto stands upat thebeginningoftheceremony, andMariaSabina turnsher head to gaze at him.

The shaman has incensedpairsofsacred mushrooms andhandsPefectothe intoxicating plant for ingestion.

Pefecto has heard the unfavorablediagnosis, which Maria Sabina haslearned throughthehelp of themush­rooms-that there is nohope for hisrecovery. He collapses in terroranddespair.

Theshaman andherdaughter, adversediagnosis notwithstanding, continuetochant, hoping formoreinsight-eventhough shehaslearnedthatPefecto'ssoul has been irrevocably lost.

160

cerem ony, wrote the following under­standing tho ughts about this use of themushrooms:

"H ere let me say a word about thenatu re of the psyc hic disturbance th atthe eating of the mushroom causes. Thisdisturbance is wholly different from theeffect of alcohol, as different as nightfro m day. We are entering upon a dis­cussion in which the vocabulary of theEnglish language, of any Euro pean lan­guage, is seriously deficient .

"There are no apt words in it to char­acterize one's state when one is, shall wesay, 'bemushroomed.' For hundreds,even tho usands, of years, we havethought about these things in terms ofalcohol, and we now have to break th ebounds imp osed on us by our alcoho licobsessio n. We are all, willy-nilly, con­fined within the prison walls of oureveryday vocabulary. With skill in ourchoice of words, we may stretch ac­cepted meanings to cover slightly newfeelings and thoughts, but whe n a stateof mind is utterly distinct, wholly novel,then all our old words fail. How do you

tell a man who has been born blind whatseeing is like? In the present case this isan especially apt analogy, because su­perficially the bemushroo med manshows a few of th e objective symptomsof one who is into xicated, drunk. Nowvirtually all the words describing thestate of drunkenness, from ' intoxicated'(wh ich literally means 'poisoned')through the scores of current vulgar­isms, are contemptuous, belittl ing, pe­jorative. H ow curi ous it is that moderncivilized man finds surcease from care ina drug for wh ich he seems to have norespect! If we use by analogy the termssuitable for alcohol, we prejudice themushroom, and since there are fewamong us who have been bemush­roo med, there is danger that th e experi­ence will not be fairly judged. What weneed is a vocabulary to describe all themodalities of a divine inebriant . . ."

Upon receiving six pairs of mush­rooms in the ceremony, Wasson atethem. He experienced the sensation ofhis soul being removed from his bodyand floating in space. He saw "geometric

patterns, angular, in richest colors,which grew into arc hitectural struc­tu res, th e sto nework in brilliant colors,gold and ony x and ebony, exten dingbeyond the reach of sight, in vistas mea ­sureless to man. T he architecturalvisions seemed to be oriented, seemedto belong to th e . . . architecture de­scribed by the visionaries of the Bible."In the faint moonlight, "the bouquet onthe tab le assumed the dimensions andshape of an imperial conveyance, a tr i­umphant car, draw n by . . . creaturesknown only to mythology."

Mushrooms have apparently beenceremonia lly employed in M esoa mericafor many centuries. Several early sourceshave suggested that Ma yan languages inGuatemala had mushrooms named forthe underworld. Miniature mu shr oomstones, 2,200 years of age, have beenfound in archaeological sites near Gua­temala C ity, and it has been postulatedth at stone mu shroom effigies buriedwith a M ayan dignitary sugges ted aconnection with th e Nine Lords of theXibalba, described in the sacred book

Popol Vuh . Actually, more than twohundred mushroom sto ne effigies havebeen discovered, the oldest dating fromth e firs t millennium B. c . Although themajority are Guatemalan, some havebeen unearthed in El Salvador and H on­duras and ot hers as far north as Vera­cru z and Guerrero in Mexico. It is nowclear th at whatever the use of these"mushroom stones," the y ind icate th egreat anti quity of a sophisticated sacreduse of hallucinogenic mushroom s.

A superb statue of Xochipilli, AztecPrince of Flowers, from the early six­teent h century, was rece ntl y discoveredon th e slopes of the volcano Mt, Pop e­catepe tl (see illu stration, P: 62). H is faceis in ecstas y, as though seeing visio ns inan intoxication; his head is slightlytilted, as th ou gh hearing voices. Hisbod y is engrave d with stylized flowersthat have been identif ied as sacred, mostof them inebriat ing, plants. The pedestalon which he sits is decorated with a de ­sign representing cross-sect ions of th ecaps of Psilocybe aztecorum, a halluci ­nogenic mushroom known only from

"The nines santos (Psilo­cybe mexicana) heal.They lower fevers, curecolds, and give freedomfrom toothaches. Theypull th e evil spirits out ofthe body or free the spiritof the sick."- Marla Sabina

161

Right:Acelebrantdepicted in thesixteenth-centuryMagliabecchianoCodex is ingesting apair of hallucino­genicmushroomsduringa sacred rite.Behindhimis theLordoftheUnder­world, Mictlantlcuhtli.Thethree jadegreenmushroomsin frontof thecele­brantundoubtedlywerepainted inthiscolor to indicate theirgreatvalueassacred objects.

Above: AlbertHofmann visitedthe sha­manMarfa Sabina in 1962andtookmanyportraits of her.

Page 163: Thesincerity andabsolutefaith in the revelatorypower of themushrooms is evident in thesephoto- .graphsof Maria Sabina, who, duringthenightlong chanting andclappingcere­mony, feels herself fully in contactwiththe other world, which the mushroomshave allowed her to visit.

162

this volcano . Thus Xo chipi lli undoubt­edly represents not simply the Prince ofFlowers but more specifically the Princeof In ebriating Flowers, including themu shrooms th at , in N ahu atl poetry,we re called "flowers" and "flowers thatin toxicate ."

H ave psilocybine-containing mu sh­rooms ever been employed as magico­religious hallucinogens in the NewWorld? The answer is probably yes.

A species of Psilocybe and possiblyalso Panaeolus are used tod ay near theclassic M ay a ceremo nial center ofPalenque, and hallucinogenic mush­rooms have been reported in use alongthe border between Chiapas in Me xicoand Gua temala. W hether th ese mo d­ern mu shroom practices in the Mayaregion represent vest iges of formeruse or have been recently introduce dfro m Oaxaca it is not possible as yetto say.

N evertheless, evidence is now accu­mulating to indicate th at a mushro omcult flourished in prehistoric times­fro m 100 B. C. to about A. D . 300-400 innorthwestern Me xico: in Colima, Jalis­co, and Nayarit. Funerary effigies, withtwo "horns" p rotru ding from the head,are believed to represent male and fe­male"dei ties" or priests assoc iated withmushrooms. Traditions among contem­porary Huichol Indians in Jalisco alsosuggest the former reli gious use of thesefungi "in ancient times."

What about South America, wherethes e psychoactive mushrooms abound ?There is no evidence of such use today,but indications of th eir appa rent formeremployment are many. The YurimaguaIndians of the Peruvian Amazon werereported in the late seventeenth andearly eighteenth centuries to be drinkinga potently inebriating bevera ge madefrom a "tree fungus ." The Jesuit rep ortstated that the Indians "mix mushroomsthat gro w on fallen tr ees with a kind ofreddish film that is found usually at­tached to rotting trunks. This film is

very hot to the taste. N o person whodrinks thi s bre w fails to fall under its ef­fects after three dr aughts of it, since it isso strong, or more correctly, so toxic." Ithas been sug gested th at the tree mush­room might have been the psychoactivePsilocybeyungensis, which occurs in thi sregion .

In Colombia, many anthropomor­phic gold pectorals with two domelikeornaments on the head have been found.They are in th e so-called Darien sty le,and th e majority of them have been un­eart hed in th e Simi area of northwe sternColombia and in th e Calima region onth e Pacific coast. For lack of a betterterm, they have been called "telepho ne­bell gods," since the hollow semi­sphe rica l ornaments resemble the bellsof old-fashioned teleph ones. It has beensugges ted th at th ey represent mush­room effigies. The discovery of similarart ifacts in Panama and Costa Rica andone in Yucatan might be interp reted tosuggest a prehistoric continuum of asacred mushroom cult from Mexico toSouth America.

Farther to th e south in South America,there is archaeological evidence ·thatmay suggest the religious importanceof mushrooms. Moche effigy stirrupvessels from Peru, for example, havemushroomlike cephalic ornaments.

While the archaeological evidence isconvincing, the almost complete lack ofreference in colonial literature to suchuse of mushrooms, and the absence ofany known modern hallucinogenic useof mushrooms amo ng aboriginal groupsof South America, gives cause for cau­tion in the interpretation of what other­wise might easily be inte rpreted asancient mushroom effigies from southof Panama. If, however, it becomes evi­dent th at th e various archaeologicalartifacts from South America men­tioned above do represent hallucino ­genic mushrooms, then the area fortheir significance in America will begreatly amplified.

"I take the ' little one who springs up out of the earth'(Psilocybe caerulescens) and I see Go d.

I see him springing upout of th e eart h."

- Maria Sabina

163

SALVIA DIVINORUM82 Hierba de la Pastora

Right: Salvia divinorum is easytorecognize by its square stem.

Below:A pastemadeof the freshleavesof Salvia divinorum is chewed slowly.

Page 165 top left: Painted nellie is usedby theMazatecs as a replacement forSalvia divinorum.

Page 165topright: Coleus pumilus isconsidered by the Mazatecsto be re­latedto Salvia divinorum.

Page 165middle: Salvia divinorum intheMexicanrain forest.

164

DIVINER'S SAGE

Closely associated with the Indianmushroom cults is the use of anotherpsychoactive plant, Hierba de la Pastora(Salvia divinorum). It is not entirelyclear if it was used in the pre -Spanishtimes . It is possible that it was thePipi ltz intzintli of the Aztecs.

The male or female shamans of th eMazatecs of Oaxaca use Salvia divinor­um, which is also known as hoja de la

pastora (leaf of the shepherd) or pas­tora, in rituals associated with divina­tion or healing, genera lly as a sub stitutefor the otherwise preferred psychoac­tive mushrooms. Maria Sabiria remar­ked: "When I am in the time that thereare no mushrooms and want to healsomeone who is sick, then I must fall

.back on the leaves of pastora. Whenyou grind them up and eat them, theywork just like the niiios. But, of course,pastora has nowhere near as much po ­wer as the mushrooms."

The ritual use is remarkably similar tothe use of mushrooms. Salvinia divi­norum rituals take place at night incomp lete darkness and stillness. Eitherthe healer is alone with the patient orthere are also other patients and poss i­bly some healthy participants present .Before th e shaman chews and sucks onthe leaves, th ey are held over some

burnin g Copal incense, and someprayers are said to consecrate the leaves.After chewing the leaves, the partici­pants lie down and remain as still andsilent as possib le. Salvia ritua ls lastbarely longer than one to two hours, asthe effects of the leaves last a signifi­cantly shorter time than those of mush­rooms. If the visions are strong enough,the healer finds the cause of the illness,or some other problem. H e or she gives

.the patient appropriate advice and endsthe meeting.

Salvia divinorum, which is also knownas Aztec sage, is native to the Mazatecareas of the Sierra Madre Oriental inthe Mexican state of Oaxaca . It growsnaturally in tropical rain fores ts in analtitude of three hundred to eighteenhundre d meters. Salvia divinorum, be­cause of its limited geographic habitat,belongs to the rares t of psychoactive

plants, but is cultivated by plant loversall over the world. This reproduction isachieved with cuttings.

The Mazatecs take thirteen pairs offresh leaves (twenty-six leaves alto ­gether) and twist them into a kind of ci­gar or chaw, which is put into the mouthand sucked or chewed. The juice is notswallowed, but the active ingredientsare absorbed through the mucous mem­branes in the side of the mouth. For oneof these cigars, it takes at least six freshleaves, but one can use eight or tenleaves for a stronger effect . The effectswith the chewing method begin in al­most exactly ten minutes and last ap­proximately forty-five minutes.

The dried leaves can also be smoked.With this method, half of a fairly largeleaf (two or three deep inhalations) in­duces a strong psychoactive reaction.Generally, one or two leaves are smoked.

Most people who have smoked,chewed, or taken a tinctur e of Salvia di­vinorum report very bizarre, unus ualpsychoactive effects, which are not verycomparable with euphoric or psychede­lic substances. There is often perceivedto be a "bending" of space; and a feelingof sway ing or out-of-body experiencesis also typical.

In the traditional taxonomy of theMazatecs, Salvia divinorum is relatedto two forms of labiates. Salvia is knownas the "mother" (la hembra), Coleus pu­milus is considered to be the "father" (elmacho), and Coleus blumei is known asel nene (the child) and el ahiajado, thegodchild. The fresh leaves are used justas those of Salvia divinorum-that is,they are chewed like chewing tobacco.This connection gives the Coleus the re­putation of being psychoactive plants.

What Was Pipiltzintzintli?

The ancient Aztecs knew and used a plant called Pipiltzin tzintli (the purestlittle prince) very similarly to the use of Psilocybe mexicana in entheoqenicrituals. There are masculine and feminine forms of this plant, macho andhembra. In the National Archives in Mexico City, there are Inquisition filesfrom the years 1696, 1698, and 1706 that mention Pipiltzintzin and hint at itsintoxicating effects. Various authors have taken this to be Salvia divinorum.

The Chemistry of Salvia divinorum

The leaves contain the neocerodan-diterpenes salvinorin A and salvinorin 8(also known as divinorin A and divinorin B), as well as two other, similar sub­stances that have not yet been precisely identified. The main ingredient issalvinorin A (chemical formula: C23H2S0S), which has extreme conscious­ness-altering effects with amounts as small as 1So-S00mg. Salvinorin is notan alkaloid. It was first described by Ortega et al. by the name of salvinorin(1982). Later, Valdes et al. described it under the name of divinorin A (1984).The neurochemistry of salvinorin is still an unsolved puzzle-,The iDgredieQtshave not bound to any receptors in any receptor tests (the NovaSglilen meth­od). The plant also contains loliolid.

165

94 TRICHOCEREUSSan Pedro CACTUS OF THE FOUR WINDS

Above left: Pieces ofSan Pedro piled upforsalein the"witches' market" inChiclayo in northern Peru.

Above right:Thefast-growing SanPedro cactus develops few, if any,thorns when cultivated.

166

"San Pedro has a special symbolism incuranderismo [folk healing] for a rea­son: San Pedro is always in tune with... the powers of animals, of strong per­sonages or beings, of serious beings, ofbeings that have supernatural power. . ."

The San Pedro cactus, Trichocereuspachanoi, represents undoubtedly oneof the most ancient of the magic plantsof South America. The oldest archaeo­logical evidence, a Chavin stone carvingin a temple in northern Peru, goes backto 1300 B. c. Almost equally old textilesfrom Chavin depict the cactus with ja­guar and hummingbird figures. Peru­vian ceramics made between 1000 and700 B. c. show the plant in associationwith the deer; and others, several hun­dred years later, have the cactus withthe jaguar and stylized spirals illustrat­ing the hallucinogenic experiences in­duced by the plant. On the southerncoast of Peru, large ceramic urns of theNazca culture, dated 100 B. C.-A. D . 500,depict San Pedro.

The use of Trichocereus was wide­spread in Peru when the Spanish ar­rived . One ecclesiastical report said thatshamans "drink a beverage they callAchuma which is a water they makefrom the sap of some thick and smooth

cacti ..." and"as it is very strong, afterthey drink it they remain without judg­ment and deprived of their senses, andthey see visions that the devil representsto them ..." As with Peyote in Mexico,the Roman Church fought against theSan Pedro cactus: "This is the plant withwhich the devil deceived the Indians ...in their paganism, using it for their liesand superstitions ... those who drinklose consciousness and remain as ifdead; and it has even been seen thatsome have died because of the great fri­gidity to the brain. Transported by thedrink, the Indians dreamed a thousandabsurdities and believed them as if theywere true ... "

The modern use of the San Pedro cac­tus, along the coastal regions of Peruand in the Andes of Peru and Bolivia,has been greatly affected by Christianinfluence-influences even in the nameapplied to the plant, originating possi­bly in the Christian belief that St. Peterholds the keys to heaven. But the overallcontext of the moon-oriented ritual sur­rounding its use indicates that it is trulyan amalgan of pagan and Christian ele­ments.

San Pedro is now employed to curesickness, including alcoholism and in-

The Chemistry of San Pedro

Trichocereuscontains as its main alkaloid mescaline, responsible for the vi­sual hallucinogenic effects. From dried specimens of San Pedro, 2 percentmescaline has been isolated. In addition, hordenine has also been detected.

167

Top:The San Pedro cactus(Tfichocereus pachanoi).

Above right: In the earlyeveningthelarge flowersof the SanPedroblossomin sumptuoussplendor.

Above ieft:The flowers of San Pedroremain closed during thedaytime.

Far left:A speciesfromthe Iticttocet­eus genus that has not yet beenbotanicallycategorized. It grows innorthwesternArgentina, where it is alsocalledSan Pedroandusedpsycho­actively.

sanity, for divination, to undo lovewi tchcraft, to counter all kinds of sor­cery, and to ensure success in personalventures. It is only one-but th e princi­palone-of many "magical" plant sknown to and used by shamans and col­lected near sacred lagoons high in theAn des.

At th ese lagoons, shamans go annu­ally for purificat ion and to visit specialindividuals, experts in sorcery and"owners" of divine plants capa ble ofawaking, with San Pedro, supernaturalspiritual powers. Even the sick exer tthemselves to make pilgrimages to theseremote holy places. It is thought thatth e penitent may undergo a metamor­phosis in these lagoons and that theplants, especially San Pedro, from theseareas possess extraordinarily powerfulproperti es to cure illness and to influ­ence witchcraft .

Shamans spec ify four "kinds" of thecactus, distinguished by the number ofribs: th ose with four ribs are rare andconsidered to be the most pot ent, wi thvery special sup ernatu ral pow ers, sinceth e four ribs represent th e "four winds"and the "four roads."

T he cactus is kn own in northern coast­al Peru as San Pedro, in the northern

Top left: A ceramic pot iromtheChimuculture, A.D. 1200. Theowl-facedfemale depicted onthis vessel is prob­ablyanherbalist andshaman;sheholdsHuachuma (Trichocereus). Even todayinnative markets, the womenwhosellthehallucinogenic cactus areusuallyboth herbalists andshamans, andaccordingto nativebeliefs, the owlisassociated withthesewomen.

Top right:There aremanyherbscalled"conduro" that belongto different gen­era(for example, Lycopodium) andaretraditionally usedas ingredients in theSan Pedro drink.

Middle:A north Peruviancurandero(healer) setsuphis "mesa" for theSanPedro ritual on thebanks of ShimbeLake.

Belowright:The mesais surrounded bymagical staves. They areeither frompre-Columbian graves or modern repli­casmade fromthe Amazonian ChontaPalm.

168

Andean area as Huachuma, and in Boli­via as Achuma; the Bolivian term chu­m arse (" to get drunk") is derived fromAchuma. Aguaco lla and Gigant6n are itsEcuadorean names .

The stems of the cactus, normallypurchased in the market, are sliced likebre ad and boiled for up to seven hoursin water. After the drinking of San Ped­ro, ot her medicinal herbs, the help ofwhich is frequen tly sought, begin to talkto the shaman, activatin g his own "innerpower." San Pedro may be taken alon e,but often other plants, separately boi­led are added and the drink is th en,called Cimora. Among the numerousplant additives employed are the !"n­dean cactus N eoraimondia rnacrostibas,a species of the amaranthaceou s Iresin e,the euphorbiaceous Pedilanthus titby­m aloides, and Isotoma longiflora of theCampanulaceae. All of these plants, ex-

. cept Iresine, may have biody?amicprinciples. Iresin e has the reputation ofcuring "insanity." Brugmansia aZ-:1'eaand B. sanguin ea, two potent hallucino­gens in their own right, are frequentlyadd ed.

Only in recent years has San Pedrobeen correctly identified. In early che­mical and psychiatric studies in Peru,the cactu s was misidenti fied as Op untiacylindrica. Only recently have studiesindicated the great significance of thevegetal additives, an investigation thatdeserv es more attention. On occasion,magic demands that other additives beemploy ed; powdered bones and ceme­tery dust are commonly used to ensurethe effectiveness of the brew. As one ob­server has stated: San Pedro is " the cat­alyst that activates all the complexforces at work in a folk healing session,especially th e visionary and divinatorypowers" of the shaman, who can makehimself the owner of another man'sidentity. But the magic of San Pedrozoes far beyond curing and divination,for it is believed to guard houses like adog, whistling in an unearthly fashionand forcing intruders to flee in terror.

The principal effects of Trichocereuspachanoi have been descri bed by a sha­man : ". .. the drug first produces . . .drowsiness or a dreamy state and a feel­ing of lethargy . .. a slight dizziness .. .then a great 'vision,' a clearing of all thefaculties . .. It produces a light numb-

ness in the body and afterward a tr an­quillity. And then comes detachment, atyp e of visual forc e ... inclusive of allthe senses . . . including the sixth sense,the telepath ic sense of transmitting one­self across time and matter . . . like akind of removal of one's tho ugh t to adistant dimension."

"Fo ur-ribbed cacti . .. are consideredto be very rare and very lucky . . . tohave special pr opert iesbecause they correspo ndto the 'four winds' and the 'fourroads,'supernatural powers associated withthe cardinal points . . ."- D ouglas Sharon

During the ritual, partIcIpants are"set free fro m matt er" and engage inflight through cosm ic regions. It wasprobably shamans who used the SanPedro cactus that a Spanish officer inCuzco, Peru, described in the sixteenthcentury: "Among the Indians, therewas another class of wizards, permittedby the Inc as to a cert ain degree, wh oare like sorcerers. They take the formthey want and go a long distancethrough the air in a short time; andthey see what is happening, they speakwith the devil, who answers them incerta in sto nes or in other things th atthey venerate . . ." Ecstatic magicalflight is still characteristic of the con­temp orary San Pedro ceremony : "SanPedro is an aid which one uses to ren­der the spirit mo re pleasant, more man ­ageable . . . One is transported acrosstime, matter, and distance in a rapidand safe fashio n . . ."

The shaman may take the drug him ­self or give it only to the patient , or bot hmay take it. The aim of this shamaniccuring ritual is to make the patient"b loom " dur ing the night ceremony, tomake his subconscious "o pen like aflower," even like the night-bloomingTrichocereus itself. Patients sometimesare contemplative and calm, sometimesbreak into danc ing or even throw them­selves writhing on the ground.

As with so many other hallucinogens,here is a plant given by the gods to manto help him experience an ecstasy­separation of the soul from the bod y­"in a very tenuo us, simp le fashion andalmos t instantaneously." This ecstasyprovides preparations for the sacre dflight that enab les man to experien cemedi ation between his mortal existenceand the supernatural forces-an activityestablishing dir ect contac t through thisplant of the gods .

.Top left: Harvested andstored piecesof San Pedrocontinue living andoftenbegin growing again aftermonths, evenyears.

Topright:TheWolf's Milk plant (Pedi­lanthus tithymaloides) is sometimesaddedto theSan Pedrodrink inordertostrengthen its effects. Sometimes ishasbeen said that Pedilanthus is hallucino­genic, but thishasnotbeen proved.

Above: Theviewof themesagives aclear impression of the syncretic cos­mology of the modern healer.Gods anddeities from different cultures laynext tosnail shells, archaeological objects, andperfumebottles.

169

43

95

IPOMOEAMorning Glory

TURBINAOloliuqui

VINES OF THE SERPENT

Top left:TheOloliuqui vine Turbinacorymbosa.

Top right: Flying Saucers area favoritecultivated strain of theenchantingMorning Glory, Ipomoea violacea.

Above: Anearlypainting ofOloliuquifrom Sahagun's Historia delasCosasdeNueva Espana, written inthesecondhalfof thesixteenth century, clearly de­picts theplant asa Morning Glory.

170

Four centuries ago, a Spanish mission­ary in Mexico wrote: "Ololiuqui ... de­prives all who use it of their reason . ..The natives communicate in this waywith the devil, for they usually talkwhen they become intoxicated withOloliuqui, and they are deceived by var­ious hallucinations which they attributeto the deity which they say resides inthe seeds ... "

A recent report indicates that Ololiu­qui has not lost its association with thedeity in Oaxaca: "Throughout these re­ferences we see two cultures in a duel todeath [the Spanish and the Indians][with] the tenacity and wiles of the In­dians defending their cherished Ololiu­qui. The Indians seem to have won out.Today in almost all the villages of Oax­aca one finds the seeds still serving thenatives as an ever present help in time oftrouble." As with the sacred mush­rooms, the use of the hallucinogenicMorning Glories, so significant in thelife of pre-Hispanic Mexico, hid in thehinterlands until the present century.

A Spanish report written shortly afterthe Conquest stated that the Aztecs have"an herb called coatl-xoxo uhqui [greensnake], and it bears a seed called Ololiu­qui." An early drawing depicts it as aMorning Glory with congested fruits,cordate leaves, a tuberous root, and a

twining habit. In 1651, the physician ofthe king of Spain, Francisco Hernandez,identified Ololiuqui as a Morning Gloryand professionally reported: "Ololiu­qui, which some call Coaxihuitl or snakeplant, is a twining herb with thin, green,cordate leaves; slender, green, teretestems; and long, white flowers. The seedis round and very much like coriander,whence the name [in Nahuatl, the termOloliuqui means 'round thing'] of theplant. The roots are fibrous and slender.The plant is hot in the fourth degree. Itcures syphilis and mitigates pain whichis caused by chills. It relieves flatulencyand removes tumors. If mixed with a lit­tle resin, it banishes chills and stimulatesand aids in a remarkable degree in casesof dislocations, fractures, and pelvictroubles in women. The seed has somemedicinal use. If pulverized or taken ina decoction or used as a poultice on thehead or forehead with milk and chili, it issaid to cure eye troubles. When drunk, itacts as an aphrodisiac. It has a sharp tasteand is very hot. Formerly, when thepriests wanted to commune with theirgods and to receive a message fromthem, they ate this plant to induce a de­lirium. A thousand visions and satanichallucinations appeared to them. In itsmanner of action, this plant can be com­pared with Solanum maniacum of

The Chemistry of the Ololiuqui

Lysergic acid alkaloids are the hallucinogenic compounds of Ololiuqui. Theyare indole alkaloids that have also been isolated from Ergot. Lysergic acidamide, also known as ergine, and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide are themain components of the alkaloid mixture in Ololiuqui. Their molecular ar­rangement is shown on page 187. The tryptamine radical in the ring structureof lysergic acid establishes its relationship with these ergoline alkaloids aswell as with the active principles of Psilocybe and of the brain hormone ser­otonine.

LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide , a semi-synthetic compound , is the mostpotent hallucinogen known today. It differs from lysergic acid amide only byreplacement of two hydrogen atoms for two ethyl groups (p, 187). The activeprinciple of Ololiuqui (hallucinogenic dose 2-5 mg), however, is about 100times less potent than LSD (hallucinogenic dose 0.05mg).

Dioscoride s. It grows in warm places inthe fields."

Other early references stated that"Ololiuqui is a kind of seed like th e len­til . . . produc ed by a species of ivy . . .;when it is drunk, this seed deprives ofhis senses him who has taken it, for it isvery powerful" and that "i t will not bewrong to refrain from tellin g where itgroes, for it matters littl e that this plantbe here described or the Spaniards bemade acquainted with it." Another wri­ter marveled: "It is remarkable howmuch faith these natives have in theseed, for . .. they consult it as an oracleto learn many things . . . especially those. .. beyond the power of the human

mind to penetra te . . . They consult itthrough one of their deceiving doctors,some of whom prac tice O loliuquidrinking as a profession . . . If a doctorwh o does not drink Ololiuqui wishes tofree a patient of some tr ouble, he advisesthe patient himself to part ake . . . Thedoctor appo ints the day and hour whenth e drink must be taken and establishesth e reason for the patient's drinking it.Finally, the one drinking Ololiuqui ...must seclude himself in his room ... Noone must enter during his divination . . .H e . . . believes th e Ololiuqui ... isrevealing what he wants to know. Whenthe delirium is passed, the doctor comesout of seclusio n reciting a thousand

Above left:Thevery woodytrunkof theOloliuqui vine.

Above right:The capsulesandseeds ofIpomoea violacea are characteristic.

Below:TheEuropeanbindweedConvolvulus tricoloralsocontainspsychoactivealkaloids, although thereis noknowledgeofanytraditional use.

171

Right:InSouth America thebindweedIpomoea carnea isusedasaninebriant.It alsohasthepsychoactive alkaloidergotine.

Above: Anancient IndianMother God­dessandherpriestly attendants withahighly stylized vineof Ololiuqui, in oneof themurals fromTeotihuacan, Mexico,dated aboutA. D. 500.Hallucinogenicnectar appears to flowfromtheblos­somsof theplant, and"disembodiedeyes" andbirdsareotherstylistic fea­turesassociated withhallucinogenicintoxication.

172

fabrications .. . thus keeping the patientdeceived." The confession of an Aztecpenitent illustrates the Ololiuqui asso­ciation with witchcraft: "I have believedin dreams, in magic herbs, in Peyote, inOloliuqui, in the owl ..."

The Aztecs prepared a salve that theyemployed in making sacrifices: "Theytook poisonous insects .. . burned themand beat the ashes together with thefoot of the ocotl, Tobacco, Ololiuquiand some live insects . They presentedthis diabolical mixture to their godsand rubbed their bodies with it . Whenthus anointed, they became fearless toevery danger." Another reference as­serted that "they place the mixture be-

fore their gods, saying that it is the foodof the gods ... and with it they becomewitch-doctors and commune with thedevil."

In 1916, an American botanist sus­pected erroneously that Ololiuqui wasa species of Datura. His reasons wereseveral: Datura; was a well-known in­toxicant; its flower resembled a Morn­ing Glory; no psychoactive principlewas known from the Morning Gloryfamily; the symptoms of Ololiuqui in­toxication resembled those caused byDatura; and "a knowledge of botanyhas been attributed to the Aztecs whichthey were far from possessing .. . Thebotanical knowledge of the early Span-

ish writers was perhaps not muchmore extensive." This misidentificationwas widely accepted.

Only in 1939 was identifiable mate­rial of Turbina corymbosa collectedamong the Chinantec and Zapotec ofOaxaca, where it was cultivated for hal­lucinogenic use . The Chinantec nameA-mu-kia means "medicine for divina­tion." Thirteen seeds are usually groundup and drunk with water or in an alco­holic beverage. Intoxication rapidly be­gins and leads to visual hallucinations.There may be an intervening stage ofgiddiness, followed by lassitude, eu­phoria, and drowsiness and a somnam­bulistic narcosis. The Indian may be

Left: TheMorning Glory Ipomoea viola­ceaas a wildflower insouthern Mexico.

Above: Depiction of MorningGloriesandvisionary eyes onan ancient IndianwallpaintinginTepantitla (Teotihuacan),

Left: Xtabentun, "theJewel Cordial" asitis called, is madeoutof honey fromtheOloliuqui flower.

173

Below: A Zapotec shaman in San Bar­tolo Yautepec, Mexico, preparing an in­fusion of seeds of Ipomoea violacea.

174

III A .i .iR · ~l ld4.GYAR POSI4.1

diml y aware of what is going on and issusceptible to suggestions. The visionsare often grotesque, portraying peopleor events. The natives say that the intox­ication lasts three hours and seldom hasunpleasant aftereffects. O loliuqui is ta­ken at night and, in contrast to Peyoteand the mushrooms, is administered to asingle individual alone in a quiet, se­cluded place.

The use of seeds of Turbina corymbo­sa has been recorded for th e Chinantec,Mazatec, and others in Oaxaca. Theyare known in Oaxaca as Piule, althougheach tribe has its own name for theseeds.

The name O loliuqui seems to havebeen applied to several plants by theAztecs, but only one was psychoactive.Of one, an early report states: "There isan herb called O loliuqui or Xixicamaticwhich has leaves like miltomate [Physa­lis sp.] and thin , yellow flowers. Th eroot is round and as large as a cabbage."This plant could not be Turbina corym­bosa, but its identit y remains a mystery.The third O loliuqui, also called Hu ­eyytzo ntecon, was used medicinally as apurgative, a characteristic suggestingthe Mo rning Glory family, but the plantis not convolvulaceous.

Another Morning Glory, Ipomoeav iolacea, was valued as a sacred halluci­noge n among the Aztecs, who calledthe seeds Tlitliltzin, from the Nahuatlter m for "black" with a reverential suf­fix. The seeds of this Morning Gloryare elongate, angular, and black,whereas those of Turbine corymbosaare round and brow n. O ne ancient re­port menti ons both, asserting thatPeyote, Ololiuqui, and Tlitliltzin areall psych oactive. Ip om oea violacea isused especially in the Zapotec andChatin area of O axaca, where it isknown as Badoh Negro or, in Zapotec,Badu ngas. In some Zapotec villagesboth Turbina corymbosa and Ip om oeav iolacea are know n; in others, only thelatt er is used. The black seeds are often

Page 174 top: The Cuban stamp on theleft of Turbina corymbosawas issued atChristmastime. T. corymbosa isveryabundant in thewesternpartof theislandand flowersin December. TheHungarian stampontheright indicatesthehorticultural importance of Ipomoeaviolaceaand itsvarieties.

called macho ("male") and men tak ethem; the brown seeds, called hembra("female "), are ingested by women.The black seeds are more potent thanthe brown, accor ding to the Indians,an assertion borne out by chemical stu­dies. The dose is frequently seven or amultiple of seven; at other times , thefamiliar thirteen is the dose.

As with Turbina, Badoh Negro seedsare ground and placed in a gourd withwater. The solid particles are strainedout, and the liquid is drunk. Revelationsof the cause of illness or divinations areprovided during the intoxication by"intermediaries"- the fant astical badu­win, or two littl e girls in white who ap­pear during the seance.

A recent report of the use of seeds ofIpomoea violacea among the Zapo tecindicates that Badoh Negro is indeed asignificant element in the life of theseIndi ans: ". .. Divination about recoveryin sickness is also practiced by means of

. a plant which is described as a narcotic.Thi s plant . . . grows in the yard . .. of afamily who sells its leaves and seeds . ..to administer to patients . .. The pa­tient , who must be alon e with the curerif not in a solitary place where he cannothear even a cock 's crow, falls int o a sleepduring which the little ones, male andfemale, the plant childr en [bador], comeand talk. These plant spirits will alsogive information about lost objects."The modern ritual with Mo rning Gloryseeds now has incorporated Christianelements. Some of the names-Semillade la Virgen ("seed of th e Virgin") andHierba Maria ("Mary's herb ")-showuni on of the Christian with the pagan,and clearly an indic ation that Turbinacorymbosa and Ipomoea v iolacea areconsidered gifts from the gods.

Top: Left arethe ocher-colored, some­what roundseeds of Turbinacorym­bosa. Ontheright aretheblack, angularseedsof the Ipomoea violacea.

Above: Theshaman administers thein­fusion to a patient, assistedbyayounggirl.Thebrew must betakenatnight inasecludedandquiet place.Thepatient'sproblemswill bediagnosed bythesha­man from interpretation of what he sayswhile under the influence of theplants.

175

96 VIROLAEpena SEMEN OF THE SUN

Above:The seeds of Virola surinamen­sis, called Ucuba, areusedethnome­dicinally.

Belowright: Themostimportant spe­ciesof Virola in hallucinogenic prepara­tions is V. theiodora, of the north­westernAmazon. Virola is anAmericangenus related to theOld World genusofthe Nutmeg. The tinyflowers of Virolahave a highlypungent fragrance.

176

At the beginning of time , Father Sunpracticed incest with his daughter, whoacquired Viho by scratching her father'spenis. Thus th e Tukano received thissacred snuff fro m th e sun's semen, andsince it is still hallowed, it is kept in con­tainers called muhipu-nuri, or "penis ofthe sun ." This hallucinogen enable s theTukano to consult th e spirit world, espe­cially Viho -mahse, the "snuff-person,"who, from his dwelling in the MilkyWay, tends all human affairs . Shamansmay not contact other spiritua l forcesdire ctly but only through the goodgraces of Viho -mahse. Consequ entl y,the snuff repr esents one of. the mostimportant tools of the pay« or shamans.

Althou gh the sixty species of Virolaare spread throughout tropical forestsof the New World and psychoactiveprinciples have been found in at least adozen species, it is only in the westernAmazon and adjacent parts of the Ori­noco basin that thi s genus has been usedas the source of a sacred inebriant.

The species most important as sour­ces of the intoxicating snuff are V. ca­lophylla, V. calophylloidea, V. elongata,and V. the iodora, the last bein g withoutdoubt the most frequently emp loyed.Yet locally, V. rufula, V. cuspidata, andother species may supply the drug.There are Indians-the primitive noma­dic Makii of the Rio Piraparana of Co­lombia, for example-who ingest thered "bark-resin" directly, with no pre­paration, using V. elongata . Other tri­bes, especially the Bora and Witoto,swallow pellets made from the paste ofthe "res in, " valuing for this purposeV. peruviana, V. surinamensis, V. theio ­dora, and possibly V. loretensia. Thereis vague evidence that shamans in Vene­zuela may smoke the bark of V. sebifera"at dances when curing fevers" or thatthey may boil the bark and drink theliquor "to drive away evil spirits."

"Sometimes when they travel or gohunting, they say:'I ?:ust carry my Epena against thoseSpIrItS,

so that they do not pers ecute us.'The y take Epena in the night

if they hear the noises of those spiritsof the forest.They inh ale it to drive them away

"- Ettore Biocca

Although the mythological signifi­cance and magico-religious use of Epe­na snuff is indicative of a great age, thedru g was not known until very recently.

Perspicacious plant-explorer thoughhe was, Spruce failed to discover thisfund amental psych oactive use of Virola,notwithstandi ng his special study of thegroup that resulted in the discovery of anumber of species new to science. Th eearliest reference to this hallucinogendates from the beginning of thi s cen­tury, when a German ethn ologist re­ported on the Yekwana of the upperOrinoco area.

It was not, however, until 1938 and1939 that the bota nical association ofVirola with the snu ff was made. TheBrazilian botanist Ducke report ed thatthe leaves of V. theio dora and V. cuspi­data represented the source. Th e leaves,of course, are never used, but this reportfirst focused attention on Virola, whic h,until then, had never been suspected as ahallucinogen.

The first detailed description and spe­cific identification of the drug, however,was pu blish ed in 1954 when its prepara­tion and use amo ng medicine men ofColombian Indians was described. Ta­ken mainly by shamans among the Bar­asana, Makuna, Tukano, Kabuyare,Kuripako, Pu inave, and other tribes ineastern Colombia, th e dru g was em­ployed ritualistically for diagnosis andtr eatment of disease, prophecy, divina­tion, and other magico-reli gious pur­pos es. At that time, V. calophylla andV. calophylloidea were indicated as thespecies most valued, but later wo rk inBrazil and elsewhere has establishedth e primacy of V. theiodora.

Recent field studies have shown thatthe psych oactive snuff is used amongman y Indian groups in Am azonian Co­lombia, the uppermost Orinoco basinof C olombia and Venezuela, th e RioN egro, and other areas of the wes ternAmazon of Brazil. The southernmos tlocality of its known use is amo ng th ePaumare Indians of the Rio PUnIS inthe sout hwes tern Amazon of Brazil.

The snu ff is apparently most highlyprized and mos t deeply involved inabori ginal life amo ng the sundry Indi antribes collectively called Waika in th eupper O rinoco of Venezuel a and thenorthern affluents of the Rio N egro ofBrazil. These groups are variouslynamed, but are most commonly kn ownto anthropologists as the Kiri shana,Shiriana, Karauerare, Karime, Parahure,Surara, Pakidai, and Yanomamo. Theygenerally refer to the snuff as Epena,

Ebena, N yakwana, or some variant ofthe se terms. In northwestern Brazil, th issnuff and others are often genericallyknown as Paric a,

Unlike the Colombian Indians, amo ngwho m the use of the snuff is usually re­stricted to shamans, these tribes may of­ten take the drug in daily life. All malemembers of the gro up above the ages ofthirteen or fourteen may participate.The hallu cinogen is often snuffed infright eningly excessive amounts and , inat least one annual cerem ony, constantlyover a two- or three-day period.

The powd er is prepared in a vari etyof ways. Among the Colombian In­dians, the bark is stripped from the tr eesin the early morning and the soft inn erlayers are scraped. Th e shavings arekneaded in cold wa ter for twenty min­ut es. The brownish liqu id is th en fil­tered and boiled down to a thick syrupthat, when dried, is pul verized andmixed with ashes of the bark of a wildcacao tr ee.

The various gro ups of Waika have sev­eral other methods of preparation.Those living in the O rinoco area fre ­que ntly rasp th e camb ial layer of th ebark and trunk and gently dry the shav­ings over a fire so that they may be storedfo r future use. When a supply of the drugis needed, the shavings are wetted andboiled for half an hour or more, the re­sulting liquid being reduced to a syrupthat, after drying, is ground to a powderand finely sifted. This dust is then mixedwith equal amounts of a powder pre­pared from the dried, aromatic leaves of

Above left: Leaf, flowers, andyoungfruitof therain forest tree Virolacalophylla.

Above right:A branch of Virola theio­dora with flowers.

177

Once a year, WaikaIndians in north­easternBrazil come together from milesaround for anendocannibalistic cere­monyforwhich a huge quantityof Virolasnuff is made andconsumed. Theceremony heldin typicalroundhousescommemorates thedeadof thepre­vious year.

178

a small plant, Ju sticia pectoralis var. ste­nophylla, cultivated for this purpose. Fi­nally, a third ingredient is added: theashes of the bark of an Ama or Am asita,a beautiful and rare leguminous tr ee, Eli­zabetha princeps. The hard outer bark,cut into small pieces, is placed in glowingembers, then removed and allowed tosmo lder to ashes.

In more eastern areas of Waika coun­try in Brazil, the preparation of thesnuff takes place mainly in the forest.Trees are felled and long strips of barkare peeled from the trunk. A cop iousflow of liquid that rap idly turns a bloodred accumulates on the inner surface ofthe bark. After gently heating the strips,th e shaman gathers the "resin" into anearthenware pot that is set on th e fire.When the pot of red liquid is reducedto a thick syrup, it is sun-dried, crystal­lizing into a beautiful amber-red-solidthat is meticulously ground to an extre ­mely fine dustlike consistency. Thispowder-Nyakwana snuff-may beemploy ed directly, but usually th e pul­verized leaves of Justicia are added "tomake it smell better."

The Bora, Muinane, and Wito to In­dians of Amazonian Colombia and ad-

jacent Peru use Virola not as a snuff,but by oral administration. They ingestsmall pellets or pills made from the re­sin to induce an intoxication duringwhich the medicine men communicatewith the "little people ." Th ese Indiansutilize several species: V. theiodora,V. pavonis, and V. elongata, as well aspossibly V. suriname nsis and V. loreten­sis. The Bora of Peru indicate that theyhave used a relat ed myristicaceous ge­nus, Iryanthera macrophylla, as thesource of a narcotic paste for makingthe pellets.

The Witoto of Colombia comp letelydecorticate the trunk of a Virola tree .The shiny cambial layer on the innersurface of the bark and adhering to thebare trunk is rasped off with the backof a machete, and the raspin gs are care­fully collected in a gourd. This materialgradually darkens to a brownish red.The still moist raspings are kneaded,squ eezed repeatedly, and pr essed overa wicker sieve. The liquid that oozesthrough, primarily of cambial sap, hasa light "coffee and milk" hue . With outfurther preparati on, this liquid isquickly boi led, possibly to inact ivateenzyme s that might destroy the active

Waika Indians consume incredibleamounts 0f Virola powder, using largesnuffingtubes madeof the stemsofmaranthaceous plants. The tubesarefilled with three to six teaspoonfuls ofsnuff for each inhalation.

Application of the snuff is a vigorousprocess, thepowderbeingblown farinto the nostrils and sinuses.It causesanimmediate lacrimation andexcessivedischarge of mucusfrom the nose.

Ailer a stage of hyperactivityandstimulation dur­ing which theparticipants who haveinhaled thesnuff engage the hekula spirits, a period of dis­turbed somnolescencesets in duringwhich night­marish visual hallucinationscontinue (left).

Waikashamans frequently employVirolasnuff

or Epena in ritual curing (belov« left). Theintricaterelationship between magico-religiousand "med­icinal" practices of thesepeoples makesit difficultto distinguish the boundaries of thesupernaturaland thepragmatic. In fact, the Indian himself doesnot make a distinction between thesetwoareas.

The chemical analysis of various Virola snuffs revealed about a half-dozenclosely related indole alkaloids belonging to the simple, open-chained orclosed-ring tryptamine derivatives with a tetrahydro-B-carboline system. Themain constituents of these snuffs are 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamineand Dimethyltryptamine. 6-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, monomethyl­tryptamine, and 2-methyl- and 1,2-dimethyl-6-methoxy-tetrahydro-B-carbo­line usually occur only in trace amounts. The alkaloid mixtures are almostidentical to those isolated from the Anadenanthera snuff powders.

principles, and is then allowed to sim­mer, with frequ ent stirring, until itsvolume is reduced. When the liquidfinally becom es pasty, the vessel istaken fro m the fire, and the paste isroll ed into pellets for imm ediate use.These pellets may keep their pote ncy,according to the nati ves, for about twomonths.

When the pellets are not for imme­diate consumpti on, they are usua llycoat ed with a "salt," as the natives say,prepared from any of nume rou s plants.The "salt " is always made by the sameprocess. The plant material is firstburned and the ashes are placed in acrude funnel made of leaves or bark.\Vater seeps slowly through the ashes,dr ipping out through a hole at th e bo t­tom to be collected beneath. The filt rateis then boiled down until a gray-whiteresidue or "salt" remains. T he pellets ofsticky resin are rolled in thi s powd er.There is apparently a large assortmentof plants empl oyed for this "salt, "which the Witoto call Le-sa. The le­cyth idaceous Gustaoia poeppigian a is acommon source of the ashes for the fil­tra tion. In the same familv, the bark ofthe huge tree Esclruieilera ttay ensis is va-

lued. An unidenti fied tr ee of this family,kno wn to the natives as Cha-pe -na, isused. The wo ody stump of a species ofCarludouica or Sphaeradenia of th e Cy­clanthaceae is reduced to ashes for thispurpose. T he leaves and fragrant inflor­escence of the aroi d Spathiphyllum can­naejo lium give an ash that leaches out ahigh-quality "salt. " The bark of a wildspecies of Theobroma, or several smallpalm s, probably species of Geonomaand Bactns , are similarly used.

The Bora of Peru strip pieces ofbark, only fro m the lower fou r tocight ft (1.5- 2.5 m) of the trunk. T he

The Chemistry of Epena

A Mahekototen shaman (above)strug­glingagainst death, an ever-presentthreat. TheWaika believethat commu­nicationwith the spiritworld occurringduringVirola intoxication enables theshaman to stave offdeath,which theyexplain as the result of theactivity ofmalevolent spirits.

179

OIl.

. ..i-t.,r'.'

"This is a mag ical snuff . . . prepared from th e bark of a certain tree .. .the sorcerer blow s a little th rou gh a ree d ... into the air.

Next he snuffs, whilst he absorbs the powderint o each nos tril suc cessively . . .

imm ediately the w itch doctor begins sin ging and yelling wildly,all the while pitching the upper part of his body

backwa rds and forwards."- Th eodor Koch-Crunbcrg (1923)

to be prese nt mainly in the almost col­orless exuda te from the inn er su rface ofthe ba rk, which appears as soon as thebar k is stripped from the tr ee. T his re­sinlike subs tance qui ckly turns reddishin a typical oxida se-type reaction andthen darkens, dryin g to a hard , glossyma ss."In specimens dr ied for chemicalstudy, it appears as a sticky, dark reddi shbrown gummy material. This materialin man y spe cies co ntai ns tryptaminesand other indolic hallucinogens. O bser­vat ion of the process indicates that th ereaso n for scrap ing the surface of th ebark is to ob tain all traces of th e cambiallay er that adhere to it. The drug is pre­pa red from the camb ial sap, w hich isqui ck ly boiled, caus ing coag ulation ofp rotein and possibly po lysaccharides,and then simmered slowly to redu ceth e volu me to ncar drvness.

T he wh ole pr ocess resembles th at

hard , br ittle oute r laye r of bark ischipped off, leaving only the softer in­ner phloem. This layer qu ick ly turn sbro wn fro m con gealed ox idized" resin "and is vigorous ly pounded on a logw ith a mallet u nti l it is shredded. Theseshredded sections arc soaked in waterw ith occasional kn ead ing for half anhour or more, w hen the pot is broughtto a vigoro us boil for anothe r half hour.The bark mater ial, squeez ed dry, isth en remo ved, and th e remaining liqui dis boiled with constant stirring unt ilonly a th ick pa ste rem ains. Small pelletsfor ingestion arc th en made fr om thispaste.

Fe we r p lants arc used by the Bora forpreparin g the "salt" fo r coating th e pel­lets : th e leaves and stump of a species ofCarludouica and of a pa lm of the genusScbec len.

T he halluc inogenic principles appear

180

Page 180left, top tobottom: TheWaikcicarefullypick over theleaves of Justidabefore dryingthem asanadditive to theVirola snuff.

Onemethod of preparing Virola snuffstartswiththeaccumulationof thered,resin likeliquid onthe inner barkanditssolidification byheat (asshown in thephotographofa Waikci Indian).

AWitoto Indian beats the syrup leftafterboilingdown Virola resin.

Page 180middle andright:Justidaleaves arehighly aromatic when driedandare,onoccasion, added to Virolasnuff. They may, however, alsobethesourceofa hallucinogenicsnuff.

Amongthe Waika,the invariableashesmixedwith Virolapowdercomefromtheburningof thebarkofabeautiful but raretree, Elizabethaprinceps.

used for isolation of natural productsfrom the cambium of other trees, con­iferine from gymnosperms, for exam­ple, except that ethyl alcoho l or acetoneis now used, rather than heat, to de­stroy enzyme activity, which mightotherwise act adversely on the desiredproduct.

The "resin" of Virola plays an impor­tant ro le in everyday native medicine:several species are valued as antifungalmedicines. The resin is spread over in­fected areas of the skin to cure ringwormand similar dermatological problems offungal ori gin that are so prevalent in thehumid tropical rain forests . Only certainspecies are chosen for this therapeuticuse-and the choice seems no t to haveany relationship to the hallucinog enicpropert ies of the species.

In dians who are familiar wi th Virolatrees from the point of view of their

hallucinogenic potency exhibit uncannyknowledge of different "kinds"-whichto a botanist appe ar to be indistinguish­able as to species. Before stripping thebark from a trunk, the y are able to pre­dict how long the exuda te will take toturn red, whether it will be mild orpeppery to the tongue when tasted,how long it will retain its potencywhen made into snuff, and many otherhidden characteristics. Whether thesesubtle differences are due to age of thetree, season of the year, ecological si­tuations, conditions of flowering orfruiting, or other environmental orphysiological factors it is at present im­possible to say-but there is no doubtabout the Indian's expertness in recog­niz ing these differences, for which heofte n has a terminology, so significantin his hallucinoge nic and medicinal useof the trees.

Aboveleft: Indiansunder Virola intoxi­cation characteristically have faraway,dreamlike expressions thatare, ofcourse, dueto theactiveprinciples ofthedrug, butwhich thenatives believeareassociatedwith thetemporary ab­sence of theshamans' souls astheytravel to distantplaces. Thechants dur­ingthe incessant dancing performed byshamans may at timesreflect conver­sationswith spirit forces. This transpor­tation of thesoul to otherrealms repre­sents to theWaikaoneof themostsignificant valuesof theeffects of thishallucinogen.

Aboveright:Theleaves of Justiciapec­toralisvar. stenophylla areanimportantingredient in thesnuff thatis made fromthe Virola.

181

31 DUBOISIAPituri Bush

GATEWAY TO DREAMTIME

Above: Pituri bushes arerepresented bythegray dots onthispainting byAbori­ginal artistWalangari Karntawarra Ja­kamarra (detail from oilpainting, 1994).

182

The psychoactive use of Pituri is prob­ably the longest continuous use of apsychoactive substance in the historyof humanity. The Australian Aborigineshave the longest continuous culture ofthe world. The ancestors of today'sAborigines chewed Pituri 40,000 to60,000 years ago.

Pituri refers in the broadest sense to allplants or plant materials with additionalingredients that are used for hedonisticor magical purposes by the AustralianAborigines. Generally, the term Piturirefers to a plant from the nightshadefamily, Duboisia hopwoodii.

Usually, the Pituri leaves are mixedwith alkaline plant ashes and chewedlike chewing tobacco. Pituri removeshunger and thirst and induces intensedreams, which is probably why theAborigines use Pituri as a magic sub­stance. In the Aboriginal magic, enter­ing the dream state, the transcendent

Below: Thetrunk of thePituribush.

The Chemistry of Pituri

Duboisia hopwoodii contains various strongly stimulating but also toxic alka­loids (piturin, D-nor-nicotine and nicotine). D-nor-nicotine seems to be themain active substance, and myosimin , N-formylnornicotine, cotinin, N-acetyl­nornicotine, anabasine, anabatin , anatalline, and bipyridyl are also present.

The hallucinogenic tropanal kaloid hyoscyamine has been discovered in theroots, as well as traces of scopalam ine, nicotine, nornicotine, metanicotine,myosmine, and N-formylnornicotine. Duboisia myoporoides contains largequantities of scopolamine.

Plants Whose Ashes Are Added to Pituri

ProtaceaeGrevillea striata R. BR. (Ijinyja)

Mimosaceae (Leguminosae)Acacia aneura F. Muell. ex Benth. (Mulga)Acacia coriacea DC. (Awintha)Acacia kempeana F. Muell. (Witchitty bush)Acacia lingulata A. Cunn. ex. Benth.Acacia pruinocarpaAcacia salicina Lindley

Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae)Cassiaspp.

RhamnaceaeVenti/ago viminelis Hook. (Atnyira)

MyrtaceaeEucalyptus micro theca F. Muell. (Angkirra)Eucalyptus spp. (Gums)Eucalyptus sp. (Red gum)Melaleuca sp.

primal condition of being is an essenti alconc ept. This dream state is an alteredstate of consciousness.

In this dream state, all magicalprocesses and acts affect the "normalconsciousness." It seems as if there arevario us types of Pituri for vari ous usesand each of these varieties is linked withvarious songs, to tems , and appropriate"dream songs" or "songlines." Thereare some songlines that are sung as"Piruri-songs." Pituri has a connectionto the place that it grows. There is evena Piruri clan. Pitu ri carries with it the"dream of the place" where it growsand can instill it into humans.

The Pituri bush (D uboisia hopwoo­dii) was described by th e German­Australian- botanist Ferdinand J. H .von Muller (1825- 1896). The plants, aswell as the dried or ferm ented leaves,play a significant role in the dom estic

economy as a valuab le good for bart er.Alt hou gh Duboisia hopwoodii is wide­spread in Australia, some areas are bet­ter for collection and harvesting thanothers. The leaves are filled with th epower of the land in which they grow.Before th e Ab origines had contact withEuropeans, there was a far-reac hingtrading system in the central desert ,which gave rise to the so-called Pituriroads and paths.

Various additives are mixed with thedri ed or fermented leaves and chewed.One will use plant ashes, ano ther usesanimal hair to hold the material to ­gether: plant fibers, yellow ochre, euca­lyptus resin, and, most recently, suga r.Th e effects of th e various Pituri pre­parations differ mark edly. Some arearousing, while others are weak stimu­lants; some are euphoric, while otherscan induce visions.

Top: The Pituri bush.

Middle:The fermented Pituri leaves.

Bottom: The Goodeniais a Pituri repla­cement for the leaves of Duboisiahopwoodii. Plants of the genus Goode­nia areethnobotanicallysignificantmedicinal andnutritional plantsfor theAborigines.

183

CHEMICAL STRUCTURES OF HALLUCINOGENS

Chemical determination of th e molecul ar struc­ture of th e hallucinogenic principles in sacredplants has led to remarkable results.

Almost all plant hallucinogens contain the ele­ment nitrogen and th erefor e belong to th e largeclass of chemical compounds known as alkaloids.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THe)

. ;

The term alka loid is used by chemists for the ni­trogenous metabolic products of plants that havealkaline properties and are therefor e "alkali-like"(alkaloid) . Among the more important plants withpsych oactive properties, only H emp and Salvia

184

divinorurn are the most significant examples thatdo not contain nitrogen. The main active principleof Cannabis is tetrahyd rocannabinol (TH C),while the main active principle of Salvia divin or­urn is salvinorin.

The principal plant halluci.r;ogens are closely

...,."

_. ~.;..:,,:, .:

relat ed in their chemical structure to hormonespresent in the brain-that is, to physiologicalagents that play a role in the biochemistry of men­tal functions.

The active principle in the Peyote cactus is the. alkaloid mescaline, a compound closely related

to the brain-hormone norepinephrine (noradre­naline). Norepinephrine belongs to the groupof physiological agents known as neurotransmit ­ters because they function in the chemical trans­mission of impulses between neurons (nerve

lanine.' which is widely distributed in the humanorgamsm.

The mo dels of mescaline and noradrenalinemo lecules on page 186 clearly show the close re­lationship in chemical structure of these twoagents .

Psilocybine and psilocine, the active principlesof Teonanacatl, the hallu cinogenic Mexican mush­rooms, are derived from the same basic compoundas the brain hormone serotonine: tryptamine.Tryptamine also is the basic compound of an es­sential amino acid, which is tryptophane. The re­lationship can be clearly seen in the mo lecularmodels shown on page 186.

There is another Mexican sacred plant, Ololiu­qui (Morning Glory), the hallucinogenic princi­ples of which are derivatives of tryptamine. Inthis case, tryptam ine is incorporated in a complexring structure that has been called ergolin. Themolecular models on page 187 show the structur­al relationship between lysergic acid amide andlysergic acid hydroxyethylamide (the two prin­cipa l act ive constituents of O loliuqui), the neu­rotransmitter serotonine, and psilocybine andpsilocine.

That the important plant hallucinogens and thebrain hormones serotonine and noradrenalinehave the same basic structure cannot be due tomere chance. This astounding relationship mayexplain the psychotropic potency of these halluci­nogens. Having the same basic stru ctu re, thesehall ucinogens may act at the same sites in the ner­vous system as the above-mentioned brain hor­mones, like similar keys fitting the same lock. Asa result, the psychophysiological functi ons asso­ciated with those brain sites are altered, sup­pressed, stim ulated, or otherwise mo dified .

The ability of hallu cinogens to produce changesin brain function is due not only to their having aparticular chemical composition, but also to thepec uliar spatial arrangement of the atoms in theirmolecules. This can be seen very clearly in the caseof the most powerful ha llucinogen known today,lysergic acid diethylamide. LSD may be regardedas a chemically modified form of an active princi­ple in Ololiuqui. The only difference between thesemi-synthetic drug lysergic acid diethylamideand the natural O loliuqui hallucinogen lysergicacid amide is that two hydrogen atoms of the

Recent studiesshowdifferences in the internal structureof wood betweenCannabissativa (far left)andC. indica. Asshown in these microscopic cross­sections, oneof themostsignificant differencesis theusuallysingle condu­civevessels intheformerspecies ascontrasted withtheconsistentlygroupedvessels in the latter.

THe, foundonlyin Cannabis, is concentrated in theresin andis absentfromthewoody tissue, which for thisreason is specifically exempted fromcontrol in American Cannabislegislation.

cells). Mescaline and- norepinephrine have thesame basic chemical structure. Both are deri­vatives of a substanc e known to che mists asphenylethylamine. Another derivative of pheny­lethylamine is the essential amino acid phenyla-

1

\., . \ \ -,,; , " ~ .\ ~~)~l I. \

!. \

":., ~ \,, \ . :.i~\ '., ,.. \ ~N\ ., , t r 0 '1,; :-. «

I ~ ') \ I

I, \

; , , ,\

\ \ \ \ ~ , .\, .

• I

~\ " \ , \\\ \ ,

; I\ r,.i - \

. ' .' ~ ~ v, . : ~Lo..#'

Themolecular models of hallucinogens on pages 186-87showtheche­mical elementsof which these substancesconsist and themanner inwhich theatomsof theseelementsare relatedto oneanother in themolecules. Theblack ballsmean carbon atoms, thewhitehydrogen, theredoxygen, thegreen nitrogen, andtheyellow ball in thepsilocybinemolecule indicates a phosphoric atom.Thereis, in fact, nospace be­tween atomsconnected with eachother; theytOUCh. Moreover, atoms ofvarious elements areof different sizes.Only theespeciallysmall sizeof

. .... thehydrogen atoms hasbeenindicated in thesemodels.It is hardly possible to imaginethe realdimension of atoms and

molecules: 0.1 mg (a tenthof a thousandth of a gram) of a hallucinogen,barely visible, consists of about2 x 10" (= 200,000,000,000,000,000)molecules.

185

. oJ'

Mescaline(vision-causinghallucinogenic principle ofPeyote)

Psilocine(hallucinogenic principle ofTeonanacatl)

Psilocybine(hallucinogenicprinciple ofTeonanacatl)

,.~

Peyotl (Lophophora williamsii)

Noradrenaline(a brain hormone)

amide have been replaced in the diethylamide bytwo ethyl groups. With LSD, a dose of 0.05 milli­gram will produce a deep ha llucinogenic intoxica­tion of so me hours' duration. With iso-LSD ,which differs from LSD only in the spatial ar­rangement of the atoms, ten times that do se hasno effect whatsoever.

The mo lecular models of LSD and iso -LSD onpage 187 show tha t, w hile the atoms are linked toeach other in the same way, their spatial arrange­ment is different.

Molecules differing only in spatial arrangementare known as stereoisomers. Stereoisomers canexist only with molecules that are asymme tricalin structure, and one of the theoretically possiblespatial arrangements is in gen eral more acti ve.

N ext to chemical compositio n, spa tial configura­tion plays the most crucial role in de termining notonly hallucinogenic but also general pharmacolo­gical activity.

186

Dr. AlbertHofmann, born 1906, discoverer ofLSD andthehallucinogenic principles of Teona­nacatl andof Ololiuqui, is shown herewiththemolecular model of LSD in hispharmaceutic­chemicalresearch laboratory, Sandoz, Basel,Switzerland, 1943.

Page 186: The comparison between Mescalineand Noradrenalineand betweenPsilocybine andPsilocine with Serotonine shows therelationshipin thechemicalstructure between thehallucino­gensandbrainhormones.

Theclose chemicalrelationshipbetween theactive principles of Ololiuqui andLSD, themostpotent hallucinogen known today, isevidentwhen comparing themolecularmodels of Lyser­gic Acid Amide and Lysergic Acid Hydroxyethy­lamide with Lysergic Acid Diethylamide.

Serotonine(abrain hormone)

The active propertiesof hallucinogensareduenotonlyto their compositionwithcertainatoms;thespatialarrangement of theatoms in themolecule is equally important in determiningthehallucinogenic effects. Asanexample, LSDandiso-LSD (at right)consistof thesame ele­ments,buttheydifferin thespatialarrangementof thediethylamide group. In comparison toLSD, iso-LSD is practically without hallucino­genic effect.

Lysergic acidamide(hallucinogenic principle ofOloliuqui)

LSD(semi-synthetic hallucinogen)

Lysergic Acid Hydroxyethylamide(hallucinogenic principle ofOloliuqui)

iso-LSD(semi-synthetic compound)

USES OF HALLUCINOGENS IN MEDICINE

T he use of pun: hallu cinogenic compounds inmedicine Iu s the same basis as th e use of th esour ce plants in magico- rcligiou s ceremonies.The effects in both cases consist of profo und psy­chic alterations in the experience of rea lity. Noton ly is perception of the outside world affec ted,

but perception of th e subject'S own personality isalso transformed. The changes in sensory experi­ence of the outside world are due to a shift in sen­sitivit y of th e sense organs . Sensory perc eption,part icul arly with rega rd to vision and hearing, isstimulated by hallucinogens. These changes inself-awareness indicate the pro found influence ofth e drugs , w hich affect the very core of our being:consciousne ss.

O ur experience of reality is incomprehensib le

188

without a subject, an ego, th at perceives thi s rea­lity. T he subjective exp erience of so-called objec­tive rea lity is the result of interacti ons betweenexternal sensory signals, mediated by th e sens e or­gans, and the ego, which brings this informationto the level of conscious awareness . In this situa ­tion, one can th ink of th e external wo rld as a sen­der of information or signals and th e deep self as areceiver. The translat or in this case is the ego . Inth e absence of one of these-either the sender orthe recei ver-reality does not exist. There is nomusic on the radio, and the screen is blank. If weadhere to thi s concept of rea lity as the product ofthe interaction between sender and receiver, theperception of a different reality under th e influ­ence of hallucin ogens may be explained by th efact that the brain , which is the site of conscious­ness, undergoes dramatic biochemical changes.The receiver is thus set fo r wavelengths other thanthose associated w ith normal, everyday realit y.Fro m this perspective, th e subjective expe rienceof reality is infinite, depending on the capacity ofthe receiver, w hich can be greatly changedth rough biochemi cal modification of the brainfield . .

In general, we experience life fro m a rather lim­ited point of view. This is th e so-c alled normalstate. H owever, through hallucinogens the per­ception of reality can be strongly changed and ex­pand ed . These different aspec ts or levels of oneand th e same reality are no t mutually exclusive.They form an all-encompass ing, timel ess, trans­cend ental reality.

The possibility of changing the wav elengthsetting on the "ego receiver," and, with this, toproduce changes in th e awareness of reality, con­stitutes the real significance of hallucinogens. Thisability to create new and different images of theworld is why hallu cinogenic plants were, and stillare, regarded as sacred.

What is the essential, characte ristic differencebetween every day reality and the images seenduring hallu cinogenic inebriation? In normalstates of consciousness- in everyday rea lity­ego and outs ide world are separated; one standsface to face with th e outside world ; it has becomean object. U nder the influence of hallucinogens,the borderline between th e expe riencing ego andthe ou tside world disappears or becomes blurred,

Page 188: The first treatise on inebriants is apparently the doctoral thesis ofAlander,a student of Linnaeus, who is the father of modern botany. Thisthesis,defendedin 1762at Uppsala, wasa mixtureof scientific andpseudo­scientific information. Anobserver presentat the thesis defensemay havedoodled these profiles, possiblydepicting the academic examiners.

depending on the degree of inebri ation. A feed­back mechanism is set up between receiver andsender. Part of the ego reaches out to the externalworld, into the objects around us; they begin tocome to life, acquiring a deeper and differentmeaning. Thi s may be a joyful experience or a

Below: Visionary experiences produced byhallucinogens area source of in­spiration for painters. ThesetwowatercolorsbyChrIstian Hatsch emergedafter taking LSDand show the mysticalcharacter of theexperience.

ecstasy know n as th e unio mystica or, in the ex- ­perience of Eastern religious life, as samadhi orsatori. In both of these states, a reality is experi­enced that is illuminated by .that transcendentalreality in which creation and ego, send er and re­ceiver, are One.

demonic one, involving the loss of the trustedego. The new ego feels linked in bliss with out­side objects in a special way and also with otherhuman beings. The experience of deep communi­cation with the outside world may even culmi­nate in the sensation of being at one with thewhole of creation. -

This state of cosmic consciousness that underfavorable circumstances may be attained with hal­Iucinozens is relat ed to the spontaneous religious

b

The changes in consciousness and perceptionth at may be experimentally produced with hallu­cinogens have found a number of different appli­cations in medicine. The pure substances mostcommonly used in this field are mescaline, psi­locybine, and LSD. Recent research has beenconcerned mainly with the most powerful halluci­nogen known so far, LSD, a substance that is achemically modified form of the active principlein Ololiuqui.

189

Below left: LSDis usually distributed on printed and perforatedpaper. Thedesignsoftenhave mystical references and use icons of Eastern religions.

In psychoanalysis, breaking the habitual ex­perience of the world can help patients caughtin an ego-centered problem cycle to escape fromtheir fixation and isolation. With the I-Thoubarrier relaxed or even removed under the influ­ence of a hallucinogen, better contact may beestablished with the psychiatrist, and the patientmay b~come more open to psychotherapeuticsuggestion.

Hallucinogenic stimulation also often causesforgotten or repressed past experiences to beclearly recalled. It can be of crucial importance inpsychotherapy to bring back to conscious aware­ness events that led to a psychological distur­bance. Numerous reports have been published onhow the influence of hallucinogens used during

190

Belowrightand page 191:These drawingsweredonein 1972.Thetwo ontop(p. 191 ) weredone before andafter the LSDsession. Thethree drawingsbelow (pp. 190-191) were donebefore, during,andafterthesession withthesame hallucinogen.

psychoanalysis revived memories of past events,even those from very early childhood. This is notthe usual form of remembering, but involves actu­ally going through the experience again: it is notrem iniscence but reuiuiscence, as the French psy­chiatrist Jean Delay put it.

The hallucinogen does not in itself effect acure but rather plays the role of a medicinal aidto be used in the total context of psychoanalysisor psychotherapy, to make these more effectiveand to reduce the period of tr eatment required.There are two different ways of using it for thispurpose.

One method, developed in European hospitals,is known as psycholysis. It consists of giving med­ium doses of the hallucinogen on a number of

successive occasions at specific intervals. Thepatient's experiences under the influence of thehallucinogen are discussed in a group session thatfollows and are expressed through painting,drawing, and the like. The term psycholysis wasinvented by Ronald A. Sandison, an English psy­chotherapist of the Jungian school. The"-lysis"component indicates the dissolving of psychologi­cal tensions and conflicts.

The second method is the one generally pre­ferred in the United States. After intensive psycho­logical preparation appropriate to each indivi­dual, the patient is given a single very high doseof the hallucinogen. This "psychedelic therapy" isintended to produce a mystic, religious state ofecstasy that should provide a starting point forrestructuring the patient's personality. The termpsychedelic means "mind manifesting." It wascoined by the psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond.

The use of hallucinogens as an aid to psycho­analysis and psychotherapy is based on effects

that are the opposite of those psychotropic drugsknown as tranquilizers. These drugs tend rather tosuppress the patient's problems and conflicts,making them appear less serious and no longer soimportant, whereas the hallucinogens bring con­flicts to the surface and make them more intense,so that they may be more clearly recognizable andopen to psychotherapy.

Hallucinogenic drugs, as an adjunct to psycho-

analysis and psychotherapy, are still the subject ofdispute in medical circles. However, this appliesalso to other techniques, such as electroshock, in­sulin treatment, and psychosurgery, all of whichcarry far greater danger than the use of hallucino­gens, which, in expert hands, may be regarded asvirtually without risk.

Some psychiatrists hold the view that the fasterretrieval of forgotten or repressed traumatic ex­periences frequently seen with these drugs andthe shorter period of treatment are not advanta­geous. They believe that this method does not al­low sufficient time for the full psychotherapeuticutilization and integration of the material madeconscious, and that the beneficial effects are ofshorter duration than if traumatic experiences are

brought back to conscious awareness more gradu­ally and dealt with in stages.

Psycholysis and psychedelic therapy both re­quire very careful preparation of the patient be­forethe hallucinogen is given. If there is to be areally positive gain from the experience, patientsmust not be frightened by the unusual effectsproduced by the drug. Careful selection of pa­tients to be treated is also important, for not

191

'.,"

(l '--

.L.

Page 192: In the 1960s, many artists in the UnitedStatesand Europeex­perimentedwith hallucinogensin order to enhance thecreative process.Thepainting on theleft is anexample of this genre.

every type of psychic disorder responds equallywell to this form of therapy. To be successful,therefore, hallucinogen-assisted psychoanalysisor psychotherapy requires special knowledgeand experience.

One of the most important aspects of the clin­ical training of a psychotherapist working with

hallucinogens is self-experimentation with thesesubstances. Through these experiences, therapistscan gain dir ect knowledge of the worlds that theirpatients enter and, thereby, have much greater un ­derstanding of the dynamics of the unconscious .

Hallucinogens may also be used in experimen­tal studies to determine the nature of mental dis­orders. Certain abnormal mental states producedby hallucinogens in normal subjects are, in somerespects, similar to the symptoms of schizophre ­nia and other mental diseases: At one time it waseven thought that hallucinogenic intoxication

Below:Only a fewartistsarecapableofexpressingthevisionaryrealms whiledirectly underthe influence of hallucinogens. Thetwopaintingsby FredWeidmann were executed while under theinfluenceof Psilocybecyanescens. Both are acrylicon marbled paper.

Left: Slipping andSliding 1(Thereexists anotherpaintingfromthesame day.)

Right: TheGarden of Pan

co~ld b~ considered a "model of psychosis," butmajor dIfferences have in fact been found betweenpsychotic states and hallucinogenic inebriation.However, hallucinogenic intoxication can serveas a model for studying the biochemical and elec­trophysiological changes that occur with abnor­mal mental states .

One area where the medical use of hallucino­gens, and particularly LSD, touches on seriousethical qu estions is in the care of the dying. D oc­tors in American hospitals observed that the verysevere pain suffered by cancer patients, which nolonger responded to conve ntional painkillers,could be partly or completely relieved by LSD.This action is probably not analgesic in the usualsense . What is thought to happen is that the per­ception of pain disappears; under the influence ofthe drug, the patient's mind becomes separatedfrom his body to such an extent that physical pain

193

Below: During visionaryexperiences, manypeopleseespirals,whirlpools,andmilky ways. TheartistNana Nauwald depicted such anexperience in herpainting The Middle Is Everywhere.

no longer reaches it. If the use of hallucinogens inthis type of case is to be effective, it is again abso ­lutely necessary to prepare the patient mentallyand to explain the kind of experience and thechanges that he may undergo. Great benefitderives also fro m guiding the patient's thou ghts

toward religious aspects, which can be done by aclergyman or by a psychoth erapist. There havebeen nu merous reports of how dying individuals,free from pain in LSD ecstasy, have come to per­ceive the meaning of life and death, and have diedin peace, reconciled to their fate and free fromfear.

The medical use of hallucinogenic drugs differsfrom th e shamanistic use of hallucinogenic sacredplants by medicine men and healer-priests in tha tthe latt er usually themselves eat the plant, or drink

Below left:Thepainting Spirit and Matter Are Indivisibledocuments a recur­ringhallucinogen-influenced experience.

Belowright: Manypeople recognize the WilltoLivewhentheyhavetasted theplants of thegods. Nana Nauwald expresses this artistically.

a decoction made from it; whereas in conventionalmedicine, th e hallucinogenic substance is givenonly to the patient. In both instances, however,th e same psychological effects are utilized, forthe same dru g actions that serve as an aid to psy­cho analysis and psychotherapy also give the sha­man unusual powers of divination and healing .They consis t of the loosening or even dissolutionof the I-Thou barrier, with the result that objec­tive everyday consciousness dissolves int o themystic experience of One-ness .

195

EPILOGUE

One of the leading lights of the interdi sciplinaryinvestigations of hallucinogens was Louis Lewin,the famo us Berlin toxicologist . More than a half acentury ago, he captured the all-pervading signi­ficance of hallucinogens to th e cultural evolutionof the human race when he wrote in his bookPhan tastica:

"From the beginning of our knowledge of man,we find him consuming substances of no nutritivevalue but taken for the sole purpose of producingfor a certain time a feeling of contentment, ease,and comfort ...

"Their potential energy has covered the wholeeart h and established communication betweenvario us races, in spite of dividing mountains andsundering seas. These substances have formed abond of uni on between men of opposite hemi­spheres, the unci vilized and the civilized; th eyhave forced passages which, once open, proved ofuse for other purposes: they produced in ancientraces characteristics which have endured to thepresent day, evidencing the marvelous degree ofintercourse that existed betwe en different peoplejust as certainly and as exactly as a chemist canjudge the relations of two substances by thei rreactions. Hundreds or thousands of years werenecess ary to establish contact between wholenations by these means . . .

"The motives for the occasional or habitual useof these drugs are of greater interest than collec­tion of facts concerning them. Here all kinds ofhuman contrasts meet : barbarism and civilizati on,with all their various degrees of material posses­sions, social status, knowledge, belief, age andgifts of body, mind, and soul.

"On this pl ane meet artisan and sybarite, rul erand subject; the savage from some distant islandor from the Kalahari Desert associates with poet,philosophers, scientists, misanthropes, and phi­lanthropists; the man of peace rubs shoulders withthe man of war, th e devotee with th e atheist.

"The physical impulses which bring under theirspell such diverse classes of mankind mu st be ex­tra ordinary and far-reaching. Many have ex­pres sed opinions about th em, but have probedand understood th eir intrinsic properties, andfew er still perceived th e inner-most significanceand th e motives for the use of substances in whichsuch energies are sto red."

196

Above: In Huichol, the term nierika refers to a portway between so-calledordinaryandnon-ordinary realities. It is a passageway and, at thesametime,a barrier between worlds. Nierika, a decoratedceremonialdisk, is alsosaid tomean"mirror"as well as "face of thedeity."This nierikashows the four cardi­nal directionsandthesacred center. The coordinating axisis placed in a fieldof fire.

Several early scientific investigators can becredited with beginning th e int erdisciplinary re­search on hallucinogenic plants and psych oactivesubstances . In 1855, Ernst Fre iherr von Bibrapublished Die narkotischen Genussmittel undder Me nsch, in which he considered some seven­teen psychoactive plants. H e urged chemists tostudy diligently an area so promising and so fullof enigmas. Mo rdecai Cooke, a Briti sh myco lo-

. gist, published a number of specialized papers onfun gi. His only popular, nontechnic al publica­tion, Th e Sev en Sisters of Sleep, was an int erdisci­plinary study of psychoactive plants , publishedin 1860.

H alf a century afte r von Bibra's wo rk and un­doubtedly sparked by it, another outstandingbook appeared. C arl H artwich's extensive Diem enschlichen Genussmitte l, published in 1911,consid ered at length and with an interdi sciplinary

emphasis about thirty psychoactive plants, and hementioned a number of others in passing. Point­ing out that von Bibra's pioneering book was da­ted, that chemical and botanical research on thesecuriously active plants had scarcel y begun in 1855,he optimistically maintained that by 1911, suchstudies were either well under way or had alreadybeen completed.

Thirteen years later, in 1924, perhaps the mostinfluential figure in psychopharmacology, LouisLewin, published his Phantastica, a book of ex­traordinary interdisciplinary depth. It presenteda total story of some twenty-eight plants and afew synthetic compounds that are used aroundthe world for their stimulating or inebriating ef­fects, emphasizing their importance to scientificresearch, especially in the fields of botany, eth­nobotany, chemistry, pharmacology, medicine,psychology, and psychiatry, as well as to ethnol­ogy, history, and sociology. Lewin wrote that"the contents of this book will provide a start­ing point from which original research in theabove-ment ioned departments of science maybepursued."

From the 1930s to today, interdisciplinary ac­tivity in psychopharmacology, botany, and an­thropology began uninterruptedly to increase.Many amplifications and clarifications of olderknowledge have been made and new discoveriesin sundry fields have followed one another inclose succession. In spite of the pharmaceutical,phytochemical, and ethnobotanical advances thathave been made in the past 150 years, there stillremains a tremendous amount of work to be doneon these"plants of the gods."

ERNST FREIHERR VON BIBRA1806-1878

CARL HARTWICH1851-1917

MORDECAI COOKE1825-1913

LOUIS LEWIN1850-1929

197

PHOTO CREDITS

Arnau , F., Rauschgift, Lucerne 1967: 101 below rightA-Z Botanical Coil., London: 17 above leftBiblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City (Codex

Barberini Lat. 241 fol. 29r): 111 leftBiblioteca Med icea Laurenziana, Florence: 159

above (Photo : Dr. G. B. Pineider)Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, Florence:

162 above (Photo: G. Sansoni)Biedermann, H., Lexikon der Felsbildkunst, Graz

1976: 83 aboveBildarchiv Bucher, Lucerne: 17 below rightBiocca , E., Yanoarna, Bari 1965 (Photo: Padre L.

Cocco): 178 middle , 178/179 , 179 middle , right ,181 left

Black Star, New York: 96 middle, left and right (PhotoC. Henning )

Bouvier, N., Colopny-Geneve: 82Brill, D., College Park, Georgia: 168 above leftCarroll, L., Alice's Adven tures in Wonderland, New

York 1946: 101 below leftColeman Collection, Uxbridge: 17 above, cente r leftCurtis Botanical Magazine, vol. III, third series, Lon­

don 1847: 147 belowEditions Delcour t, Paris: 89 above leftEMB Archives, Lucerne: 5. 13 above , centerright, 28/

29, 36 (9, 10), 38 (14,15), 40 (22, 25 below), 43(35), 44 (38, 39), 46 (46) an>! below, 48 (52, 53)and below, 49 (55, 56), 53 (70, 72) and below, 56(84) and below, 58 (89, 90), 59 (93), 60 (96), 62, 88,118, 119, 122 above, 132, 133 right , 145 above,177, 187 above

Emboden , w., California State University, Nor thridge:95 right

Erdoes, R., New York and Santa Fe: 152 rightETH-B ibliothek, Zur ich: 197 center leftForman , w.,Archive, London : 62 rightFrohlich, A., Lucerne: 186 aboveFuchs, L., New Kreuterbuch, Basel 1543: 31 leftFurst, P. T., New York State University, Albany, New

York: 172 belowGoodman, Mill Valley, Californi a: 96 center leftHalifax Collection, Ojai, California: 150 below, 190/

191 middle, 191 above, 196Harvard Botanical Museum, Cambridge, Mass. : 31

center left, 98 above , 152 left , 153 above right, 170below, 185 above, 197 above

Hernandez de Alba, G., Nuestr a Gente Namuy Mis-ag, Bogota: 143 left

Hofmann , Dr. A., Burg i. L.: 23, 162 leftHolford , M., Loughton: 105 belowHolmstedt , B., Karolinska Institute, Stockholm: 197

belowHunt Inst itute for Botanic al Documentation, Carnegi e­

Mellon University, Pittsburgh: 188

198

Kaufmann, P. B., Depar tment of Botany, University ofMichigan , Ann Arbor: 99

Kobel , H., Sandoz Research Laboratories, Basel: 103below right

Koch-GrOnberg, T., Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern,Berlin, 1910: 127 left

Kohler, Medizinal -Pffanzenatfas, vol. I, Gera-Unterm -haus 1887: 21 below, 31 center left

Krippner, S., San Francisco: 192Leuenber ger, H., Yverdon: 111 rightLyckner, K.-C h., Hamburg: 110 above leftMoreau de Tours, J., Du Hachisch et de ('alimentation

Mentale, Paris 1845: 100 belowMuseo del Oro, Bogota: 64Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Mrs. W. Scott

Fritz: 108 leftMuseum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation,

New York: 152 middleMuse um Rietberg, Zur ich: 2 (Photo: Kammerer/

Wolfs berger), 10/11 Sammlung von der Heydt(Photo: Wettstein & Kauf)

Myerhoff, B., Los Angeles: 148, 149 above left, 151below

Nauwald, N., SOdergeliersen: 194, 195Negrin, J., Mexico: 63 (Photo : L. P. Baker))New Yorker, New York: 100 topOsterreichi sche Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (Codex

Vindobonensis S. N. 2644- Tacuinum Sanitatis inMedicina-Folio 40): 87 below

Ott , J ., Xalapa : 56 (82)Parker, A.: Yale University, New Haven: 97 below leftPelt, J . M., Drogues et plantes magiques, Paris 1971:

151 above leftPerret, J., Lucerne: 184-1 87 (mode ls by Dr. A. Hof­

mann)Petersen, W.: Mecki bei den 7 Zwergen, Koln (© for

the Mecki-character: Diehl-Film , Munich): 84 centerright

Photoarchiv Emil Schulth ess Erben, Zuri ch: 24Radio Times Hulton Picture Library, London : 4Ratsch , C., Hamburg: 7, 8, 13 cent er, right , 17 below,

center left, 18, 19, 21 above, 22, 24/25, 27, 30, 34,35,36,37 (8), 38 (16, 17),39,40, (23,24),42,43(34,36,37),44 (40, 41), 45, 46 (45, 47, 48), 47, 48(53), 49 (57), 50, 51,52,53. (69, 71),54,55 (77, 78,80), 56 (81, 83), 57, 58 (91), 59 (92, 94), 60 (95,97), 83 below, 84 above, center left, below, 85above right, below, 86, 97 above left, above right,89 below, 90 below, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95 above, 96above, below, 97, above left, above right, 101above, 102, 103 above right, below right, 104, 105right, 106, 107 above, below left, below right, 108above right, below, 109, 110 below left, right, 112,113 above below left, 114 above, 115 above, 117

left , above left, 120, 121, 122 below, 123, 124,125,128,1 29,1 30,1 31,1 34,1 35,1 36,1 37,1 38,139,1 40,141 ,1 42 right, 144, 145 below, 146, 147above, 150 above, 151 above right , 152 above, 153above left, 154 above left, 155 below, 156 above,157 above, 158, 159 below, 164, 165, 166, 167,168 above right, middle, below, 169, 170 above left,below, 172 above, 173, 175 above, 176 left , 181right , 182, 189, 190 left

Rauh, Prof., Dr. W., Institut fOr Systematische Bota­nik und Pflanzengeographie der Universitat Hei­delberg: 16 above right, middle, below, 17 mid­die, 60

Roger Viol let, Paris: 116 rightRoyal Botanical Gardens, Kew. 117 below right, 126

left, 197 center rightSahagun , B. de, Historia General de las Cosas de

Nueva Espana, Mexico 1829: 107 below middleSalzman, E.: Denver, Colorado: 85 above leftSamorini, G.: Dozza: 112 right, 113 below right , 114

below, 115 belowScala, Florence: 105 leftSchaefe r, S. B.: McAllen, Texas: 6, 149 above right,

middle, 154 above right , below, 155 aboveSchmid, X.: Wetz lkon: 55 (79)Schult es, R. E., Harvard Botanical Museum, Cam­

bridge, Mass.: 98 below, 117 above right , 126 mid­dle, right , 127 right , 133 left, 142, 178

Schuster, M., Basel: 118 above left, 119 abovemiddle

Science Photo Library, London (Long Ashton Re­search Station, University of Bristol): 31 right

Sharma, G., Univers ity of Tennessee, Martin: 98 cen­ter right

Sinsemilla: Marijuana Flowers © Copyright 1976, Ri­cha rdson, Woods and Bogart. Permission grantedby: And/Or Press, Inc., PO Box 2246, Berkeley, CA94702: 97 below right

Smith, E. w., Cambr idge, Mass.: 156/157 below, 171above right, 176 right

Starnets , P. Olympia : 158 rightTobler, R., Lucerne: 16 above left, 81Topham , J ., Picture Library, Edenbridge : 17 above

right , 90 aboveValentini , M. B., Viridarium reformatum, seu regnum

vegetabile, Frankfurt a. Main 1719: 80Wasson, R. G., Harvard Botanical Museum, Cam­

bridge, Mass.: 14, 15 (Photo A. B. Richardson),174 below, 175 below (Photo: C. Bartolo)

Weidmann, F., Munich: 193Zentralbibliothek Zur ich (Ms. F23, p. 399): 89 above

rightZerries, 0 ., Munich: 118 below right, 118/119, 119

above right

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Should this book succeed in giving its readers a betterunderstanding of the role of hallucinogenic plants inthe cultural deve lopment of man through the centu­ries, we must thank the patience and friendliness ofsha mans and other nat ive peoples with whom wehave had the happy opport unity of wo rking.

Th e debt that we owe for the faithful coo perat ionand encourage ment of our ma ny profess ional co llea ­gues over the years can be neither easily nor ade­quately put into words, but nonetheless it is deeplyappreciated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aaronson, Bernard & Humphrey Osmond (ed .)1970 Psychedelics. New York: Anchor Books .

Adovasio, J. M. & G. F.Fry1976 "Prehistoric Psychotropic Drug Use in North­eastern Mexico and Trans-Pecos Texas" EconomicBotany 30: 94-96.

Agure ll, S.1969 "Cactaceae Alkaloids. I." Uoydia 32 : 206-216.

Aiston, Georg1937 ''The Abor igina l Narcot ic Pitcheri " Ocean ia7(3): 372-377.

Aliotta, Giovanni, Danielle Piomelli, & Anton io Pollio1994 "Le piante narcotiche e psicotrope in Plinio eDioscoride" Annali dei Musei Civici de Revereto9(1993): 99- 114.

Alvear, Silvio Luis Haro1971 Shamanismo y farmacopea en el reino deQuito. Quito , Instituto Ecuatoriana de Cienci asNaturales (Contribuci6n 75).

And ritzky, Walter1989 Schamanismus und rituelles Heilen im Alte nPeru (2 vo lumes) . Berlin : Clemens Zerling .1989 "Ethnopsychologische Betrachtung des Heil­rituals mit Ayahu asca (Banisteriopsis caapi) unterbesonderer BerOcksich tigung der Piros (Ostperu)"Anthropos 84: 177-201.1989 "Sociopsychotherapeutic Functions of Aya­huasca Healing in Amazonia" Journal of Psycho­active Drugs 21(1): 77-89.1995 "Sakrale Heilpflanze, Kreativltat und Kultur :indigene Malerei , Gold- und Keramikkunst in Peruund Kolumbien" Curare 18(2) : 373-393.

Arenas, Pastor1992 "EI 'cebil' 0 el 'arbol de la ciencia del bie n y delmal" Parodiana 7(1-2): 101-114.

Arevalo Valera, Guille rmo1994 Medicina indigena Shipibo-Conibo: Las plan­tas medicinales y su beneficio en la salud. Lima:Edici6n Aidesep.

Baer, Gerhard1969 "Eine Ayahuasca-Sitzung unte r den Piro (Ost­Peru)" Bulletin de la Societe Suisse des American­istes 33 : 5-8.1987 "Peruanische ayahuasca-Sitzungen" in:A. Dittrich & Ch. Scharfetter (ed.), Ethno­psychotherapie, S. 70-80, Stuttgart: Enke.

Barrau, Jacques1958 "Nouvelles observations au sujet des planteshalluci ii genes d'usage autochtone en Nouvelle­Guin ee" Journal d'Ag riculture Tropicale et de Bota­nique Appliquee 5: 377-378.1962 "Observations et travau x recents sur les ve-

To the sundry scientific inst itutions and manylibraries that have free ly and fully helped us in somany ways, both before and during the preparation ofthe book, we exp ress our heartfelt than ks. Withoutthis support, the book neve r could have been born inits prese nt form .

Th e generosity of the many individuals and institu­tions that have made available, often at great expenseof time and resea rch, the ex1ensive illustrative mate­rial for this volume-much of it hitherto unpublished­has heartened us during the frequent frustrations that

getaux hallucinogimes de la Nouvelle-Guinee"Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique Ap­pliquee 9: 245-249.

Bauer, Wo lfgang, Edzard Klapp & Alexandra Rosen ­bohm1991 Der Fliegenpilz: Ein kulturhistorisches Mu­seum. Co logne: Wienand-Ver lag.

Beringer. Kurt1927 Der Meskalinrausch. Berlin : Spr inge r (reprint1969 ).

Bianchi, Antonio & Giorgio Samorini1993 "Plants in Association with Ayahuasca" Jahr­buch filr Ethnomedizin und BewuBtseinsforschung2: 21-42, Berl in: VWB.

Bibra , Baron Ernst von1995 Plant Intoxicants: A Classic Text on the Use ofMind-Altering Plants. Technical notes by JonathanOtt . Healing Arts Press : Rochester, VT. Originallypublished as Die Narcotische GenuBmittel und derMensch. Verlag von Wilhelm Schmid, 1885.

Bisse t, N. G.1985a "Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Voa­canga Species" Agricultural University WageningenPapers 85(3): 81-114.1985b "Uses of Voacanga Species" AgriculturalUniversity Wageningen Papers 85(3) : 115-122.

Blatter, And rea1995 "Die Funktionen des Drogengebrauchs undihre kulturs pezifische Nutzung" Curare 18(2): 279­290 .1996 "Drogen im prakolurnblschen Nordamerika"Jahrbuch fUr Ethnomedizin und Be­wuBtseinsforschung 4 (199 5) : 163-183.

Boge rs, Hans, Stephen Snelders & Hans Plomp1994 De Psychedelische (R)evolutie. Amste rdam:Bres.

Bove, Frank James1970 The Story of Ergot. Basel , New York:S. Karger.

Boyd, Carolyn E. & J. Philip Dering1996 "Medicinal and Hall ucinogenic Plants Identi­fied in the Sedi ments and Pictographs of the Low­er Pecos, Texas Archaic " Antiquity 70 (268) : 256­275

Braga, D. L.& J. L.McLaugh lin1969 "Cactus Alkalo ids . V: Isolation of Hordenineand N-Methyltyram ine from Ariocarpus retusus'Planta Medica 17: 87.

Brau , Jean-Louis1969 Vom Haschisch zum LSD. Frankfu rt/M.: Insel.

Bunge, A.1847 "Beitraqe zur Kenntnis de r Flora RuBlands

we have met in our efforts to produce a book con­ceived with a fresh and forward -looking overv iew ofone of the fundamental elements of human culture­the hallucinogens.

Christian Hatsch thanks Claudia MOiler-Ebeling ,Nana Nauwald, Stacy Schaefer , Arno Ade laars, FelixHasler, Jonathan Ott , Giorgio Samorini , and PaulStamets for comments on the revision.

und der Steppen Zentral-Asiens" Mem. Sav. Etr.Petersb. 7: 438 .

Bye , Robert A.1979 "Hallucinogenic Plants of the Tarahumara"Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1: 23-48.

Callaway, James1995 "Some Che mistry and Pharmacology of Aya­huasca" Jahrbuch fUr Ethnomedizin und BewuBt­seinsforschung 3(1994): 295-298, Berlin : VWB.1995 "Pharmahuasca and Contemporary Ethno­pharmacology" Curare 18(2): 395-398.

Campbell, T. N.1958 "Origin of the Mesca l Bean Cult" AmericanAnthropologist 60: 156-160.

Camporesi , Piero1990 Das Brot der Triiume. FrankfurVNew York:Campus.

Carstairs, G. M.1954 "Daru and Bhang : Cultural Factors in theChoice of Intoxicants" Quarte rly Journal for theStUdy of Alcohol 15: 220-237.

Chao, Jew- Ming & Ara H. Der Marderosian1973 "Ergo line Alkaloidal Constituents ofHawaiian Baby Wood Rose , Argyreia nervosa(Burm.f.) Bojer" Journal of PharmaceuticalSciences 62(4) : 588-591 .

Cooke, Mordecai C.1989 The Seven Sisters of Sleep. Lincoln, MA:Quarterman Publ. (reprint 1860) .

Cooper, J. M.1949 "Stimulants and Narcotics" in: J. H. Stewart(ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Bur.Am . Ethnol. Bull. 143(5): 525-558.

Cor dy -Co llins , Alana1982 "Psyc hoact ive Painted Peruvian Plants: TheShamanism Textile" Journal of Ethnobiology 2(2):144-153.

Davis , Wade1996 One River: Explorations and Discoveries inthe Amazon Rain Forest. New York: Simon &

Sch uster.De Smet, Peter A. G. M. & Laurent Rivier

1987 "Intoxicating Parica Seeds of the BrazilianMaue Indians " Economic Botany 41(1): 12-1 6.

DeKorne, Jim1995 Psychedelischer Neo-Schamanismus. Uihr­bach : Werner Pieper's MedienXperimente (EditionRauschkunde).

Deltgen, Florian1993 Gelenkte Ekstase: Die halluzinogene DrogeCaji der Yebamasa-Indianer. Stuttga rt: Franz Stei ­ne r Verlag (Acta Humboldtiana 14).

199

Descola, Phil ippe1996 The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in theAmazon Jungle. London: HarperColiins.

Devereux, Paul1992 Shamanism and the Myste ry Lines: LeyLines, Spirit Paths, Shape-Sh ifting & Out-of-BodyTravel. London, New York, Toronto, Sydney: Quan ­

tum .1997 The Long Trip: A Prehistory of Psychedelia.New York: PenguinlArkana.

Diaz , Jose Luis1979 "Ethnopharmacology and Taxon omy of Mexi­can Psychodyslept ic Plant s" Journal of Psychede­lic Drugs 11(1-2): 71- 101.

Dieckhofer, K., Th. Vogel , & J. Meye r-Lindenberg1971 "Datura Stramonium als Rauschmittel" DerNervenarzt 42(8): 431-437.

Dittr ich , Ad olf1996 Atiologie-unabhangige Strukturen verender­ter WachbewuBtseinszustande. Second edition,Berlin: VWB.

Dobkin de Rios, Mariene1972 Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in thePeruvian Amazon. San Francisco: Chandler.1984 Hallucinogens: Cross-Cultural Perspectives.Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.1992 Amazon Healer: The Life and Times of anUrban Shaman. Bridport, Dorset: Prism Press.

Drury, Nevill1989 Vision Quest. Bridport , Dorset: Pr ism Pre ss.1991 The Visionary Human. Shaftesbury, Dorset:Element Books .1996 Shamanism. Shaftesbury, Dorset: Elem ent.

Duke, Jam es A. & Rodoifo Vasquez1994 Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. BocaRaton, FL: CRC Press.

DuToit, Brian M.1977 Drugs, Rituals and Altered States of Con­sciousness. Rotterdam : Balkema.

Efron, Daniel H., Bo Holmste dt , &. Nathan S. Kline(ed.)1967 Ethnopharmacologic Search for PsychoactiveDrugs. Washington, DC: U.S. Dep artment ofHealth, Education, and Welfare .

Emboden, William A.1976 "Plant Hypnot ics Among the North AmericanIndians" in: Wayland D. Hand (ed.), American FolkMedicine: A Symposium, S. 159-1 67, Ber keley:Univers ity of California Press.1979 Narcotic Plants (revised edition). New York:Macmillan.

Escoho tado, Antoni o1990 Historia de las drogas (3 vols .). Madrid:Alianza Editor ial.

Eugster, Conrad Hans1967 Uber den Fliegenp ilz. ZOrich : Natur­forschende Gesellschaft (Ne ujahrsb latt) .1968 "Wirkstoffe aus dem Flieg enp ilz" Die Natur­wissenschaften 55(7): 305--313.

Fadiman, James1965 "Genista canariensis: A Minor Psychedelic"Econom ic Botany 19: 383-384.

Farns worth , Norman R.1968 "Hallucinogenic Plants" Science 162:1086-1092.1972 "Psychotomimetic and Related Higher Plants"Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 5(1): 67-74.1974 "Psychoto mimetic Plant s. II" Journ al of Psy­chedelic Drugs 6(1): 83-84.

Feric gla, Josep M.1994 (ed.), Plantas, Chaman ismo y Estados deConsciencia. Barcelona: Los Lib ros de la Liebre deMarz o (Col lecclo n Cogniciones).

Fern andez Distel. Alic ia A.1980 "Hallazgo de pipas en complejos precerarni ­cos del borde de la Puna Jujen a(Republica Argentina) y el empleo de aluc inoqenospor parte de las mismas cultura" Estudios Arqueo­16gicos 5: 55--79, Universidad de Ch ile.

Festi, Francesco1985 Funghi allucinogeni: Aspetti psichofisio logicie storici. Rovereto: Musei Civici di Rovereto(LXXXVI Pubblicazione).1995 "Le erbe del diavolo. 2: Botani ca, chimica efarmacolo gia" Altrove 2: 117-1 45.1996 "Scopolia carnio lica Jacq." Eleusis 5: 34-45.

200

Festi , Franceso & Giovanni Aliotta1990 "Piante psicotrope spontanee 0 colti vate inItalia" Annali dei Musei Civici di Rovereto 5 (1989 ):135--166.

Festi , Francesco & Gior gio Samorini1994 "Alcaloidi indo lici psicoatt ivi ne i gene riPhalaris e Arundo (Graminaceae): Una rassegna"Annali dei Musei Civici di Rovereto 9 (1993): 239­288 .

Fields, F. Herbert1968 "Rivea corymbosa : Notes on Some Zapote­can Customs" Economic Botany 23: 206-209.

Fitzgerald, J. S. & A. A. Sioumis1965 "Alkaloids of the Australian Leguminosae V:The Occur rence of Methylated Tryptamines in Aca­cia maidenii F.Muel l." Australian Journal of Chemis­try 18: 433-434.

Flur y, Lazaro1958 "EI Caa-pi y el Hata ], dos poderosos ituslo­gen os ind fgenas " America Indigena 18(4): 293­298 .

Forte, Robert (ed.)1997 Entheogens and the Future of Religion. SanFrancisco: Coun cil on Spiritual PracticeslPromindServices (Sebastopol).

Friedberg, C.1965 "Des Banisteriopsis utilises com me drogue enAmerique du Sud" Journal d 'Agriculture Tropicaleet de Botanique Appliq uee 12: 1- 139.

FOhner, Herm ann1919 "Scopoliawurzel als Gift und Heilrnittel bei Li­tauen und Letten" Therapeutische Monatshefte 33:221-227.1925 "Solanazeen als Berauschungs mitte l: Einehistorisch-ethnologische Studie" Archiv tcr experi­mentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie 111:281-294.1943 Medizinische Toxikologie. Leipzig: Geo rgTh ieme.

Furs t, Peter T.1971 "Ariocarpus retusus, the 'False Peyote ' ofHuichol Tradition" Economic Botany 25: 182- 187.1972 (ed.). Flesh of the Gods. New York : Praeger.1974 "Hallucinogens in Pre-Columbian Art " in MaryElizabeth King & Idris R. Traylor Jr. (ed.), Art and En­vironment in Native America,The Museum of TexasTech, Texas Tech University (Lubbock). Special Pub­licat ion no. 7.1976 Hallucinogens and Culture. Novato, CA :Chandler & Sharp.1986 Mushrooms: Psychedelic Fungi. New York:Chelsea Hou se Publishers. [updated edition 1992]1990 "Schamanische Ekstase und botanische Hallu­zinogene: Phantasie und Rsalitat" in: G. Gunte rn(ed.), DerGesang des Schamanen, S. 211-243,Brig: ISO-Stiftung.1996 "Shamanism, Transformation, and Olmec Ar t"in: The Olmec World: Ritual and Rulership, S. 69­81, The Art Mus eum, Princeton University/Ne wYork: Harry N. Abrams.

Garci a, L. L., L. L. Cosme, H. R. Peralta, et al.1973 "Phytoch emical Investigation of Coleus Blu­mei. I. Preliminary Stud ies of the Leaves " Philippin eJournal of Science 102: 1.

Gartz, Jochen1986 "Quantitative Bestimm ung der Indo lde rivatevon Psilocybe semilance ata (Fr.) Kumm ." Biochem.Physiol . Pflanzen 181: 117-1 24.1989 "Analyse der Indolderivate in Fruchtk6rpernund Myc elien von Panaeolus subbalteatus (Berk. &Br.) Sacc." Biochemie und Physiologie der Pflanzen184: 171-178.1993 Nerrenschwsmme: Psychotrope Pilze inEuropa. Genf/Neu-Allschwil: Editions Heuwinkel.1996 Magic Mushrooms Around the World. Los An­geles : Lis Publications .

Garza, Merc edes de la1990 Sueii os yalucinaci6n en el mundo mihuatt ymaya. Mexico, D.F.: UNA M.

Gelpke, Rudolf1995 Vom Rausch im Orient und Okzident (Secondeditio n). With a new epilogue by Michael Klett.Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.

Geschwi nde, Thomas1990 Rauschdrogen: Marktformen und Wirkungs­weisen. Berlin etc .: Springer.

Giese, Claudius Cristobal1989 "Curanderos": Traditionelle Heiler in NordPeru (Kiiste und Hochland). Hohenschaftlarn :Klaus Renner Verlag.

Golowi n, Sergius1971 "Psychede lische Volkskunde" Antaios 12:590-604.1973 Die Magie der verbotenen Marchen . Gifken­dort : Merlin .

Goncalves de Lima, Oswaldo1946 "Observacoes s6bre 0 'vinho da Jurema' utili­zado pelos indios Pancuru de Tacaratu (Pernam­buco)" Arquivos do Instituto de Pesquisas Agrono­micas 4: 45-80.

Grinspoon, Lester & James B. Bakalar1981 Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered. New York:Basic Books.1983 (eds.), Psychedelic Reflections. New York:Human Sciences Press.

Grob , Char les S. et al.1996 "Human Psychopharmacology of Hoasca, aPlant Hallucinogen in Ritual Context in Brazil" TheJournal of Nervous and Mental Disease 181(2):86-94.

Gro f, Stan islav1975 Realms of the Human Unconscious: Obser­vations from LSD Research. New York: Vik ingPress .

Grof , Stan islav and Joan Halifa x.1977 The Human Encounter with Death. New York:E. P. Dutton.

Gue rra, Francisco1967 "Mexican Phantastica: A Study of the EarlyEthnobota nical Sources on Hallucinogenic Drugs"Britis h Journal of Addiction 62: 171-1 87.1971 The Pre-Columbian Mind. London :Sem inar Press.

Guzma n, Gaston1983 The Genus Psilocybe. Vaduz , Liechtenstein:Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia , Nr. 74

Halifax, Joan (ed .)1979 Shamanic Voices: A Survey of Visionary Nar­ratives . New York: E. P. Dutton1981 Die andere Wirklichkeit der Schamanen.Bern, Mun ich: O. W. Barth/Scherz.

Hansen, Harold A.1978 The Witch's Garden. Foreword by RichardEvans Schultes . Santa Cruz : Unity Press-MichaelKesend . Originally published as Heksens Urtegard.Laur ens Bogtr ykkeri, Tend er, Denm ark, 1976.

Harner, Mich ael (ed.)1973 Hallucinogens and Shamanism. London: Ox­ford Unive rsity Press.

Hartw ich , Carl1911 Die menschlichen GenuBmittel. Leipzig:Tauchnitz .

Heffern, Richard1974 Secrets of Mind-Altering Plants of Mexico.New York: Pyram id.

Heim, Roger1963 Les champignons toxiques et beltucinoqenes.Paris: N. Boubea & Cie.1966 (et al.) "Nouvelles investigations sur leschampignons hallucinogime s" Archives du Mu­seum National d'Histoire Natur elle, (1965--1966).

Heim, Roger &R. Gordon Wasson1958 "Les cham pignons hallu cinog imes du Mexi­que" Archives du Museum National d'Histoire Nat­urelle, Septierne Serie, Tome VI, Paris.

He inr ich, Cla rk1998 Die Magie der Pilze. Munich: Diederichs.

Heiser, Charles B.1987 The Fascinating World of the Nightshades.New York: Dover.

H6hle, Sigi, Claud ia MOiler-Ebeling, Christia n Hatsch ,& Ossi Urchs1986 Rausch und Erkenntnis. Munich: Knaur.

Hoffer, Abraham & Humphry Osmond1967 The Hallucinogens. New York and London :Aca demic Press.

Hofmann, Albert1960 "Die psychot ropen Wirkstoffe der mexika ­nischen Zauberpilze" Chimia 14: 309-318.1961 "Die Wi rkstoffe der mexikanischen Zauber­droge Ololiuqu i" Planta Medica 9: 354-367.1964 Die Mutterkorn-Alkaloide . Stuttgart: Enke.

1968 "Psychotomimetic Ag ents" in: A . Bu rger (ed.) ,Chem ical Constitution and Pharmacodynamic Ac­tion, S. 169-235, New York: M. Dekker.1980 LSD, My Problem Child. Translated by Jo­nathan Ott. New York: McGraw-Hili . Originally pub ­lished as LSD: mein Sorgenkind. Stuttgart : Kle tt­Cotta, 1979 .1987 "Pilzlic he Halluzinogene vom Mutt erkorn biszu den mexikanischen Za ube rpi lzen" Der Cham­pignon 310 : 22-28.1989 Insight, Outlook. Atlanta: Humanics NewAge. Originally published as Einsichten/Ausblick­en. Basel : Sphinx Verlag, 1986 .1996 Lob des Schauens. Privately pri nted (limitededition of 150 copies).

Hofmann, Aiber t, Roger Heim , & Hans Tschert er1963 "Prese nce de la psilocybine dans uneespece europeenne d'Agaric, Ie Psilocybe sem i­lanceata Fr. Note n de MM ." in: Comptes rendusdes seances de l'Acedemie des Sciences (Pari s) ,t. 257: 10-1 2.

Huxley, Aldous1954 The Doors of Perception. New York: Harper &Bros.1956 Heaven and Hell. New York: Harp er & Bros.1999 Moksha. Preface by Albert Hofmann.Edited by Michael Horowitz and Cynthia Palmer.Introduction by Alexande r Shulgin. Rochester, VT :Par k Street Press.

IlIius, Bruno1991 Ani Shinan: Schamanismus bei den Shipibo ­Conibo (Ost -Peru} . MOnster, Hamburg: Lit Verlag(Ethnolog ische Studie n Vol. 12).

Jain , S. K., V. Ranjan, E. L. S. Sikarwar, & A. Saklani1994 "Botanical Distribut ion of Psychoactive Plantsin India" Ethnobotany6: 65-75.

Jansen, Kar l L. R. & Co lin J. Prast1988 "Ethnopharmacology of Kra tom and the Mi­tragyna Alkaloids" Journal of Ethnopharmacology23 : 115-119.

Joh nston, James F.1855 The Chemistry of Common Life. Vol. 1/: TheNarcotics We Indu lge In. New York: D. App leton &Co.1869 Die Chemie des tiiglichen Lebens (2 Bde.).Berlin .

Johnston, T. H. & J. B. Clelland1933 ''The History of the Aborigine Narcotic, Pitu ri"Oceania 4(2}: 201-223, 268 , 289 .

Joralemon , Donald & Douglas Sharon1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos andClients in Northern Peru. Sa lt Lake City : Un ive rsityof Utah Press.

Joyce, C. R. B. & S. H. Cu rry1970 The Botany and Chem istry of Cann abis. Lon­don: Chu rchill.

JOnger, Ernst1980 An niiherungen-Drogen und Rausch. Frank­furt/usw.: Ullstein.

Kalweit , Holger1984 Irsumzeit und innerer Raum: Die Welt derScha manen. Bern etc .: Sche rz.

KIOver, Heinrich1969 Mescal and Mechan isms of Hallucinat ions.Ch icago: The University of Chicago Press.

Koch-GrOnberg, Th eodor1921 Zwei Jahre bei den Indianern Nordwest-Bra­siliens. Stuttgart: Strecker & Sch roder1923 Vom Rora ima zum Orinoco. Stuttgart:

Kotschen reuther, Hellmut1978 Das Reich der Orogen und Gifte. Frankfu rt/M.etc .: Ullstein.

Kraepelin , Emil1882 Uber die Beelnflussung einfacherpsycholo­gischer Vorgiinge durch einige Arzneimittel. Jena.

La Barre, Weston1970 "Old and New Wo rld Nar cot ics" EconomicBotany 24(1}: 73-80.1979 "Shamanic Origins of Relig ion and Medicine"Journal of Psychedelic Drugs 11(1-2): 7-1 1.1979 The Peyote Cult (5 th edition}. Norman: Uni­ve rsity of Oklahoma Press.

Lang don , E. Jean Matteson & Gerha rd Baer (ed .)1992 Por tals of Power: Shamanism in Sou thAmerica. Albuquerqu e: University of New MexicoPress.

Larris, S.1980 Forbyde Hallucinogen er? Forbyd Naturen atGrot Nimto ffe: For laget Indkobstryk.

Leuenberger, Hans1969 Za uberdrogen: Reisen ins Weltall der Seele.Stuttgart: Hen ry Goverts Verlag.

Leuner, Hanscarl1981 Halluzinogene. Bern etc .: Hub er.1996 Psychotherapie und relig i6ses Erleben. Ber­Iin:VWB.

Lewin, Louis1997 Banisteria caap i, ein neues Rauschgift undHeilmittel. Berlin: VWB (reprint from 1929) .1998 Phantastica: A Classic Survey on the Use andAbuse of Mind-Altering Plants. Rochester, VT : ParkStreet Press. Originally published as Phantastica­Die Betiiubenden und erregenden Genu f3mittel.Fur Artzte und Nicntstzte. Berlin: Georg Stil keVerlag , 1924.

Lewis-Williams, J. D. & T. A. Dowson1988 "The Signs of All T imes: Entopti cPhenom ena in Upper Paleolithic Art" Curre ntAnthropology 29(2) : 201-245.1993 "On Vision and Power in the Neolithic: Evi­dence from the Decor ated Mo numen ts" CurrentAnthropology34(1} : 55-65.

Liggenstorfer, Roger & Christian Hatsch (eds .)1996 Marfa Sabina-Botin der heilige n Pilze: Vomtraditionellen Schamanentum zur weltweite n Pilz­kultur. So lothurn : Nac htschatten Verlag .

Li , Hu i-Lin1975 "Hallucinogenic Plants in ChineseHerbals" Botanical Muse um Leaflets 25(6) :161-1 81.

Lin , Geraline C. & Richard A. Glennon (ed .)1994 Hallucinogens: An Update . Rockville, MD :National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Lipp, Frank J.1991 The Mixe of Oaxaca: Relig ion, Ritual, andHealing. Aus tin : University of Texas Pres s.

Lockwood, Tomm ie E.1979 ''The Ethnobotany of Brugmansia" Journ al ofEthnopharmacology 1: 147-164.

Luna, Luis Eduardo1984 ''The Con cept of Plants as Teachers Am ongFour Mestizo Shamans of Iquitos, Northeast Peru"Journal of Ethnopharmacology 11(2): 135-156.1986 Vegetalismo: Shamanism Among the MestizoPopulation of the Peruv ian Amazon. Stockho lm:Almqvist & Wiske ll international (Acta UniversitatisStockho lmiensis , Stock holm Stud ies in Compara­tive Relig ion 27).1991 "Plant Sp irits in Ayahuasca Vis ions byPeruvian Painter Pablo Amari ngo : An IconographicAna lysis " Integra tion 1: 18-29.

Luna, Luis Eduard o & Pablo Am aringo1991 Ayahuasca Visions. Berkeley: NorthAtlant ic Books.

McKenna , Dennis J. & G. H. N. Towers1985 "On the Comparative Ethnopharmacology ofMa lpighi aceous and Myristicaceous Hallucino­gens" Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 17(1}: 35- 39 .

McKenna, Dennis J., G. H. N. Towers , & F. Abbott1994 "Monoamine Oxydase Inhibi tors in SouthAme rican Hallucinogenic Plants: Tryptamine and 13­Ca rbo line Constituents of AyahuasCEi' Journal ofEthnopharmaco logy 10: 195-223 and 12: 179-211 .

Mc Kenn a, Terence1991 The Archaic Revival. San Francisco: Harper.1992 ''Tryptamine Hallucinogens and Conscious ­ness" Jahrbuch til r Ethnomedizin und Be­wuf3tseinsforschung 1: 133-148 , Be rlin: VWB.1992 Food of the Gods : The Search for the OriginalTree of Knowledge: A Radical History of Plan ts,Drugs and Human Evolution. New York: BantamBooks.1994 True Hallucinations: Being an Account of theAuthor's Extraordinary Adventures in the Devil'sParadise. Lond on : Rid er.

Mantegazza, Paolo1871 Quadri della natura umana: Feste ed eb­brezze (2 volumes) . Mai land : Brigola.1887 Le estasi umane. Mailand: Dum olard.

Mar zahn, Ch ristian1994 Bene Tibi-Uber Genuf3 una Geist. Bremen:Edit ion Temmen. .

Marze ll, Heinrich1964 Zaub erpflanzen-Hexentranke. Stuttgar t:

Kosmos .Ma ta , Rach el & Je rry L. Mc Laug hlin

1982 "Cactus Alkaloids. 50: A Comprehensive Tab­ular Summary" Revista Latinoamerica de Quimica12: 95-117.

Metzne r, Ralph1994 The Well of Remembrance: Rediscovering theEarth Wisdom Myths of Northern Europe. Appendix"The Mead of Insp iration and Mag ical Plants of theAncient Germans" by Christ ian Ratsc h, Boston:Shambhala.

Moller, Knud O.1951 Rauschgifte und Genuf3mittel . Basel : Benn oSchwabe.

Moreau de Tours, J. J.1973 Hashish and Mental Illness . New York: RavenPress.

MOiler, G. K. & Jochen Gartz1986 "Psilocybe cyanesce ns-eine weite re halluzi­nogene Kahl kop fart in der DOW MykologischesMitteilungsblatt 29 : 33-35.

MOiler-Ebe rling , Cla udia & Christia n Hatsch1986 Isoldens Liebestrank. Munich: Kindle r.

MOiler-Ebeling, Claudia, Christian Hatsc h, & Wolf­Dieter Stor l1998 Hexenme dizin. Aa rau: AT Verlag.

Munizaga A., Carlos1960 "Uso act ual de miyaya (Datura stramonium)por los araucanos de Chiles" Journal de la Societedes Americsnstes 52: 4-43.

Myerhoff, Barb ara G .1974 Peyote Hunt: The Sacred Journ ey of the Hui ­chol lndians. Ithaca: Cornell, University Press.

Nadler, Kurt H.1991 Orogen: Rauschgift und Medizin. Munich:Quin tessenz .

Naranjo, Plutareo1969 "Etnofarmacologia de las plantas psicotropi­cas de Ame rica" Terapia 24: 5-63.1983 Ayahuasca : Etnomedicina y mitologia . Quito :Ed icione s Libri Mundi.

Negrin , J.1975 The Huichol Creation of the World. Sacr a­mento , CA: Crocker Art Gallery.

Neuw inger, Hans Dieter1994 Afrikanische Arzneipflanzen und Jagdgifte.Stuttga rt: WVG .

Ortega, A., J. F. Blou nt, & P. S. Merchant1982 "Salvinorin, a New Trans -Neoclerodane Di­ter pen e from Sal via divinorum (Lab iatae)" J. Chem.Soc., Perkin Trans . I: 2505-250 8.

Ortiz de Montellano, Be rnard R.198 1 "Entheogens : The Interaction of Biology andCulture" Reviews of Anthropology 8(4}: 339-365.

Osmond, Humphrey1955 "O loliuhqui: Th e Ancient Aztec Narcotic" Jour­nal of Mental Science 101: 526-537.

Ott , Jonathan1979 Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. (re­vised edit ion) Berkeley: Wingbow press.1985 Chocolate Addict. Vasho n, WA: Natural Pro­ducts Co.1993 Pharmacotheon: Entheogen ic Drugs, TheirPlant Sources and History. Kennewick, WA : Natu ralProducts Co.1995 Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangoean Entheo­gens. Kennewick, WA : Natural Products Co.1995 "Ayahuasca and Ayahuasca Ana logue s: Pan­Gaean Entheogens for the New Mi llennium" Jahr­buch til r Ethnomedizin und Bewuf3tseinsforschung3(1994}: 285-293.1995 "Ayahuasca-Ethnobotany, Phytochemistryand Huma n Pharm acology" Integration 5: 73-97.1995 "Ethnopharmacognosy and Human Pharma­co logy of Salvia divinorum and Salvinor in A" Curare18(1}: 103-129 .1995 The Ag e of Entheogens & The Angels' Dic­tionary. Kennewick, WA: Nat ural Products Co.1996 "Salvia divinorum Epling et Jativa (Foglie de llaPastora/Leaves of the Shepherdess)" Eleusis 4:31-39.1996 "Entheogens II: On Entheology and Entheo­botany" Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 28(2): 205­209 .

201

Ott, Jonathan & Jeremy Bigwood (ed.)1978 Teonenscetl: Hallucinogenic Mushrooms ofNorth America. Seattle: Madrona.

Pagani , Silvio1993 Funghetti. Torino: Nautilus .

Pelletier, S. W.1970 Chemistry of Alkaloids. New York: VanNostrand Reinhold .

Pelt , Jean-Marie1983 Drogues et plantes magiques. Paris: Fayard.

Pendell, Dale- 1995 PharmakiPoeia: Plant Powers, Poisons, and

Herbcraft . San Francisco: Mercury House.Perez de Barradas, Jose

1957 Plantas magicas americanas. Madrid: Inst.'Berna rdino de Sahagun.'

Perrine, Daniel M.1996 The Chemis try of Mind-Altering Drugs: His­tory, Pharma cology, and Cultural Context. Wa­shingt on, DC: Ameri can Chemical Soc iety.

Peterson, Nicolas1979 "Abor iginal Uses of Austraiian Solanaceae"in: J. G. Hawkes et al. (eds .), The Biology and Tax­onomyofthe Solanaceae, 171- 189, London etc .:Academic Press.

Pinkl ey, Homer V.1969 "Etymology of Psychotria in View of a NewUse of the Genus" Rhodora 71: 535-540.

Plotk in, Mark J.1994 Der Schatz der Wayana: Abenteuer bei denSchamanen im Amazonas-Regen wald. Bern , Mu­nich, Vienn a: Scherz Verlag .

Plowman, Tim othy, Lars Olof Gyllenhaal , & Jan ErikLindgren1971 "Latua pubiflora-Magic Plant from SouthernChile " Botanical Museum Leaflets 23(2): 61-92.

Poiia Meconi, Mario1988 Las lagunas de los encantos: medicina tradi­clonal andina del Peru septenfrional. Piura : CentralPeruana de Servicios-CEPESE~Club Grau dePiura.

Pope, Harrison G., Jr.1969 "Tabernanthe iboga: An Afr ican Narcotic Plantof Social Importance" Economic Botany 23: 174­184.

Prance, Ghi llian T.1970 "Notes on the Use of Plant Hallucinogens inAmazonian Brazil " Econom ic Botany 24: 62-68.1972 "Ethnobotanical Notes from Amazonian Bra­zil" Economic Botany26: 221-237.

Prance, Ghillian T., David G. Campb ell, & Bruce W.Nelson1977 "The Ethnobotany of the Paum ar f Indian s"Economic Botany 31: 129-1 39.

Prance , G. T. & A. E. Prance1970 "Hallucinations in Amazonia" Garden Journ al20: 102-107.

Preussel , Ulrike & Hans-G eorg1997 Engelstrompeten: Brugm ans ia und Datura.Stuttgart: Ulmer .

Quezada , Noem i1989 Amory magia amorosa entre los azfecas.Mexico: UNAM .

Ratsch , Christian1988 Lexikon der Zauberpflanzen aus ethnolo­gischer Sicht. Graz : AD EVA.1991 Von den Wurzeln der Kultur: Die Pflanzen derProphe ten. Basel: Sphin x.1991 Indianische Heilkrsutet (2 revised edition).Munich: Diederichs.1992 The Dictionary of Sacred and Magical Plants.Santa Barbara etc .: ABC-Ciio.1992 The Dictionary of Sacred and Magical Plants.Bridpo rt, England: Prism Press. Origin ally pub­iished as Lexikon der Zauberpflanzen aus ethnolo­gischer Sicht. Graz: ADEVA, 1988.1994 "Die Pflanzen der bluhenden Traurne: Tran­cedrogen mexikanischer Schamanen" Curare17(2): 277-314.1995 Heilkrauter der Antike in Agypte n, Griechen­land und Rom. Munich: Diederichs Verlag (DG) .1996 Urbock-Bier jenseits von Hop fen und Malz:Von den Zeubertrsnken der Goiter zu den psyche­delischen Bieren der Zukunft. Aarau, Stuttgart: ATVerlag.1997 Enzyklopadie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen.

202

Aara u: AT Verlag.1997 Plants of Love: Aphrodisiacs in History and aGuide to Their Identification. Foreword by AlbertHofmann , Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. Originallypubiished as Pflanzen der Liebe. Bern: Hallwag,1990. Second and subsequent editions pubiishe dby AT Verlag , Aarau, Switzerland.1998 Enzyklopadie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen.Aarau : AT Verlag . Engiish-Iangua ge edition, Ency­clopedia of Psychoactive Plants, to be pubiished in2003 by Inner Tradit ions, Rochester, Verm ont.

Raffauf, Robert F.1970 A Handbook of Alkaloids and Alkaloid-con­taining Planfs. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

Reichel-D olmat off, Gerardo1971 Amazonian Cosmos: The Sexual and Reli­gious Symbolism of the Tukano Indians. Chicagoand London: The University of Chicago Press.1975 The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Nar­cotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia . Phila ­delphia: Temple University Press.1978 Beyond the Milky Way: Hallucinatory Imageryof the Tukano Indians. Los Angeles: UCLA LatinAm erican Center Pubiications.1985 Baskefryas Metaphor : Arts and Crafts of theDesana Indians of the North west Amazon. Los An­geles Museum of Cultural History.1987 Shamanism and Art of the Eastern TukanoanIndians . Leiden: Brill.1996 The Forest Within: The World-ViewoftheTukano Amazonian Indians. Totnes, Devon: GreenBooks.1996 Das schamanische Universum: Schamanis­mus, BewuBtseins und Okologie in Siidamerika.Munich: Diederichs.

Reko, Bias Pablo1996 On Aztec Botanical Names. Transiated, edi­ted and commented by Jonathan Ott. Beriin: VWB .

Reko, Victor A.1938 Magische Gifte : Rausch- und Betaubungs­mittel der neuen Welt (seco nd edition) . Stuttgart:Enke (Reprint Beriin: EXpress Edit ion 1987, VWB1996).

Richardson , P. Mick1992 Flowering Plants: Magic in Bloom (updatededit ion). New York, Philadelphia: Chelsea HousePubl.

Ripins ky-Naxon, Michael1989 "Hallucinogens, Shamanism, and the CulturalProcess" Anthropos 84: 219-224.1993 The Nature of Shaman ism: Substance andFunction of a Religious Metap hor. Albany: StateUniversity of New York Press.1996 "Psyc hoactivity and Shaman ic States ofConsciousness" Jahrbuch fUr Ethnomedizin undBewuBtseinsforschung 4 (1995) : 35-43, Beriin :VWB.

Rivie r, Laure nt & Jan-Erik Lindg ren1972 " 'Ayahuasca; the South American Hallucino­genic Drin k: An Ethnobotanical and Chemi cal In­vestigation" Economic Botany 26: 101-129.

R6mpp, Hermann1950 Chem ische Zsubettrsnke (5th edition). Stu tt­gar t: Kosmos-Franckh'sche.

Rosenbohm, Alexandra1991 Halluz inogene Orogen im Schamanismus.Beriin : Reimer.

Roth , Lutz , Max Daund erer, & Kurt Kormann1994 Giftpflanzen-Pflanzeng ifte (4. editio n).Mun ich : Ecomed.

Rouhi er, Alexand re1927 l:e plante qui fait les yeux emerveilles-IePeyotl . Paris : Gaston Doin.1996 Die Hellsehen hervorrufenden Pflanzen .Ber iin: VWB (Reprint from 1927).

Ruck, Car l A. P.et al.1979 "Entheogens" Journal of Psychedelic Drugs11(1-2): 145-146.

Rudgle y, Richard1994 Essential Substances: A Cultural History ofIntoxicants in Society. Foreword by Wiliiam Embo­den . New York, Tokyo, London: Kodansha Interna­tional.1995 ''The Archaic Use of Hallucinogen s in Europe:An Archa eology of Altere d States" Addiction 90:163-164.

Safford , William E.1916 "Identity of Cohoba, the Narcotic Snuff of An­cient Haiti" Journal of the Washington Academy ofSciences 6: 547-562.1917 "Narcotic Plants and Stimulants of the Ancien tAmer icans" Annual Report of the Smithsonian In­stitution for 1916:387-424.1921 "Syncopsis of the Genus Datura' Journal ofthe Washington Aca demy of Sciences 11(8): 173­189.1922 "Daturas of the Old World and New" AnnualRepor t of the Smithsonian Institution for 1920: 537­567.

Salzm an, Emanuel, Jason Salzman , Joann e Salz­man, & Gary Lincoff1996 "In Sea rch of Mukhomor, the Mushroom ofImmortality" Shaman 's Drum 41: 36-47.

Samorini, Giorgio1995 Gli allucinogeni nel mito: Racconti sull'originedelle pian te psicoattive. Turin: Nautilus.

Schaefer, Stacy & Peter T. Furst (ed.)1996 People of the Peyote: Huichollndian History,Religion, & Survival. Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press.

Schenk, Gustav1948 Schatten der Nacht. Hanover : Sponh oltz.1954 Das Buch der Gifte. Berlin: Safar i.

Schle iffer, Hedwig (ed.)1973 Narcotic Plants of the New World Indians: AnAnthology of Texts from the 16th Century to Date.New York: Hafner Press (Macmillan).1979 Narcotic Plants of the Old World: An Antho­logy of Texts from Ancient Times to the Present.Monticello, NY: Lubrecht & Cramer.

Scholz, Dieter & Dagmar Eigner1983 "Zur Kenntnis der natQriichen Halluz inogene"Pharmazie in unserer Zeit 12(3): 74-79.

Schulde s, Bert Marco1995 Psychoaktive Pflanzen. 2. verbesse rte underqenzte Auflage . L6hrbach: Medien Xperimente &Solothurn: Nachtschatten Verlag.

Schultes, Richard E.1941 A Contribu tion to Our Knowledge of Riveacorymbo sa: The Narcotic Ololiuqui of the Aztecs.Cambridge, MA: Botanical Museum of HarvardUniversity.1954 "A New Narcot ic Snuff from the NorthwestAmazon" Botanical Museum Leaflets 16(9): 241­260.1963 "Hallu cinogenic Plants of the New World" TheHarvard Review 1(4): 18-32.1965 "Ein halbes Jahrhunde rt Ethnobotanik arner i­kanischer Halluzinogene" Planta Medica 13: 125­157.1966 ''The Search for New Natural Hallucin ogens"Lloydia 29(4): 293-308.1967 "The Botanical Origins of South AmericanSnuffs" in Danie l H. Efron (ed.), Ethnopharmacolo­gical Search for Psychoa ctive Drugs, S. 291-306,Washington, DC: U.S. Governm ent Printing Off ice.1969 "Hallucinogens of Plant Origin" Science 163:245-254.1970 "The Botanic al and Chemical Distribution ofHallucinogens" Annual Review of Plant Physiology21: 571-594.1970 "The Plant Kingdom and Hallucin ogens "Bulletin on Narcotics 22(1) : 25-51 .1972 "The Utiiizati on of Hallu cinogens in Primit iveSocieties-Use, Misuse or Abuse?" in: W. Keup (ed.),Drug Abuse: Current Concepts and Research,S. 17-26, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.1976 Halluc inogenic Plants. Racine, WI: West ern .1977 "Mexico and Colombia : Two Major Centres ofAboriginal Use of Hallucino gens" Journal of Psyche­delicDrugs9(2): 173-176.1979 "Hallucinogenic Plants: Their Eariiest Botani­cal Descriptions" Journal of Psychedelic Drugs11(1-2): 13-24.1984 "Fifteen Years of Study of Psychoakt iveSnuff s of South America: 1967-1 982, a Review"Journal of Ethnopharmacology 11(1): 17-32.1988 Where the Gods Reign: Plants and Peoples ofthe Colombian Amazon. Oracle, AZ: Syne rgeticPress.1995 "Antiquity of the Use of New World Halluc ino­gens" Integration 5: 9-1 8.

Schu ltes, Richard E. & Norman R. Farnsworth1982 "Ethnomedical, Botanical and PhytochemicalAspects of Natural Hallu cinogens" Botan ical Mu­seum Leaflets 28(2): 123--214 .

Schultes, Richard E. & Albert Hofmann1980 The Botanyand ChemistryofHalluc inog ens.Sp ringfield , IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Schultes, Richard Evans & Bo Holmstedt1968 "De Plantis Toxica riis e Mundo Novo TropicaleCommentationes II: The Vegetabl e Ingredients ofthe Myristicaceous Snuffs of the Northwest Am a­zon" Rhodo ra 70: 113--160.

Schultes , Richard Evans & Robert F. Raffau f1990 The Healing Fores t: Medicinal and ToxicPlants of the Northwest Amazonia. Port land , OR :Dioscorides Press .1992 Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plantsand Rituals in the Colomb ian Amazonia. Oracle ,AZ : Synergetic Press .

Schultes, Richard E. & Siri von Reis (Ed.)1995 Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline. Port­land , OR : Dioscorides Press.

Schurz, Jo sef1969 Vom Bilsenkraut zum LSD. Stuttg art: Kosmos.

Schwamm, Brigitte1988 Atropa belladonna : Eine antike Heilpflanze immodernen Arzneischatz. Stuttgart: Deut scherApo theke r Veriag.

Sharon, Dougla s1978 Wizard of the Four Winds: A Sham an 's Story.New York: The Free Press.

Shawcross, W. E.1983 "Recreational Use of Ergoline Alkaloids fromArgyreia nervosa" Journal of Psychoactive Drugs15(4): 251-259.

She llard , E. J.1974 ''The Alkaloids of Mitragynawith Special Re­ference to Those of M. speciosa, Korth." Bulletin ofNarcotics 26 : 41-54.

Sherratt, Andr ew1991 "Sacred and Profane Substances: T he RitualUse of Narcotics in Later Neolithic Europe" in: PaulGarwo od et al. (ed.), Sacred and Profane, 50-64 ,Oxford University Comm ittee for Archaeology,Monograph No. 32 .

Shulg in, Alexande r T.1992 Controlled Substances : Chemical & LegalGuide to Federal Drug Laws (second edition). Ber­keley: Ronin.

Shulgin, Alexander T. & Claudio Naranjo1967 "The Chem istry and Psychopharmacology ofNutmeg and of Several Related Phenyl isopr opyla­mines" in: D. Efron (ed.), EthnopharmacologicSearch for Psychoactive Drugs, S. 202- 214, Wa­shington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, andWelfare.

Shulgin, Alexander & Ann Shu lgin1991 PIHKAL: A Chemical Love Story. Ber keiey:Transform Press.1997 TlHKAL. Berkeley: TransformPress.

Siebe rt, Daniel J.1994 "Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A: NewPharmacologic Findings" Jou rnal of Ethnopharma­cology 43 : 53--56.

Siegel, Ronald K.1992 Fire in the Brain: Clinical Tales of Hallucina­tion. New York: Dutton.

Siegel, Rona ld K. & Lou ise J. West (ed.)1975 Hallucinations. New York etc .: Joh n Wil ey &Co.

Silva, M. & P. Mancinell.1959 "Chemical Study of Cestrum parqui" Boletinde la Sociedad Chilena de Qu /mica 9: 49-50.

Slot kin, J. S.1956 The Peyote Religion: A StUdy in Indian- WhiteRelations. Glenco e, IL: The Free Press .

Spitta, Heinrich1892 Die Schlaf- und Treumzustende der mens­ch lichen Seele mit besonderer BerOcksichtigung

ihres verneltnisses zu den psychischen Alienatio­nen . Zw eite stark vermeh rte Auflage . Freiburg i. B.:J. C. B. Moh r (first edition 1877).

Spruce, Richard1970 Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon & Andes.New foreword by R. E. Schultes. New York: John­son Repr int Corporation (reprint from 1908).

Stafford, Peter1992 Psychedelics Encyclopedia (3. revise d edi­tion). Berkeley: Ronin .

Stamets, Paul1978 Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies. Seattle:Homestead.1996 Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World . Berke­ley: Ten Speed Press.

Storl , Wolf-Die ter1988 Feuer und Asche-Dunkel und Lich t: Shiva­Urbild des Menschen . Freiburg i. B.: Baue r.1993 Von Heilkreutetn und Pflanzengottheiten .Braunschweig: Aurum .1997 Pflanzendevas-Die Gottin und ihre Pflanze­nengel. Aarau : AT Verlag.

Suwanlert, S.1975 "A Study of Kratom Eaters in Thailand" Bulle­tin of Narcotics 27 : 21-27.

Taylor, Norman1966 Narcotics: Nature's Dangerous Gifts . NewYork: Laurel Edition. Origina lly published as Flightfrom Reality. New York: Duell , Sloan and Pearce,1949 .

Torres , Constantino Manue l1987 The Iconography of South American SnuffTrays and Related Paraphernalia. G6tebo rg: Etno­logiska Studier 37 .

Torres, Con sta ntino Ma nue l, David B. Repke, KelvinChan, Dennis McKe nna , Agustin L1agostera, &Richard Evans Schultes1991 "Snuff Powders from Pre-H ispanic San Pedrode Atacam a: Chemical and Contextua l Analysis"Current Anthropology 32 (5): 640-649.

Turner, D. M.1996 Salvinorin: The Psychedelic Essence ofSalvia div inor um. San Francisco: Panther Press.Der psych odelische Reisetohrer. Solothurn:Nacht schatten Verlag.

Usc atequi M., Nestor1959 "The Presen t Distribu tion of Narcot ics andStimulant s Amongst the Indian Tribes of Colombi a"Botanical Museum Leaflets 18(6) : 273--304 .

Valdes , Leander J., 11 1.1994 "Salvia divino rum and the Unique DiterpeneHallucinogen , Salvinorin (Divinorin) A" Journal ofPsychoactive Drugs 26(3) : 277-283.

Valdes, Leander J., Jose L. Diaz , & Ara G. Paul1983 "Ethnopharmacology of ska Maria Pastora(Salvia divinorum Epling and Jativa-M)" Journal ofEthnopharmacology 7: 287-312.

Van Beek , T. A. et al.1984 "Tabernaemontana (Apocynaceae) : A Reviewof Its Taxonomy, Phytochemistry, Ethnobotany andPharmacology" Journal of Ethnopha rmacology 10:1-156.

Villavicen cio, M.1858 Geografia de la repUblica del Ecuador. NewYork: R. Craigshead .

V6lger, Gisela (ed.)1981 Rausch und Realitat(2 volume s). Cologne:Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum.

Von Reis Altschul , Siri1972 The Genus Anadenanthera in AmerindianCultures. Cambridge: Botani ca l Museum, Harvard

University.Vries, Her man de

1989 Natural Relations. NOrnberg: Verlag fOr mod­

erne Kunst.Wagner, Hildebert

1970 Rauschgift-Drogen (second edition ). Berlin

etc .: Spr inger.Wassel, G . M., S. M. EI-Di frawy, & A. A. Saeed

1985 "Alkaloids from the Rhizomes of Phragmites

australis CAV:' Scientia Pharma ceu tica 53 : 169­170.

Wassen , S. Henry & Bo Holmstedt1963 "T he Use of Parica: An Ethnolog ical andPharmacolog ical Review" Ethnos 28(1) : 5-45.

Wasson, R. Gordon1957 "Seeking the Magic Mushroom" Life (13 May1957) 42(19) : 100ff.1958 "The Divine Mushroom : Primitive Religionand Hallu cinato ry Agen ts" Proc. Am. Phil . Soc.102: 221-223.1961 "The Hallucinogen ic Fungi of Mexico: An In­quiry into the Origins of the Religious Idea AmongPrimit ive Peoples " Botanical Museum Leaflets, Har­vard University 19(7) : 137-162. [reprinted 1965]1962 "A New Mexican Psychotr opic Drug from theMint Fami ly" Botanical Museum Leaflets 20(3): 77­84.1963 ''The Hallu cinogenic Mushrooms of Mexicoand Psilocybin: A Bibliography" Botanical MuseumLeaflets, Harvard University 20(2a) : 25-73c. [sec­ond print ing , with corrections and addenda]1968 Soma-Divine Mushroom of Immortality. NewYork: Harc our t Brace Jovanovich.1971 "Ololiuqui and the Other Hallucinogen s ofMexico" in: Homenaje a Roberto J . Weitlaner. 329­348, Mexico : UNAM.1973 ''The Role of 'Flowers' in Nahuatl Cu lture : ASuggested Interpretation" Botanical Museum Leaf­lets 23( 8): 305-324.1973 "Mushrooms in Japanes e Culture " TheTransactions of the As iatic Society of Japan (ThirdSeries) 11: 5-25.1980 The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry inMesoamerica. New York: McGraw-HilI.1986 "Persephone 's Quest" in: R. G. Wasson et aI.,Perseph one's Ques t: Entheogens and the Originsof Relig ion, S. 17- 81, New Haven and London: YaleUnivers ity Press.

Wasson, R. Gord on, George and Florence Cowan, &Wi llard Rhod es1974 Maria Sabina and Her Mazatec MushroomVelada . New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jo­vanovich.

Wasson, R. Gordon, Albert Hofmann, & Carl A. P.Ruck1978 The Road to Eleusis: Unveiling the Secret ofthe Myst eries.N ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovano­vich .

Wasson, R. Gordon & Valentina P. Wasson1957 Mushrooms, Russia, and History. New York:Pantheon Books.

Watson, Pamela1983 This Precious Foliage: A Study of the Abori­ginal Psychoactive Drug Pitur i. Sydney: Universityof Sydney Pre ss (Oceania Monograph, 26).

Wat son, P. L., O. Luanratana, & W.J. Griffin1983 "Th e Ethn opharm acology of Pituri " Journal ofEthnopharm acology 8(3): 303--311.

Weil, Andrew1980 The Marriage of the Sun and Moon: A Questfor Unity in Consciousness. Boston: Houghton-M if­flin.1998 Natu ral Mind: An Investigation of Drugs &Highe r Consciousness . Revised edition. Boston :Hough ton-Mif flin.

We il, An drew & Winifred Rosen1983 Chocolate to Morphen: Understanding Mind­Active Drugs . Boston: Houghton-M ifflin .

Wilber t, Joh annes1987 Tobacco and Shaman ism in South America.New Haven and London : Yale University Press.

Winkelman , Michael & Walter Andritzky (ed.)1996 Sakrale Heilpflanzen, Bewuf3tsein und Hei­lung: Transkulture lle und Interd iszip linare Perspek­tivenlJahrbuch tur Transkulturelte Medizin und Psy­chotherapie 6 (1995), Berlin: VWB .

Zimmer, Heinrich

1984 Indische My/he n und Symbole. Co logne: Die­derichs .

203

Index(prepared byChristian Ratsch)

Italics of numbers refer to cap­tions.

1,2-dimethyl-6-methoxytetra­hydro-B-carboline 117, 179

2-methyl-6-methoxytetrahy­dro-B-carboline 117, 179

3,4-dimethoxyphenylethyla­mine 59

3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphe­nethylamine 42

3-methoxy-tyramine 39, 59, 774-hydroxy-3-methoxypheny­

lethylamine 51, 67, 694-tetrahydroisoquinoline alka­

loids 515-hydroxydimethyltryptamine

1175-hydroxy-tryptophane 525-hydroxycarnegine 39, 775-MeO-DMT 22, 35, 50, 54,

60,69, 77,137, 138, 1385-MeO-MMT 1205-methoxy(-N,N)-dimethyl­

tryptamine 69, 1795-0H-DMT-N-oxide 1206-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryp-

tamine 179a-asarone 34, 77A-mu- kia 173Aborigines 42, 73, 75, 182,

183, 183Acacia 34, 72Acacia resin 73, 75Acacias 72, 73, 75Acacia aneura 183Acacia coriacea 183Acacia kempean a 183Acacia lingulata 183Acacia maiden ii34, 72, 73,

138, 138Acacia phlebophylla 34, 67,

72, 73, 138Acacia pruinocarpa 183Acacia salicina 183Acacia simplicifolia 34, 72, 73,

138Accuitaration 65Achuma 166, 168Acarus 34Acarus calamus 16,34,76Afghanistan 41, 68, 73, 88, 99Aflotoxins 19Africa 26, 34, 39, 40, 41, 46,

49, 50, 52,60,64,73,76,78,88,94,96,97,98,99,109,1 10, 111,115

Agara 26, 43, 66, 69Agave 109Age of Herbals 16Agriculture 20Aguacolla 27, 30, 76, 168Aguardiente 143Ahijad039Ahnishinaubeg 85Ahriman 102Ai curo 134Aji 134Ajuca 70, 71Ajuwri-kahi-rna 126Alan 114Alander 189Albertus the Great 87Albornoz, Cristobal de 120Alcohol 10, 23, 82,160Alcoholic drinks 69Alcornea castanaefolia 134A/cornea floribunda 98, 114Algae 17,1 8,1 9Aigonquin 78, 79, 110Alice in Wonderland 101

204

Alkaline plant ash(es) 67, 75,182, 183

Alkaloid(s) 23, 34, 38, 39, 40,42,43,47,50,52,53,54,56,59,67, 69,71 ,73,75,77,79,105,1 20,184

Allergies 46Alpen nomads 72Altai 82Alternanthera lehman ii 124Ama 178Amacisa 134Amanita 34, 64, 82-85Amanita muscaria 17,29,34,

70,81,82-85,82Amaring o, Pablo 12Amaryll is family 26Amasita 69, 178Amazon 24, 30, 36, 49, 59, 60,

81, 117, 124-135,139, 141,162, 176, 177,178

Amazon Valley 66Amazonia 12, 37,55,58, 68,

119,1 39Amazonian Brazil 72, 74,177Amazo nian folk medicine 69Amazonian Peru 79America(s) 20, 34, 74, 76, 84,

110, 144, 162American basil 124American Southwest 78, 107Amitabha Buddha 108Amphibians 90Amrita 92Amsterdam 139Amulets 68, 90Anabasine 75, 179, 183Anabatin 183Anadenanthera 34, 81, 116-

119,117,179.Apaden anthera colubrina 29,

34, 66, 120, 122, 123Anadenanth era colubrina var.

Cebi/ 66 , 120- 123, 120Anadenanthera peregrina 29,

35,66, 116-119,116- 118,138

Anadenanth era peregrina var.falcata66

Anahuasca 137Analgesics 13Anandatandava 10Anatall ine 183Ancestor-commun ication ritual

112- 115,129Ancestors 67, 112- 115Andean Indians 78Andes 30, 33, 34, 40, 42, 45,

53,59,66,74,76,81 ,116,117,140,141 ,142,143,143, 168

Andromedotoxin 53Anegiakya 106Anesthetic 107Angel's trumpet(s) 66,107,

134, 140-143Angelitos 84Angiosperms 16, 17, 18Angler's Weed 96Angio-Saxon period 95Angro Maynes 102Animal Kingdom 14, 117Antiaris toxicaria 46Antibiotics 19Antiquity 26, 36, 44, 48, 66, 76Antilles 116Anxiety 73Apasrnarapurusa 10Aperitif 79Aphrod isiac 46,57,60,69,71,

73,75, 77, 78, 79, 109, 170Aphrodite 90Apollo 44 ,90Apollo's plant 44Apollo's temple 91Apomorph ine 50, 67Aposco polamine 141Apples of Love 90Aquatic plants 65

Arabian physician 68Arabian territory 98Arabs 74Arapaho 74Arbol de Campanilla 74Arbol de los Brujos 27, 30, 72Archichlamydeae 17Argemone mexicana 98Argentina 30, 43, 66, 67, 81,

120, 122, 167Argyre ia35Argyreia nervosa 35, 78, 103Ariocarpus 35, 42, 71Ariocarpus fissuratus 35, 70,

147Ariocarpus retusus 35,70, 147Arizonine 39, 77Aromo 122Arrow poisons 10Artaud, Antonin 8, 147Ar temisia ludoviciana 153Artemisia mexicana 98Arum family 26Arundo donax 138Arutam wakani 143Aryans 70, 82Asarones 34Asia 26, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41, 44,49 , 50,52,53,64,82, 8~

84, 88, 95, 108Asia Minor 72, 76, 97, 98Assassin 72Assyrians 94, 98, 99, 102Astoria 157As~oph~onasreriasI47

Atacama 120, 123Atanga tree 112Athabaskan peoples 70Atropa 36,86-91Atropa bellado nna 17, 29, 36,

68,69, 86-91,86, 90Atropa belladonna var. lutea

36, 86Atropa caucasia 36Atropa komarovii 36Atropine 36, 37, 39, 41, 46, 48,

73,86, 87, 141Atropos 88Auditory hallucinations 77, 79Australia 26,34,42,43,72,74,

81, 138,1 83Avicenna 68, 107Axocatzin 57, 72Ayahuasca 12, 19,30,36,55,

59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 69,81, 124-135, 124- 137, 139,141,143

Ayahuasca additive(s) 37, 58,124,134, 138

Ayahuasca analogs 34, 54, 55,69,73,77, 131,137-139

Ayahuasca Churches 139Ayahuasca patterns 129, 130,

131Ayahuasca vine 36, 125Ayahuasca vision(s) 133, 137Ayahuasquero 133Ayahuma 134Ayan-beyem 115Ayurvedic medicine 68, 78, 79Aztec Codex 63Aztec Dream Grass 78Aztec(s) 26, 27, 41, 43, 45, 56,

60,62,63,66, 70,72,74,78,79,81, 109, 146, 156,159, 164,165,170,172,173,174

Aztec Sage 164Aztekium riterii 147B-asarone 77B-carboline alkaloids 52, 59,

67,69,77, 127B-carbolines 67, 81,127, 131B-phenethylamine 40, 57Bacchanals 89Bactris species 179Badianus Manuscipt 107Badoh 74Badoh Negro 45, 66, 175

Baeocystine 52, 55, 73Bakana 40, 56, 66Bakanawa 668alche' 34Bali 51, 68, 69Banisterine 127Banisteriopsis(spp.)36,67, 69,

81, 124--135, 137, 137,143Banisteriopsis caapi29, 36,66,

124,125,126, 129,137,139Banisteriopsis inebrians 36,

66, 124, 129Banisteriopsis muricata 131Banisteriopsis quitensis 124Banisteriopsis rusbyana 66, 67Banzie 113Barasana 132,177,177Batsikawa 134Baudelaire, Charles 101,101Bauhin 104Bedouins 88Beer71 ,74,75, 109, 122,130,

141.Belgian 114Belgium 104Belladonna 26, 68, 88, 107Benares 97Beni-Tengu-Dake 85Beri-beri 95Bering Strait 84Bern 96Betel 73Betel chew mixture 69Beyama 114Bhang 72, 73, 97Bharaorakasha 95Biak-Biak 72Biangan 141Bible 97, 161Bibra, Ernst Freiherr von 196,

197, 197Big Raven 82Bindweed(s) 103, 135, 171Biocca, Ettore 176Bipyridyl 183Black Henbane 44Blake, William 88Blood-red Angel's Trumpet 33,

37, 140-143, 140Blue Meanies 51, 146-163Blue Water Lily 66Bogota 117Boletus 36, 75Boletus kumeus 74Boletus manicus 36, 74Boletus nirgoviolaceus 74Boletus reayi36, 74Bolivia 18, 76, 166, 168Bonplant, Airne 116, 140Bora 176, 178, 179, 180Borrachero 27,66,68,74,76,

124,1 43, 143Botswana 26, 72Bovista 48Brazil 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 77,

117, 118,119,1 39,177,178, 178

British Guyana 119Brugman sia (spp.) 29, 37, 64,

67,73,77,81 , 124, 140-143Brugmansia arborea 66, 140,

141Brugmansia aurea 37,66,

140-143Brugmansia x insignis 66, 141Brugmansia sanguinea 33, 37,

66,140-143Brugmansia suave olens 66,

124,141Brugmansia versicolor66, 141Brugman sia vulcanico la 66,

140, 143Brunfelsia 30, 37, 68, 69, 124Brunfelsia chiricasp i 37, 68,

124Brunfelsia grandiflora 37, 68,

124Brunfels ia grandiflora ssp.

sctiuttesii 68, 135

Bryophyta 16Buddha 97, 107, 108Buddhism 97, 98Bufo alvarius 22Bufotenine 69,120, 120Bush people 73Bushmen 26, 72, 99Buyes 141Bwiti cult 26, 71, 112-1 15,

112- 115Caapi 30, 66, 62, 67, 124, 126Caapi-Pinima 59, 66Cabalonga 134Cabalonga blanca 134Cacalia38Cacalia cordifolia 38, 74Cacao tree 177Cachiri 131Cactus 67, 71, 75, 124Caesalpinia 38Caesalpin ia decapetala 78Caesalpinia sepia ria 38, 78Cahua 66Caji 132Calamus 76Calathea veitchiana 124Calea 38Calea zacatechichi 38, 78, 98California 72Calima region 162Caltrop 137Cameroon 114Campa 127Campanilla 26Canada 26, 74, 76, 85, 151Canary Islands 70Canavalia maritim a 98Cannabidiolic acids 73Cannabinol(s) 93Cannabinotic compounds 73Canna bis 12, 38,72,73, 81,

98,92- 101, 92-101, 107,108,1 84, 185

Cannabis cakes 72Cannabis cigarettes 69Cannabis indica 72, 92, 92-

101,185Cannab is indica x sativa 92Cannab is rudera lis 93Cannabis sativa 17,29, 38, 72,

114, 185Cannabis substitute 77Caribbean Islands 26Carludo0 ca179,1 80Carnegia 39, 77Carnegia gigantea 76Carnegine 77Carroll, Lewis 101Cassia spp. 183Cal's claw 134, 135Catahua 134Catharanthus roseus 98Catholic Church 159Catholicism 115Catnip 98Cawe 51, 66Caza 89Cebil30, 34, 66,120-123, 120Ceboletta 66Cecropia mexicana 98Ceiba pentandra 135Ceremonial intoxication 69Cestrum 39Cestrum laevigatum 68, 98Cestrum parqui 39, 68, 98Cha-pe-na 179Chancarro 98Chacruna 55,66, 124--1 35, 134Chacruna Bush 66, 139Chacs 84Chalice Vine 57Chamico 109Channa 70Chanoclavin-I 79Charas 26, 72, 73Charms 68Chatin area 174Chatino 158Chautle 70

Chavin de Huantar 122, 166Chiapas 77, 159,1 62Chibcha 66, 67, 116Chicha 67,140, 141Chich ibe 72Chichimeca 144, 145Chiclayo 166Chihuahua 70,74,144Childbirth 96, 104Chile 66, 68, 69, 72, 76, 78, 95,

123, 141Chilicote 68Chimti cultur e 168China 66, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78,

94,107, 108Chinantec 66, 75, 78, 158,

173, 174Chindoy, Salvador 142Chinese medicine 76, 77Chinese shamanism 94Chinese writings 68, 72,79,

94, 107Chiric-Sanango 68Chiricaspi 30, 68, 69, 134, 135Choc6 141Chonta Palm 168Chontal Indians 78 , 79Chorisia insignis 135Chou dynas ty 94Christian holy spirits 139Christia nity 70 , 79, 115, 122,

147Chuchu-caspi 134Cigars 165Cigarette 71 , 73, 79, 93Cimora 168Claviceps 39, 102-105, 102­

105Cmv~eps paspaN l02

Claviceps purpurea 29 , 39, 68,102-105, 102-105

Clinton, Bill 155Clusiaceae 124Coatl-xoxo uhqui 170Coaxihuitl 170Coca 13, 29, 64,117Cocaine 12, 113Code ine 12Codex Berberini Latina 241, 107Codex Florentino 159Cohoba 26, 116Cold tree 68, 69Coleus 39, 69Coleus blumei39, 68, 165Coleuspumilus39 ,68 ,164, 165Colima 162Collen ia 18, 18Colombia 30, 65, 67, 68, 69,

74,76, 116, /1 6,11 7, 118,119, 126, 133,140, 140,141,142, 162,1 76, 177, 178

Colombian Choc6 73Colombian Indians 68Colombia n Vaupes 69,124Colorado River Toad 22Colo rines 68, 74Comanche 151,152Common Reed 54 , 68Common Wireweed 98Conduro 168Congo 26,70,81 , 97,99Conibo-Ship ibo 126, 129, 130Conocybe 40, 156-1 63Conocybe siligineoides 40, 78Convolvulus tricolor 171Cooke , Mordeca i 196, 197Copal 150, 164Cope landia 68Copelandia cyanescens 68, 69Cora Indians 97,145, 146,

147, 149Coral Bean 74Coral Tree 43Coria ria 40Coriaria thymitoNa40 , 76Coryphan ta 40, 67Coryphanla compacta 40, 66Coryphanta palmerii 40Coryphanta spp. 66

Costa Rica 78, 118. 162Cotini n 183Coumarines 71, 77Cowhage 68Cree Indians 76Crow Dog , Henry 152Crusades 103Cryo genine 77Cuba 40, 60, 159, 175Culebra borrachero 142Cumala (Tree) 60, 134Cuna 97Curande rismo 166Curandero 109, 168Curare 69 , 126Curare-like activity 75Cuscohygrine 73Cuzco 129, 169Cyanogenesis 73Cymbopog on 40Cymbopogon densiflorus 40,

70 ,98Cyperus 124Cytlsine 69, 71, 75Cytisus 41 , 71Cytisus canariensis 41 , 70f!,'-3,4-trans-tetrah ydrocanna -

bino173, 98D-nOr-nicotine 183Dacha 72Daggha 26Dagg a 72, 98Dama da Noite 68Dam iana 98Dapa 124Dark Age s 91Dark- rimmed Mott legill 52,

156-163Datura 10, 26, 27, 41 , 64, 68,

73, 79, 81 , 93,97,1 06-11 1,140, 141, 147, 172

Datura ceratocaula 111Datura discolo r 78Datura tastuosa 110Datura terox 68, (109)Datura innoxia 18,41,73,78,

79, 106-111Datura kymatocarpa 78Daturametel13, 41, 68, 106-

111, 106Datura meteloides 78Datura pruinosa 78Datura reburra 78Datura spp. 29 , 106-111Datura stramonium 31, 41 , 78 ,

106-1 11Datura stramonium var. terox

109Datura stramonium var. tatula

106Datura wrightii 78Dauph ine 103De Candolle, A. P. 105Dead Sea 90Deadly Nightshade 16, 17,36,

68, 81, 86-91Death 75Deer 63,144-155Delaware 154Delay, Jea n 190Delhi 85Delira nts 12Delir ium 73, 75, 86, 103Delphi 70 , 86, 91Deltgen, Florian 132Delusionogens 12Demeter 81, 104Depression 73Destontapia 42Destontainia spinosa 27,42,

76 , 77Desgrang es of Lyons 104Desmanthus i1Jinoensis 138Desmodium 13 7, 138Desmodium pu lchellum 138Desmodium spp. 138Devil 's Herb 88Dhatur a 107Di-shi-tio- le-rra- ja 78

Diagnosis 69, 75, 77, 177Diarrhea 73, 79Dicotyledon eae 17Dictyloma incanescens 138,

138Dictyonema 19Dietnes 142Digitalis 10Dihydroharmine 127Dimethyltryptamin e 69, 77,

117, 179Dionysus 88Dioscorides 16, 87, 96, 107,17 1Diplopterys cabrerana 66, 67,

124, 126, 129,138Diterpenes 77Divination 75, 77, 109,1 24,

142,1 64,171,175,1 77Divinatory plant 69Diviner's sage 27, 56, 164--165Divinorin A, B 165DMT 67, 69, 72, 73,77, 117,

120,127, 137,137,138, 138DMT-N-oxide 120DOB1 4Dobe 72Dodart 104Dog Grass 38Dogb ane family 26Dogrib Athabascan peoples 85Dore, Gustave 100Dryopteris tiJix-mas 16Duboisia 42, 182-183Duboisia hopwoodii42, 74, .

182-1 83, 183Duboisia myoporoides 183Duboisia spp. 29Dog Grass 98Dragon doll 91Dreamtime 182-183Ducke 176Dutch 70, 102Dutra 68Dwale 88Dwaleberry 88Eagle 63, 110Ear th Goddess 6, 63Earth Mother 133, 146, 154East Indies 69, 109Eastern Europe 74Eastern Hemisphere 28, 30Ebena 177Ebers Papyrus 86Eboka 112Echinocereus 42Echinocereus salmdyckianus

42, 74Echinocereus triglochidiatus

42, 74 , 75Echinopsis pachanoi76Ecuador 27, 30, 68,69,76, 77,

126Ecuador ian Andes 66, 76Egypt 54, 74, 88, 103Egyptian culture 66, 86Egyptian Henbane 88Egyptian sites 72Eidetics 12EI Ahijado 68, 165EI Macho 68, 164EI Nene 68, 165EI Nino 159Elaeophorbia drupifera 115Eleusis 102, 104Eleusinian myster ies 68, 81, 102ENzabethaprinceps 69, 178,

181Enema 122England 74,95,96, 104Entheogens 12Epena 68, 69, 73,176-181Ephedra 84Ephedra gerardiana 84Ephedrine 19, 73Epilepsy 103Epilobium angustifoNum71Epinephrine 145Epiphyllum 124Epithe lantha 42

Epithelantha micromeris 42, 70Ereriba 26, 44, 68Ergine (LSA) 79, 103, 171Ergoline alkaloids 69, 171Ergonovine 79, 105Ergot 26, 39, 68, 69,102-1 05,

171Ergot alkaloids 69, 103Ergotamine 105Ergotin e 172Ergotism 68, 103Ergotoxine 103Eroga 114Ervatamia pandacaqui 76Erythran type alka loids 69Erythrina 42 , 69Erythrina americana 42 , 68Erythrina coralloides 68Erythrina flabelliformis 42, 68Esakuna 70Eschweilera itayensis 171Escobill a 98Essential oil(s ) 19, 34, 40, 46,

47, 57, 58,71,75,77Eucalyptus microtheca 183Eucalyptus spp. 183Eugenol 75Eugster 83Eupho ria 71, 101Euph or ics 13Europe 13, 13,26,64,68,69,

72,74,81,88,139,158,193European folklore 73European peoples 68Everlasting 98Fabaceae 138False peyote 35,70, 74,78Fang 112Fang-K'u ei 53, 70, 71Farm er 's tobacco 134Febri fuge 79Fermented drink 67Fern 16Fetish plants 114Fig fam ily 93Finno -Ug rian peop les 70, 82Fish 14Flag Root 76Flavonglycosides 77Floripondio 27,66Fly Agaric 16, 17, 26, 34, 62,

70, 81Flying Saucers 170Folk medicine 71, 73, 76, 77,

79France 103French 102, 114French Academy 104Frijoles 74Frijolillo 27Frogs 14, 90Fuchs, Leonard 31Fungi 18,65, 65,71 , 156, 196Furocoumarines 71Gabon 26, 70, 81, 112-115Galanga 46 , 70Galbulimima 43GalbuNmima belgraveana 43,

66,69Galen 72, 95, 96Galile090Gallows man 91Ganja 26 , 72, 73 , 97Ganoderma lucidum 17Garden of Eden 91Gaston 103Genista 27, 41, 70GenuBmitte l l0Gerard 91, 109Ge rma n(s) 102, 114Germany 95, 139, 143Gha ngi 97Gi'-i-Sa-Wa 70Gi'- i-Wa 27, 70Gigant6n 76, 168Ginge r 71Ginger family 26Ginseng 91, 94God- narcotic 73

Golden Angel 's Trumpet 37,140--143

Goodenia 183Gramine 69, 77Gramineae 138Grasses 65Greece 13,26, 68, 70, 74, 81,

86,97, 102Greek physician 72, 95Grevillea striata 183Guaianas 78Guahibo 117, 119Guamb iano 140, 143Gua rana 29Guatemala 62,81,84, 161, 162Guatillo 134Guayusa 29,134Guerrero 73Gulf Coast of Mexico 72Gumilla 118Gums 183Gustavia poepp igiana 179Gutt iferae 124Guya na 116Gymnospe rmae 17, 181Hades 105Hait i 118Hallucinations 12, 69, 71, 73,

75, 86, 88, 103, 112, 141Hallucinogen(s) 10--14, 28, 62,

64,67,69,70,71 ,73,74,75 ,76,77, 78, 79,94, 102,107,140,1 41,1 42,142,147, 176 , 196

Hallucinogen-assisted psy-choanalysis 193

Hallucinogenic dreams 69Halluc inogen ic drugs 191, 195Hallucinogenic effects 73 , 75,

77, 78Hallucinogenic intoxication 67,

71,75,77,79,193Hallucinogenic mushrooms 69Hallucinogenic smoke 72Hardwicke 108Harmal77Harmalol 127Harmaline 77, 127, 129, 137Harmane 127Harmine 77, 127, 129,1 37Harrison Narcotic Act 12Hartw ich, Carl 196, 197Hashish 5,72,74,92-1 01Hashish-snuffing cults 99Hashishins 72Hawaiian Wood Rose 35, 78Hawk 110Hawkweed 98Hayo 117Heath family 27Hecate 88Heimia 43Heimia seticltolie 43, 76, 77Heimia species 76Hekula 116-11 9,1 18, 179Helichrysum 43Helichrysum foetidum 43, 76,

98Helichrysum stenopterum 76,

98Helicostylis 44Helicostylis pedunculata 44,

78Helicostylis tomentosa 44, 78Hemp 12, 16, 17, 26, 38, 72,

92-1 01,92-101, 184Henbane 13, 26, 70, 81, 86-

91,86, 107Henry VIII 95Herb of the Shepherdess 70Herbs 65, 75Hernandez, Dr. Francisco 72,

109,146,157,170Herodotus 94Heroin 12, 113Heuresis 87Hexing Herbs 86-91Hidalgo 99Hieracium pilosella 98

205

Hierba de la Pasto ra 27 ,70,164-165

Hierba de la Virgen 70Hie rba Loca 27 ,53,76Hierba Ma ria 175High land Maya 62Hikuli 66, 70 , 74,151Hiku li Mu lato 42, 70, 71Hikuli Rosapara 70 , 78Hikuli Sunams 70Hikur i 74, 78 , 148 , 150Hikur i Orchid 50Himalayas 3D, 98, 97, 106Hindu 13,93,97Hiporuru 134Hippomanes 109Hispaniola 116Hoa-Glio 95Hoa sca 139Hoffer 13Ho fman n, Albert 13, 22 , 162,

187Hoja de la pastora 164Ho ly Fire 103Homalomena lauterbach ii44Homalomena sp. 44, 67, 68Homer 86Hongo de San Isidro 78, 156Hoo p-petticoat 51, 156-163Hops 71,93Hottentots 26 , 70 , 96, 99Huaca141Huacacachu 27 , 66Hua cachaca 141Huachuma 168 , 168Huanto 27, 66Huedhued 76Hueipatl72Hueyy1zontecon 174Huichol 6, 8, 62 , 63,70,71 ,72,

73 ,74,78, 144,145, 146,147 , 148, 148, 149,150,150,151 ,151,154, 162,196

Huilca 66, 74, 122Humbold, Baron Alexander

von 116,118, 119,140Hummingbird 166Humulus 93Hungarian stamp 175Huskanawi ng ceremony 110Hyoscyamine 69, 71, 73 , 75,

79, 86Hyoscyamus 44, 86-91Hyoscyamus albus 13,44,70,

86-91Hyoscyamus niger 44, 70 , 86-

91,86Hyoscyamus spp. 29 , 86-91Hypnotics 13Iboga 58 , 64 , 70, 71, 81, 112-

115,112-115Iboga cult 112Ibogaine 71 , 79, 113Ibogaine-li ke alkaloids 77Ibotenic acid 71, 83Ice Plant family 26/lex drinks 64Incense 150India 26 , 62 , 66, 68, 69, 70, 72 ,

82 , 88, 92 , 95 , 97 , 97, 107 ,108, 108, 109

Indian Henbane 88Ind ian peoples 69Indian writings 74, 98Indians 66, 67, 69,72,73,74,79Indochina 108Indole alkaloids 71,77,79,

103,113Indo lic alka loids 79Indonesia 26Indra 82, 83, 92Indus Valley 82Inebriation 88Ingano Indians 141Initiation ritua l 67, 71 , 79 , 81,

110, 110Insanity 73, 77, 86, 168Inspiration 100Intoxicant 73, 74, 76 , 79

206

Intoxicating 31Intoxicating drink 77Intoxicat ion 10, 67, 69 , 7 1, 72 ,

75,77,79,108,112,145,172,174

Intoxicator 68lochroma 45lochroma fuchsioides45 , 74Iowa tribes 74Ipomoea 45, 170-175,1 70-175Ipomoea camea 134 , 135, 172Ipomoea rubrocaerulea 45Ipomoea violacea 29 , 45 , 66,

103,170-175 ,170-175Ireland 104Iresine 124, 168Iryanthera macrophy/la 178Iso-lysergic acid amide (iso -

LSD) 79, 186, 187Isoharmine 127Iso leosib irine 77Isotoma longiflora 168Islam 70 , 98 , 115Jaguar(s) 119 , 126, 130 , 142Jali sco 162Jambur 68Japan 83, 85Jesuit (s) 145, 162Je sus 154Jibaro 64, 69,141 ,1 42,1 43Jims onweed 78Jop a 117Josephus Flavius 90Jouzmathal 107Juliana Codex 87Jung ian sch ool 190Jurema 70Jurema Tree 49Jurema huasca 139Justicia 45 ,69,72,73, 181Justicia pectoralis va r. steno­

- phylla 45, 72 , 178 , 181Kab uyare 177Kaemferia 46Kaempferia galanga 46, 70Kaffirs 99Kah i124, 126Kakulia-ikox 84Kalahari desert 196Kalamota 70Ka linchok 30Karnsa 74 , 77 ,141, 142Kamtchatka 82, 85Kana 134Kand ahar 99Kanna 26, 70, 71Kapok tree 134, 135Karauetare 177Karime 177Karit iana Indians 72Karu ka madness 77Kasai 99Kas hmir 97Kathmandu 93, 158Kauyumari 63, 148Kava- kava 13, 26, 64Kechwa 62Khursu 98Kickapoo 153Kieli 72 , 73Kielitsa 73Kieri 72Kif 72, 98Kiowa 151, 152 , 153Kirishana 177Koch-GrOnberg, Theodor 180Kochia scopa ria 127Kotan 126Korea 91Kor ibo 59, 72Koryak 64, 82, 83Kougoed 56, 98Krasnojarsk Distr ict 82Kratom 49, 72Kuluene River 24Kuma 75, 111Kuma Mushroom 36Kung 97Kuripako 177

Kwashi 26, 52 , 72Kykeon 104La Barr e, Weston 64Lady of the Night 39, 68 , 98Lagochiline 79Lagoch ilus 26 , 46Lagochilus inebrians 26, 46, 78Lake Victoria 99Latua 46Latua pubiflora 46, 72LatUe 27, 46 , 72 , 73Latuy 76Latvia 75Le-sa 179Lecy1hus 81Leguminosae 138Lemon 139Lem ongrass 40 , 98Leon, Padre Nico las de 147Leonotis 47Leonotis leonurus 47 ,72,98Leonurus 47Leonurus sibiricus 47 ,76,98Leosibiric ine 77Leosibirine 77Lespedeza capitata 138Levitation 77Lewin, Louis 13, 196,197, 197Li Sh ih-chen 107Lianas 65Lichens 18, 19Libation 91Liberty Cap(s) 55, 72, 156-

163Ulium candidum 16Lily- like plan ts 65Lindl ey, John 16Linnaeus, Carolus 16,107, 189Linne, Carl von 16Lion 's Tail 46, 72Liquor 109Lithuania 75Llanos 116Lobelamidine 79Lobel ia 47Lobelia tupa 47 , 78Lob eline 79Lolium 102Lomariopsis japurensis 124Lonicer of Frankfurt 104Lophophora 47 ,70,74,75,

144-1 55Lophophora diffusa 47, 74Lophophora williams ii6 , 22 ,

29 ,47,74,75,144-155,186Love potion 75LSA 79LSD 14, 69, 75, 77, 171, 185,

186,187,189,189,190,193LSD ecstasy 195Lucillus 95Lumholtz, Carl 144, 147Lup una 134Lycoperdon 48Lycoperdon marginatum 48, 70Lycoperdon mixtecorum 48, 70Lycoperdon sp. 70Lycopodium 77 , 168Lygodium venustum 124Lysergic acid 69, 103, 171Lysergic acid am ide 75, 103,

171 ,1 85,187Lysergic acid diethylamide

(LSD) 69, 171, 187Lysergic acid hydroxyethyia-

mide75, 103, 171, 185, 18 7Ma94Ma-fen 94Maa-jun 97Mace 74Macedonia 102Mackenzie Mountains 85Maconha 26, 68 , 73Maconha Brava 98Macropsia 67, 71, 133Madagascar Periwinkle 98Madonna Lily 16Maenads 88Mag ic ceremo nies 71, 72

Mag ic infu sions 71Mag ic Mush room s 14, 22, 159Mag ic pla nt 73Magic potion 74Magliabecchiano Codex 162Mahayana 97Mahekototen shaman 179Ma icoa 27, 66Ma ikoa 143Maiden's Acacia 34, 72Maize beer 79, 109 , 122,141 ,

141,150Majun 73Maku Indians 66, 69, 176Makuna 177Malaria 95Malaya 98Malaysia 72Malva Colorada 72Maloca 130, 132Malouetia tamaquarina 124Malpighia fam ily 30Malpighiaceae 138Mammillar ia 48, 78Mammillaria craigii 48, 78 , 79Mammillariagrahamii48,78, 79Mammillaria heyderii 48, 79Mammillaria sinilis 78Man-t'o-lc 107Mana ka 68Mandragora 48, 81, 86-91Mandragora officina rum 48,

72, 81, 86-91Mandragorine 73Mandrake 26, 48, 72 , 73 , 74 ,

81, 8 1, 86, 86-91,87, 88,89, 90, 9 1, 107

Mandrake root 91MAO inhibitor 127, 131, 137Mapuche 27 , 66 , 69, 72 , 78Maquira49,74Maquira sclerophylla 49,74,

75Mara'akame 148, 148, 150,

150, 154Maraba 26 , 70Mar ia Sabina 14, 156-1 63Mari juana 12, 13, 17, 72 , 73 ,

79,92-101Mar ijuana substitut e 69, 73,

76,98Marijuanillo 76Mascagania glandulifera 124Mascagan ia ps ilophy/la var.

antifebrilis 124Mash, Deborah 113Mashihi ri 45, 72Massachusetts 104, 105Mataco Indians 120, 122, 122Matwu 38 , 74Maya 66, 109, 162Maypure Indians 118 , 119Mazatec(s) 14, 66, 68, 70, 71 ,

75,78, 156-163, 164 , 164,165,174

Mecki and the Dwarfes 84Med ina Silva, Ram on 148 ,

148, 149, 150, 151Mela leuca sp. 183Mene-kahi-ma 124Merian, Matthiius 81Mesa 168Mescal Bean 26 ,27,57,68,

74 , 152Mescal Butto n 74Mescaline 22,23,75,77, 145 ,

167,1 85, 186, 187,189Mesembrenine 71Mesembrine 71Mesembryanthenum 71Mesembryanthenum expan-

sum 70Mesembryanthenum tortu o-

sum 70Meso ame rica 84, 161Mesolithic 140Mestizos 139Metachlamydeae 17Metan icotine 183

Met ate 71, 75 , 150Met el nut 107Mete loidine 107, 141Mexican Indians 74Mexican Mugwo rt 98Mexico 6, 22, 26 , 27, 62, 64 ,

66,68, 70,71,72,74,78,81,97,99,107, 107, 109,110,11 1, 111,1 44 , 145,147 , 147, 150,151 ,156,158, 159, 159,162,166,172, 173, 174

Mexico City 165Mfeng 96Miami 113Michigan 85Michoacan 158Mictlan tlcuhtl i 162Midd le Ages 14, 68, 69, 70 , 74 ,

81, 102, 104Middie America 78Midwives 69Mih i 124Milk y Way 176Miltom ate 174Mimohuasca 139Mimosa 49Mimosahostilis 49, 70, 7 1, 138Mimosa scabrella 137, 138Mimosa tenuiflora 49,70,1 37 ,

138, 138,1 39Mimosa verrucosa 70Ming dynasty 107Minoan culture 66Min t 64Misperceptinog ens 12Mistletoe fam ily 124Mitra 82Mit ragy na 49Mitragyna speciosa 49, 72Mitra gynine 73Mixe 158Mixtec {s) 27, 70 , 75, 158MMT77Moc he 162Mojas 117Mongolia n shamans 12Mongo loids 140Monocotyledonea 16Monomethylthryptamine 179Mopope, Stepehn 152Mo raceae 93Morning Glory 26,45, 63, 74 ,

75,81,103,1 47,1 70-175,170-175,185

Mo rpheu s 20Morphine 12, 20, 21Mother Gaia 173Mucha, Alphonse 143Mucuna 50, 69Mucuna pruriens 50, 68, 138 ,

138MOiler, Ferdinand J.H. von 183MOnchhausen 105Muhipu-nuri 176Mu inane 178Mu isca 117, 141Munchira 142Murderer 's Berry 88Muscarine 83Muscazone 71Muscimole 71, 83Mushroom madness 75Mushroom cap 63Mus hroom stones 161Mushrooms 14, 17,23,62,69,

70,71 ,73,78,79,81,156­163,164,1 74

Musl im 73Mutterkorn 102Myos mine 183Myrist ica 50Myr istica fragrans 50, 74Myristic aceae 50, 138Myr isticine 50, 75Myst icomimetics 12Mythology 63, 68, 72, 88, 124N-acethylnorn icot ine 183N-formylnornicotine 183

N-methyl-3.4-di-methoxyphe -nylethylamine 79

N.N-dimethyltryptamine 71N.N-DMT 67. 69. 71 . 77Naeher, Karl 113Nahua 158Nahua tl 109. 146, 162, 170.

174Nandi 109Naranjo. Claudio 113Narcosis 174Narco tic(s) 10. 26 , 31 ,72,73,

75, 107Narcot ic fruit 74Natema 30. 124. 143Native Amer ican Church 74.

152. 152, 153,155Native American t ribes 71Nauwald , Nana 122,137, 194,

195Navajo 110, 155Nayarit 146. 162Nazca culture 166Ndzi-e boka 115Near East 68Necromance rs 87 . 94Neoce rdan-diterpenes 165Neolithic 94Neoraimondia macrostibas

168Nepal 27. 30. 78. 84, 93, 106.

107, 158Nepeta cataria 98Nerva l, Gerard de 100Netherlands 139Nettle family 93New England 95.104New Guinea 26. 70 . 74 . 76. 77New Orleans 99New Spain 122. 146New Wor ld 26 . 30, 62. 64, 66,

67,73. 78.90,99,105. 107.107, 109, 144 . 176

New Years's Eve 84, 153Niando 98Nicotiana rust ica 79 , 134. 134Nicotiana tabacum 17Nicotine 75. 183Nierika 63, 196Nightshade 74. 89Nightshade family 26, 27, 30 .

75,86, 88, 89Nightshades 5Ninfa 66Nines (santos) 14. 161. 164Niopo 27, 119Nonda 74Nor-Iobelamidine 79Noradrena line 145. 184. 186,

187Norcarneg ine 77Norepinephrine 184 . 185Norharmine 127Norman times 95Nornicotine 75. 183Nornuci ferine 67Norscopolamine 141Nortrop ine 73North Africa 97North America 26.70.84. 95.

158Nti-si-tho 159Nuciferine 67Nutmeg 26.50.74.75. 176Nyakwana 68.69. 177 .178Ny( 133Nyiba-eboka 115Nymphaea 50, 67Nymphaea ampla 50. 66. 67Nymphaea caerulea 50 , 66Oaxaca 66, 70, 75 . 78. 158,

162.164.1 70. 173, 174Obste trics 69Ochre 142Dcimum micranthum 124Oco-yaie 126Ocotl 172Ointments 70Ojibwa 85

Oklahoma 152Old World 30, 64,67,68,72.

78,90.92,97,107.176Ololiuq ui 26, 60. 64. 66, 71. 74 .

103.1 11. 156,170-175,170-175.185. 187. 189

Omagua 140Oncidium 50Dncidium ceboletta 50, 66, 67Opiate addict 113Opium (poppy) 12, 13.20,21,

100, 104Opium subst itute 72Opiu m-like effects 72Dpuntia 124, 145Oracle of Delphi 86. 91Orch id, orchid s 65, 66Oregon 157Orgies 88Ori noco 26, 27. 72. 81, 116,

118. 119.176,177Orin oco basin 66. 119. 176,

177Ortega 165Osage 153Osca 117Osh timis k Wajashkwedo 85Osmond, Humphrey 13, 191Otomac 118Otomi 158Out -of-body experiences 165Pachycereus 51Pachycereus pecten-aborigi-

num51.66 .Pacific 64. 162Pacific North West 158Paez 140Paguando 45 , 74Painted Nett le 39. 164Pakidai 177Pakistan 68. 73Paleolithic 140Palm wine 71Palo de borra cho 135Palqui 68, 69. 98Panacea 73Panaeolus 51. 52.156-1 63Panaeolus cyanescens 68Panaeol us sphinctrinus 51. 78,

156-163. 157Panaeolus subbalteatus 52,

156-163Panama 9 7, 162Panax ginseng 91Pancratium 52Pancratium trianthum 52, 72Pandanus sp.52,76, 77Papaver somniferum 2 1Papua 26. 66. 68Parace lsus 10. 20Parahure 177Pariana region 74Parica 68, 69. 177Paris 102Parjanya 82Parsees 102Pashupatinath 2 7, 93. 107Paspalum grass 104Passiflora invo/ucrata 127Passiflora spp. 127. 129Passionflower 129Paste 67, 69, 178Paurnare Indians 177Pasto ra 164Payets) 117. 176Pedilanthus tithyma/oides 168.

169Peganum 52.124.137-1 39Peganum harma/a 52. 69. 73.

76,77. 124 . 127, 129. 137.139

Pelecyphora 53Pe/ecyph ora aselliformis 53.

74Pen Tsao Ching 94Pernambuco 70Pernettya 53. 77Pernettya furens 53, 76 , 77Pernettya parvifolia 53. 76. 77

Perseph one 8 1. 105Persia 98Peru 66, 67. 68 . 76, 81, 95,

109.122, 127, 129. 140.141, 162,1 66, 166. 167,169. 178

Peruvian Amaz on 135. 162.178

Peruvian Indians 66. 67. 135Peruvian shaman 12Petunia 27.53.76,77Petunia vio/acea 53, 76Peucedanum 53, 71Peucedanum japon icum 53,

70. 71Peyote 6. 8.12,13.26.47,62.

63.64,66,70,74.75,81 ,99.1 43,1 44-155. 157,166.172, 174, 184, 186

Peyote bird 155Peyote Cimar ron 70Peyote cult 63, 75. 144Peyote de San Pedro 78Peyote fan 155Peyote festival 6Peyote surrogate 67, 70 . 147Peyotillo 53 . 74. 147Peyotl 146, 156, 186Pfaffia 134Pfaffia iresinoides 134Phaiaris 54Pha/aris arundinacea 54 . 76.

138. 138Pha/aris tuberosa 138. 138Phanerothymes 12Phantastica 13.196. 197Phan tasticants 12Pharmahuasca 137Phene thylamine(s) 67. 71, 75Phenylalanine 185Phenylethylamin(s) 185Philip II of Spai n 146Philipp ine Islands 68Phragmites aust ralis 68. 138Phrygy/a nthus eugenoides

124Physa lis sp. 174Phytolacca 54Phyto/acca acinosa 54, 76 , 77Pichana 134Pijaos 142Pima 110Pincu shion Cactus 40, 48Pinde 30. 124Pinus strobus 17Piper auritum 98Piper methyst icum 64Pipiltzin 165Pipiltzin tzintli 27. 70, 164-165Piptadenia pe regrina 116Piraparana 133. 176Piri piri 134Pitallito (cactus) 42. 74, 75Pituri 73. 74. 75. 81. 182-183Pituri Bush 42. 74, 182- 183.

182. 183Piturin (e) 75.1 83Piule 27, 56, 66, 74, 174Plains tribes 152Plant Kindo m 16-19Pliny the Elder 95Pluton iuon 104Poison 73. 86Poison Bush 74Pokeberry 54Polynesian Islanders 64Polypora les 17Po/ytrichum commune 16Pombe 109Popocatepetl 63. 161Popol Vuh 161Poppy 20, 21. 24Porta 90Prescott 105Prickly Poppy 98Prisoners 75Proph ecy 75, 124. 177Prophes y 86Prote ctor 71

Protestantism 115Pseud o-hallucinat ions 14Psilocine 23. 23, 69, 73 . 79,

159, 185, 186, 187Psilocybe 54, 55, 156-163,

171Psilocybe acutissima 78Psilocybe aztecorum 63. 78Psilocybe azurenscens 156.

157Psilocybe caeru/escens 78 .

163Psilocybe caeru/escens var.

a/bida78Psilocybe caeru/escens var.

mazatecorum 78 . 156Psilocybe caerulescens var.

nigripes 78 . 156Psilocybe caeru/escens var.

ombrophila 78Psilocybe cubensis 54. 78.

156-163. 157. 159Psilocybe cyanescens 55.

156-163Psilocybe hoogshagenii 157Psilocybe mexicana 22, 55,

78,79.156-163. 156Psi/ocybe mixaeensis 78Psilocybe pellicu/osa 158Psilocybe semila ncea ta 55 . 72Psilocybe semperviva 78, 156Psilocybe siligineoide s 157Psilocybe species (= spp.) 29.

79.156-163Psilocybe wassonii78. 157Psilocybe yungensis 78, 156.

162Psilocybe zapotecorum 78Psilocybin(e ) 23. 23. 69, 73.

79. 157.159. 185. 186, 187.189

Psychedelic dose 73Psychedelic therapy 191Psyche delic(s) 13. 191Psychoanalysis 191Psychodyslept ics 13Psychogens 12Psycholysis 190. 191Psychoses 12Psych osom imetic s 12Psycho taraxics 13Psychotica 12Psychoticants 12Psych otomimetic(s) 12. 13Psychotria 55.124-135Psychotria carthaginensis 124Psychotria poeppigiana 138Psychotria viridis 55,66.67,

124-1 35, 134. 135. 137,138.139

Pteridophyta 16Pucallpa 133Puebla 99, 158Puffball s 27Puinave 177Pulma 134Puna region 120. 123Putumayo 126Pygm y 97. 112Pythagoras 90Pythia 91Quapaw Indians 153Quechua 124Quetzalaxoch iacatl 66Qu iche-(Maya) 84Quinde 142Quinoliz idine type alkaloids 77Quinta essent ia 20Hatsch, Christian 2 7, 189Rahner, Hugo 88Rain priests 79 . 110Rajaw Kakulja 84Rami 134Rape dos Indios 49 , 74Rasping stick 150Raven 91Recrea tion 69Red Bean 26 . 74 . 75Red Bean Dance 75

Red Canar y Grass 54Red Tengu mushro om 85Reed Grass 76. 77Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo

62,1 26,131 .132Reindeer milk 71. 82Remo caspi 134Reserp ine 13Resin 69. 75,1 76,1 78.181Rheumatism 77Rhizomes 67Rhynchosia 56, 75Rhynchosia /ongeracemosa

74Rhynchosia phase%ides 56.

74. 75Rhynchosia pyramidalis 74Riamba cuit 99Ribas. Padre Andrea Perez de

145Rig-Veda"82, 83Rio Branco 119Rio Grande 74Rio Madeira 72. 119Rio Maranon 140Rio Negro 177Rio Purus 177Rio Tikie 66Rio Vaupes 66, 126Ritualistic significance 67Rivea corymbosa 74Roma n priests 89Romans 95Rome 70, 74Root Beer Plant 98Rosa Maria 99Rosa spinosissima 17Rosebud Rese rvation 152Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew

117. 126Rubiaceae 138Ruiz . Fortun ato 120Russe l. F. 110Russians 82Rutaceae 138Rye 68, 102, 102Sabbat 69Sac red mushroom(s) 14,78.

79.1 47 . 159Sac red tree 78Sadhu 93Safrol 75Saguaro 39, 76, 77Sahagun. Fray Bernardino de

111, 144,145.147.159 . 170Salaman 142Salem 104Salta 120Salves 74Salvia 56, 68. 164-165Sa/via divinorum 14. 56, 70.

71, 164- 165, 164- 165. 184Salvinorin A 71, 165Salvinorin B 165Samadhi 189San Anton io 147San Bartolo Yautepec 174San Critobal de Las Casas 159San Isidro 54, 156-163San Luis Potosi 148San Pedro (cactus) 27. 59. 76,

166-169. 166-169Sanan co 134. 135Sanang o 58. 76Sandison. Ronald A. 190Sandoz 187Sans krit 68. 107, 108Santo Daime 139Saponines 69. 73, 77Satori 189Saxon times 95Scandinavia 88, 102Sceletium 56. 71Sceletiu m expansum 56Sceletiu m tortuosum 56. 70.

98Scifpusa~ovifens56

Scifpussp.56, 66, 67Screw Pine 52. 76

207

Scopi ne 73Scopolamine 67, 69, 71, 73,

75,79,86,87,107,141,183

Scopoletine 69, 75Scopolia 57Scopolia camiolica 57 ,74Scotch Rose 17Scyth ians 72, 94, 95, 97Sea Bean 98Seaweeds 17Secale cereale 102Sedatives 13Sedg es 65Sem illa de la Virgen 175Seminarcosis 75Seri Indians 77Serot onin{e) 22, 120, 159,

171,1 85, 187SertOrner, Friedri ch 20Sesquiterpene-Iactone 79Shaman {s) 8, 30, 62, 67, 69,

72,75, 82,82, 120,126,134, 139, 142 , 148, 149,156, 164, 168, 175,176,178

Shamanic medicine 76 , 117Shamanic significance 67, 71Shamanism 64, 85Shang-Ia 76, 77Shanin 53, 76Shans hi 27, 40, 76Sharon , Douglas 169She-to 78Scheelea 180Shen-Nung 94, 95, 95Shimbe Lake 168Shipibo Indians 125,126,

129, 130, 131Shiriana 177Shiva 10, 13,27,92, 93, 97,

108, 108, 109Shiva Lingam 107Shrubs 65Siberia 26, 64, 70, 71 , 82Siberian Lion's Tail 76Siberia n Motherwo rt 47 , 76,

98Sibundoy Valley 67, 74, 141,

142, 142Sibyl 91Sierra Madre Occidental 97,

147Sierra Madre Oriental 164Sida 57, 72, 73Sida acuta 57, 72, 98Sida rhombifolia 57, 72 , 98Sina loa 145Sinicuiche 27, 43, 63, 76 , 77Sinu culture 65Siona 126Siou x medicin e man 152Srnokehaouse 71Snail shell lime 67, 118, 119Snu ff{s) 27, 67, 68 , 73 , 75, 81,

116-119, 116,1 20-123,176-181

Sogamoza 140Solanace ous 71Solandra 72, 73Solandra brevicalyx 72Solandra guerrerensis 72 , 73Solanum maniacum 170Soma 62, 62, 70, 82-85, 97Somalata 84Sonora 77Soothsayer 122Sophora secundiflora 68 , 69 ,

74, 75, 152Sorcerers 71, 77 , 112,1 47Sorcerer's Cher ry 88Sorcery 73, 124Sotho 96South Africa 70,71 ,72, 76, 97South America 19, 26, 27 , 30,

62, 65,66, 76, 77 , 81,95,118,118, 134, 135, 140,162, 166, 172

South America n Indian 33

208

So utheast Asia 26, 73Southwest 26, 109Spain 157Spaniards 156 , 171Spanish cronicles 74, 144,

173Spathiphyllum canaefo lium

179Spec ies Plan tarum 16Spermatophyta 1'7Sphaeradenia 179Spruce, Richard 24 , 24 , 65,

117,1 19, 126,132,176Sri Lanka 77SI. Anth ony 103, 104SI. Anthony's fire 26, 68, 102-

105SI. Peter 166Stearns, Jo hn 105Stimulant 71, 73 , 75, 79Straw Flower 43, 76Stopharia cubensis 158 , 159Strychnos usambarensis 127Stup or 67, 141Succulents 65Sucuba 134Sui per iod 108Sun Fathe r 63, 106, 117 ,1 31,

133,1 76Sun God 9 1Su ng dynasty 107Surara 177Sushrata 95Sweet Calomel 76Sweet Flag 16, 26, 34, 76Switzerland 96Syr ian Rue 52 , 76, 77 , 124 ,

127, 129, 139Syphilis 170Ta Ma 72Tabaco del Diablo 47,78Tabernaem ontana 58 , 76Tabemaem ontana coffeoides

58, 76Tab emaemontana crassa 58,

76, 77Tabemaemontana dichotoma

76 , 77Tabemaemontana pandaca ­

qui 76Tabemaemontana sananho

58,1 34 , 135Tabema emontana spp . 58Tabern anth e 58, 112-115Tabemanthe iboga 29, 58, 70 ,

112- 115, 112- 115Tagetes 58 , 78, 79Tagetes lucida 58 , 78, 79Taglli 27 , 76Taino 116Taique 27, 42,76Tajik tr ibes men 78Takem oto 83Takini 44 , 78Tamu78Tanaecium 59Tana ecium noctumum 59, 72 ,

73Tanayin 110Tan nins 73Tanzan ia 70, 109Tantric prac tices 93, 97Taoist 94, 107Tarahu mara 8, 66, 69, 70, 71,

74 , 75 ,78,79, 144 , 147,149,150, 151

Tarascans 158Tatar 78Tatewari 62 , 148 , 150Taxine 19Telepathine 126, 127Teliostachya lanceolata var.

erispa 124Ten gu 85Teoch ichimeca ritual 147Teonanacatl 55 , 62, 71 , 78, .

81,156-163, 185 , 186,187

Teotlhuacan 172, 173

Tepantitla 173Tepecano Indians 99Tepescohuite 70Tesguino 109Tetrahydrocann abinol 184,

184Tetrahydroharm ine 77, 127Terahydroha rmol 127Tetrah ydroi soqu inolin e alka -

loids 67, 75, 77Tetrapteris 59 , 124-1 35Tetrapteris methystica 59, 66 ,

67 , 124Tetrapte ris mucronata 66, 124Teui le 67Teunam acatlth 156Teyhu intli 157Texas 74, 81 ,1 44, 144, 147Tha-na-sa 78Thallophyta 17THC 96, 98, 184, 184, 185Thailand 72Thebes 72, 97Theobroma 179Theocr itus 109Thiophene derivatives 79Th le-Peiakano 78Th orn App le 13,26, 31,41,

79, 106- 111, 109Thorn app le 78Thrace 102Tiahuanaco 120, 122Tibet 78, 97, 98Tlamanalco 63Tlapatl l 09Tl ililtzin 66, 174TMA14To-shka 78Toad (s) 14, 66Tobacco 10, 17, 29, 63, 64,

69,73,79, 97 ,108, 116 ,117, 120,1 24,1 27,130 ,134, 134,140,1 43,148,149,150, 153,1 65,172,1 82

Toe 27, 66Toe negra 124Toloache 27 , 41 , 69, 78, 79 ,

106-111Toloatzin 78, 109Tolohuaxihuitll 09Toltecs 144Tonga 66, 140Tongo 27Tonic 79Torna Loco 111Torres, C. Manuel 120Torres, Donna 123Totubj ansu sh 74Toxicon 10Trance, claivoyant 71Trance, vis ionary 75Trance {s) 77, 88Tranqu ilizers 13, 191Tree of Knowledge 88 , 122Trees 65Tribulus terrestris 127, 137Trichoce reus 59, 166-169Trichocereus pachanoi 59 ,76,

77, 81, 166-169, 166-169Trimethoxyphenylethylamine

75Trinidadian fern s 19Triptolemu s 81Triterpenes 71Tropine 73Tropane alkalo ids 69, 71, 73,

75, 79,141Tryptam ine de rivatives 67, 75 ,

159, 179, 185Tryptamine{s) 73, 81, 117 ,

120,1 29,1 38,1 71 ,1 80Tryptophane 117, 185Tschudi, Johann J. 140Tsuwiri 70Tubatulobal tr ibe 110Tukan o(an) Indians 67 , 124,

126,1 27, 131,133, 176,177

Tukche 106Tunas 145Tunja1 17,1 41Tupa 78Turbina 60, 170-175, 170­

175Turbina corymb osa 29, 60,

74 , 75 ,170-175, 170-1 75Turkest an 26, 78Turkestan Mint 46 , 78Turkoman tribesmen 78Turkey Red variety 138Turner 91Tumera diffusa 98Twiners 65Tzomp anqu ahui tl 68Ucuba 176U.S. Pharm acopoeia 99Ukrain e 104Umu 122Uncaria tomentosa 134, 135Unlao do Vegetal 139Unio mystica 189United Staates 13, 74 , 75, 99,

144,151 ,152, 154, 155 ,191, 193

Uppsa la 16, 189Urti caceae 93Usbek trib esmen 78Vaccinium oliginorum 71Vahiyinin 82Valdes 165Valdivia 72Varanasi 97Varuna 82Vasoconstrictor 69Vaupes 131Vaya (Vayu) 82 , 83Velada 14, 160Venezuela 64,68, 118, 119,

176,1 77Venti/ago viminalis 183Veracruz 99Vertine 77Viho-m ahse 176Vikings 95Villca 30, 34 , 66, 120, 122,

122Villca cam ayo 122Villca Coto 122Vine of the Soul 124Vines 65Vinho de Jurema 71Virg inia 95 , 110Virola (spp.) 29, 60, 73, 81,

138,1 76-1 81Virola calophylla 68, 176, 177 ,

177Virola calophyllo idea 68, 176,

177Virola cuspidata 176Virola elongata 68, 176, 178Virola loretensis 176, 178Virola pavonis 178Virola peruviana 176Virola rufula 176Virola sebifera 138, 176Virola surimanensis 176, 176,

178Virola theiodora 60, 68, 138,

176, 176, 177,178Vision-induci ng quality 73, 77Vis ion-seeking dance 74Vision-quest 75Vision s 14, 26, 27, 64, 67, 69,

71 ,75,77,79,1 09,110,122 , 122,148, 159

Voacanga 60, 78, 79Voacanga africana 78Voacanga brac teata 78Voacanga dregei 78Voacanga grandiflora 60, 78Voacanga spp. 60Voacangine 77 , 79Voccamine 79Waika 72, 118, 177, 178, 179,

181Walang ari Karn tawarra Jaka­

marra 182

Wapaq82Wara064Wasson, R. Gordon 82 , 159Water Lilies 50 , 66Walt isham 104Wavy Cap 55Weidmann, Fred 193Wes t Africa 77West Indies 66, 116West ern Hemipshere 28 , 29,

30Western society 62, 75 , 79,

81, 115Whale 82White Pine 17Wichi 120Wichowaka 66Wic huri 66Wichuriki 78Wild Dagga 72 , 98Willca 122Win e 69, 108Winemak ing 77Wir ikuta62, 148,148, 150,

151Wit ch(es) 89Witch 's Berry 88Witchcraft 71, 7289Wit ches market 166Witches' brews 68 , 69, 70, 71,

73,78, 79,86-91Witc hes' ointments 74Witches ' salves 74Wi toto 176, 178Wolf's Milk plant 169Wood Rose 78, 79Worl d tree 135Wysoccan 79, 110Xero phytes 65Xibalba 161Xingu 24Xixicamatic 174Xochipilli 63, 161Xtabentum 74, 173Xto hk'uh 109Yage 67, 124-135Yaje 30, 66, 69,124-135Yakee 68, 69Yama 114Yando 133Yanoma mo 177Yaqui Indians 27, 70, 71, 109,

150Yarinacocha 129Vas 140Yato 68Yauhtli 58, 78Yekwana 126, 176Yellow Henbae 44Yoc029Yogis 27Yogurt 97Yohimbine 73Yokut Indians 79, 110Yop 117Yopa 116Yopo 27, 30, 35, 65, 66, 116-

119Yucatan 162Yuma n tribes 110Yupa 118Yurimagua Indians 79, 162Yurupari ceremony 67, 129,

131Yun-Shih 78Zacatechichi 27, 78, 79Zaire 112Zambesi Valley 99Zame ye Mebege 112Zapotec 66, 75 , 173, 174,

174, 175Zaparo 129Tend -Avesta 94Zomia diphylla 98Zomia latifolia 98Zululand 76Zuni Indians (= Zuni) 79, 106,

110