Planning and Urban Development Program

Faculty of the Built Environment

PLAN 4132: Thesis Project

Carbon Neutral Cities:

The need for more sustainable development options

in response to climate change

Prepared By

Hamish Murray Wensley Sinclair

31 October 2008

 

 

Hamish Sinclair 3131288

Carbon Neutral Cities:

The need for more sustainable development options

in response to climate change

Hamish Murray Wensley Sinclair

3131288

 

 

 

 

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UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Faculty of the Built Environment

Individual Plagiarism Declaration

3131288  Sinclair  Hamish Murray Wensley 

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PLAN 4132  Thesis Project 

Course ID  Course Name 

2, 2008  Thesis Project 

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Abstract

With increasing consideration being given to the impact of human habitats and lifestyle

choices on greenhouse gas emissions and the climate change problem, more sustainable

approaches to planning and urban development provide an invaluable opportunity to curb

energy and resource usage. The significance of climate change has encouraged new thinking

which subverts conventional development strategies. It has also provided for best practice

approaches and innovative built form outcomes which encourage more sustainable futures. In

Australia, prominence has been given to the need for more sustainable urban development,

with its cities characterised by seemingly inexorable urban sprawl, inefficient land

subdivision, and the extent of high-cost, low quality housing development. This thesis

explores and evaluates the effectiveness of existing and proposed carbon neutral and zero

carbon development projects, and assesses whether they would be suitable for adaptation into

the Australian built environment. The central focus of the thesis is the identification of

characteristics of cutting-edge sustainable built form outcomes and illustration of their

integral role in pursuing a more sustainable future for Australia. A 'bigger picture' approach

to planning and development is required to realise the benefits of preparing Australia's built

environment for a carbon constrained future.

 

 

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Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Simon Pinnegar, for all the support and

guidance he has offered me throughout the compilation of my thesis. Your strong advice and

positive outlook have helped me move forward in leaps and bounds.

Kind thanks to all of my interviewees. I am most grateful for your time, and your insights

have greatly helped develop my understanding of climate change, sustainability and the built

environment.

Thanks to my friends, who have never doubted me and always given me their full support.

Thanks also to my family, who have supported me tremendously throughout the BPlan

degree, and endured endless anxiety-induced Monty Python monologues.

To the teachers and lecturers who have inspired and enlightened me over the years; you have

challenged, in no small part, Oscar Wilde’s assertion that “nothing that is worth knowing can

be taught”.

Mother, your awful habit of opening windows and doors with the air conditioner on has been

the driving force behind my thesis. For this, I thank you.

 

 

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Contents

1.  Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1  Problem Setting ................................................................................................... 1 1.2  Research Question and Objectives ..................................................................... 2 1.3  Rationale for thesis .............................................................................................. 4 1.4  Research Approach ............................................................................................. 5 

1.4.1 Literature review ....................................................................................................... 5 1.4.2 Qualitative research ................................................................................................. 6 

1.5  Research limitations ............................................................................................ 8 1.6  Key terms ............................................................................................................ 9 1.7  Structure of the thesis ....................................................................................... 10 

2. Background ................................................................................................. 11 2.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11 

2.1.1 What is climate change? ........................................................................................ 11 2.1.2 What are the environmental implications of climate change? ................................ 12 2.1.3 Why rethink built form outcomes and urban layout in response to climate change?12 

2.2  Carbon neutral development ............................................................................. 13 

3. Carbon Neutral Development Projects ...................................................... 19 3.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 19 3.2  Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development (BedZED), Sutton, England. ... 19 

3.2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................ 19 3.2.2 Achieving carbon neutrality .................................................................................... 21 3.2.3 Criticism .................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 23 

3.3  Dongtan Eco-City, Shanghai, China .................................................................. 25 3.3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................ 25 3.3.2 Achieving carbon neutrality .................................................................................... 26 3.3.3 Criticism .................................................................................................................. 26 3.3.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 27 

3.4  Zero – GHD’s proposed zero-carbon office building ......................................... 28 3.4.1 Overview ................................................................................................................ 28 3.4.2 Achieving carbon neutrality .................................................................................... 30 3.4.3 Criticism .................................................................................................................. 32 3.4.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 32 

3.5  Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 33 

4. Carbon neutral development in the Australian Built Environment ......... 35 4.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 35 4.2  The need to pursue Carbon neutrality in the Australian Built Environment ....... 36 4.3  Suitable scales for development initiatives ........................................................ 37 4.4  The need for Carbon neutrality despite existing pressures on urban areas ...... 40 4.5  Carbon neutral development and the existence of alternative options .............. 43 4.6  Difficulties with implementation ......................................................................... 45 4.7  Factors Encouraging pursuit of carbon neutral development outcomes ........... 48 

 

 

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5. Recommendations ...................................................................................... 51 5.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 51 5.2  Providing for carbon neutral development opportunities in the Australian planning

framework .......................................................................................................... 51 

6. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 57 6.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 57 6.2  Key findings ....................................................................................................... 57 6.3  Implications for future planning practice ............................................................ 60 6.4  Opportunities for further research ..................................................................... 61 6.5  Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 63 

7. References ................................................................................................... 65  

List of Tables Table 1.1 - Thesis interviewees .............................................................................................. 8 Table 3.1 - BedZED Efficiency Gains ................................................................................... 22 Table 3.2 - Ecological Footprints of BedZED residents (hectares per person, based on a four person household) ................................................................................................................ 23 Table 3.3 - Ecological footprints in China ............................................................................. 27 Table 3.4 - Quantifiable targets for Zero ............................................................................... 30 Table 3.5 - Zero energy generation summary ....................................................................... 31 Table 3.6 - Perceived sustainable development barriers ...................................................... 32 Table 4.1 - Development barriers for green buildings ........................................................... 48 Table 4.2 – Building owners perceived sustainable development advantages ..................... 49 Table 4.3 - Recognised benefits of green buildings .............................................................. 50

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 - Research approach ............................................................................................. 5 Figure 2.1 - The greenhouse effect ....................................................................................... 11 Figure 2.2 - Lifespan of built environment factors influencing energy consumption ............. 13 Figure 2.3 - Projected increases in residential and commercial building sector greenhouse gas emissions ....................................................................................................................... 15 Figure 2.4 - United States' building sector’s projected carbon dioxide emissions ................ 15 Figure 3.1 - BedZED Operation ............................................................................................ 20 Figure 3.2 - BedZED Maisonettes ......................................................................................... 21 Figure 3.3 - Combined Heat and Power Generator efficiency .............................................. 22 Figure 3.4 - The diminution of integrated design opportunities over time ............................. 29 Figure 3.5 - GHD's Zero - An innovative building concept .................................................... 30 Figure 5.1 - Mayoral influence over new building stock ........................................................ 54

 

 

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Appendices Appendix A ......................................................................................... Interview Question Template

Appendix B ....................................................................................... Research Consent Conditions

Appendix C ........................................................ Confirmation of Receipt of Additional Information

 

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1. Introduction

1.1 Problem Setting

Climate change has been recognised as one of the most pressing issues facing society

today. Urban areas have been identified as contributing significantly to, and being

particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change (Horne et. al, 2007). Climate

change is caused by the emission of carbon dioxide molecules into the Earth’s

atmosphere, associated with the burning of fossil fuels.

While attempts are being made to understand the most effective responses, many

measures to combat climate change trends are still in embryonic stages. It has been

acknowledged, however, that the use of energy in the future will differ greatly from

today. Australia’s high per-capita greenhouse gas emissions represent a significant

issue in challenges to meet sustainability needs and obligations for reducing fossil fuel

usage; as well as rendering the nation more susceptible to complications of adapting

to a carbon constrained future (Horne et. al, 2007). Social anthropologist and

sustainability advocate Herbert Girardet asserts that Australia, along with Europe,

America and Japan “with their unprecedented dependence on fossil fuel-based

technologies and processes, their complex technical infrastructure and their ever

growing consumerism, are currently the most unsustainable regions of the planet”

(2008; 18).

Half of all energy used in the developed world, is related to buildings, and thus,

ecological design and mixed land use planning policies that promote energy efficiency

are becoming increasingly important to the sustainable development of cities

(Jabareen, 2006). The significance of urban energy use, coupled with the need to

reduce overall greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, means that significant

changes to the type and nature of urban development in Australia, and worldwide, will

need to be made.

Carbon neutrality must be achieved in new development, as an en-masse transition to

green or renewable energy is not a long-term sustainable option in becoming a carbon

neutral society and addressing the climate change issue (Gleeson, 2008). Jabareen

(2006) reinforces this concept, highlighting the importance of measurable at-source

measures to address issues associated with carbon emissions. Jabareen maintains that

 

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a ‘best practice’ approach to achieving sustainability in new development must be

pursued, and that development informed by scientific discovery and technological and

engineering innovation is crucial for the creation of efficient urban centres.

Droege (2002) argues that simply introducing renewable energy to replace existing

fossil-fuels is not a sustainable response to the issue, and new heights of functionality

and efficiency must be achieved in planning and development outcomes, to provide

for housing and development needs in a carbon constrained future. This dissertation

will explore the need for carbon neutral and zero-carbon development options and

assess their feasibility and potential effectiveness in the Australian built environment.

1.2 Research Question and Objectives

This thesis aims to explore carbon neutral and low carbon development options as

important directions for the future of urban development in the Australian built

environment. It is anticipated that findings will suggest current environmental targets

in the built environment are insufficient in providing for long term sustainability

needs. Carbon neutral development initiatives should therefore be encouraged, with a

view to achieving increased levels of sustainability, or regenerative capacity, in

buildings in the future.

Climate change agendas have been recognised as a significant driver of change for

urban areas and will “demand substantial shifts in the planning, design, operation and

use of our Cities” (Pinnegar, et al., 2008; 14). The significant and widespread

potential impacts of climate change provide a strong opportunity to rethink the way in

which cities are planned, financed, designed, developed and managed. The issue has

resulted in a strong culture of risk aversion in development and a fundamental shift in

understandings of the built environment “from being a resource drain towards being

an energy generator, water and waste recycler and emissions mitigator” (Pinnegar, et

al., 2008; 15). It is perceived that the climate change issue will continue to encourage

a paradigm shift in the understanding of the role of sustainable development. It is

expected that changing expectations and values in the assessment, pricing and

utilisation of sustainable built form will reinforce the need for carbon neutrality to be

pursued in the built environment.

 

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It is expected that statutory and strategic planning measures will provide the greatest

impetus for widespread carbon neutral development, and that awaiting market forces

or developer-led initiatives to support carbon neutral development, will be a time-

consuming and costly approach to the issue. It is considered that society can only be

as energy efficient as the built environment in which it exists and functions; and due

to this, it is anticipated that carbon sequestration and carbon trading measures are

limited in their usefulness in addressing climate change. Reduced energy dependence

must therefore be achieved in innovative development projects, which aim to achieve

new heights in built form sustainability through challenging typical conventions of

planning and development. The context of established urban areas has been selected

as the most appropriate place for carbon neutral development explored in this thesis.

This is due to the significance of their role in modern society, and their comparatively

larger environmental impacts than rural areas. The pace and nature of change in urban

areas is also considered to lend itself to the exploration of new and design methods,

aimed at producing carbon neutral outcomes. As planning philosopher Brendan

Gleeson notes “it is cities with their voracious consumption habits that create the need

for resource extraction in the first place...it’s in cities where the world – and especially

Australia – must confront and account for the problem of environmental bankruptcy”

(2008; 5).

Fulfilling this objective will require the following:

• Examination of identified need for carbon neutral development options in Australia;

• Exploration of the theory and practice of carbon-neutral development;

• Critical assessment of proposed and existing carbon neutral development projects;

• Exploration of whether, and how such development approaches can be facilitated in

Australia;

• Consideration of factors in Australia which may act as an impetus, or adversely

affect a shift towards carbon neutral development; and

• Generation of insight into the personal and professional opinions of academics,

planners and/or developers working as forerunners in the field of sustainable

development.

A case study approach has been selected for the project to assist in developing an

understanding of the realisation, benefits and shortcomings of carbon neutral

 

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development outcomes. The comparison of different development approaches and

differing scale responses will allow for a critical evaluation of the application of

carbon neutral development principles. Such an approach allows for insight to be

gained into the complex and varied factors affecting the carbon neutral development

in the built environment, and is considered the most effective for meeting research

aims. Three different development projects have been selected as case studies for

critical analysis. Recommendation will be made as to the most appropriate direction

for sustainable development within Australia, and whether the goal of carbon neutral

cities should be pursued within it.

1.3 Rationale for thesis

It has been recognised that climate change is one of the most pressing issues presently

facing the world, and if not properly addressed, has the potential to rapidly and

extensively impact on urban areas. The Garnaut Review (2008) considers that the

issue has short, medium and long-term impacts, all of which greatly affect the Earth’s

capacity to produce goods and sustain human life. More immediate impacts of climate

change include erratic and violent storms, pressures on urban water supply and

stresses on agriculture. Great potential exists for the negation of the effects of climate

change through a reduction in the use of fossil fuels. This would correspondingly

result in a reduction in the amount of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide

molecules, released into the atmosphere, alleviating the Greenhouse Effect.

Urban planner and designer Yosef Jabareen (2006) notes that half of all energy used

in the United Kingdom, and in the developed world, is related to buildings. He asserts

that ecologically sustainable development and mixed land use planning policies that

promote energy efficiency are becoming increasingly important to the sustainable

development of cities. It is recognised that addressing climate change is not as simple

as switching to renewable energy or offsetting carbon emissions. Rather, providing an

opportunity for innovation in new development provides a more viable and effective

approach to addressing the problem. The significance of the issue is such that many of

the ‘best practice’ approaches of planning and development, previously considered

too risky or costly to pursue, can be seriously contemplated and applied to cities.

 

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Appleyard et al. (2007) highlight that to expect that technological advances will allow

for greater efficiency and sustainability in future homes is overly optimistic; and that

at-source initiatives are far more likely to have a greater impact on the energy needs,

and resulting carbon footprints of urban areas. This view is reinforced by Blakeley et

al. who argue that there needs to be “a shift from scepticism to vigorous action before

the science is conclusive or well-understood” (2006; 410).

Lehmann (2008; 409) holds that climate change is “among the most significant

environmental challenges facing our time”, and that “urban design and the

fundamental principles of how to shape our cities [have] barely featured in the

greenhouse debate”. Background Papers of the Garnaut Review cited the importance

of the built environment and low-energy technologies in cities, as major centres of

energy use. However, despite this, scarce consideration of planning and development

impacts exist in the final report, which predominantly explores industrial energy use

as the crux of human-induced climate change, and carbon trading as an effective

response.

1.4 Research Approach

The research Approach of the thesis is illustrated in Figure 1.1, below:

Figure 1.1 ‐ Research approach 

1.4.1 Literature review A literature review was undertaken in order to develop an understanding of the

climate change issue in cities, and existing and proposed urban development

responses aimed at addressing this. Data was sourced primarily from journal articles,

peer reviewed dissertations and strategic planning documents. The literature review

was used to shape and direct research, acknowledge popular and controversial

professional opinion and identify information gaps in current understanding and

discussion of the issue. Further literature searches were conducted throughout the

compilation of the thesis, in order to access the most up-to-date information on the

issue, and capitalise on the key sources and reading recommendations of interviewees.

 

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1.4.2 Qualitative research A number of in-depth interviews were undertaken with professionals working within

the built environment fields of sustainability and provision for carbon neutral

communities. The purpose of the interviews were to explore the complex and varied

nature of mechanisms affecting the issue, and develop an understanding of whether

professionals in the field perceive carbon neutral development to be a viable direction

for development in Australia. Interviews aimed to explore how carbon neutral

development options can be facilitated, and the benefits and difficulties in achieving

this.

A range of stakeholders had initially been selected for interviews, however academic

insights were considered most appropriate for the project, as it was anticipated that

they would have a broad perspective on the climate change issue, and be able to

provide insight into the role of carbon neutral development projects within it. It was

also considered that academic opinions would add value to the project, as their

opinions and reasoning would more likely have been informed by wider literature. It

was therefore considered that academics would be able to provide greater insight into,

and differing perspectives on, issues relating to carbon neutral development. It was

also considered that the differing academic backgrounds of interviewees would enrich

discussion. The emergence of different understandings of the climate change issue

within a broader societal context would further inform research findings and project

recommendations. It was also considered that a planner or architect, despite having a

strong understanding of sustainable development projects, may not have had an

objective understanding of the interrelation between development and climate change,

and the role of carbon neutral projects in addressing this.

Five interviews were undertaken for the project. A brief discussion on the background

and relevant experience of each interviewee is provided below.

Margaret Bates is a history graduate with a Masters in Environmental Science.

Margaret works as a research assistant at the Centre for Design at RMIT. Her work

has included development of the Eco-selector, a reference list of sustainable building

materials for builders. Recently she has been involved with the Carbon Neutral

Communities research project, of which, her branch aims to understand the

 

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behavioural side of the socio-technical relationship of technology use in green homes,

examining perverse effects of increased energy use in green buildings.

Professor Frank Fisher is an academic with degrees in Electrical Engineering,

Geography and Languages and a Masters in Environmental Science. He has lectured

on environmental science and systems thinking since 1985, and aims to convey an

understanding of how individuals’ expectations are developed, how ways of thinking

are categorised, and how a way of thinking that links categories together in a coherent

whole does not exist. His work revolves around the idea that society’s

misunderstanding of the implications of actions on the environment give rise to

significant environmental issues. He has published works on social philosophy and

environmental interactionism, and is the founder of the Understandascope, an

environmental research and demonstration unit and website. Professor Fisher won the

Inaugural Australian Environmental Educator of the Year award in 2007.

Adjunct Professor Alan Pears is an engineer and educator with approximately 30

years of experience in sustainable energy. His interests are in the dimension of

sustainability in urban development and his work has included the project

management of Australia’s first building insulation regulations. Recently, he has been

involved with the steering committee for the national implementation of 5 star energy

ratings in new buildings. Alan’s main teaching roles are in sustainable energy and

green cities. He has worked as an environmental consultant and has been involved

with program development, policy development and climate change energy policy

work. In 2003 he received the Centenary Medal for contribution to climate change

and environment policy, and in 2001, a Lifetime Achievement Award from the

Sustainable Energy Industry Association.

Dr Dominique Hes has a science degree in botany, Masters in engineering and a PhD

in architecture. She has been involved in research for 3 years, primarily in

regenerative design and positive development. Her research interests are in filling

knowledge gaps in sustainability practice and application in the built environment,

and encouraging movement beyond the current paradigm of sustainability which cities

function in, at present. She has undertaken research projects on sustainability in

residential and commercial projects, and her published works include ‘Ecologically

Sustainable Development: A Design Guide for Australian Government Buildings’.

 

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Associate Professor Ralph Horne has a combined Bachelor Degree in earth sciences

and human geography, a Masters in Environmental Resources and a PhD in

environmental assessment and climate change. He is currently Director of the RMIT

Centre for Design, and has recently been working on examining housing sustainability

at an urban scale. He has also been involved in projects examining transitioning

towards carbon neutral communities and re-imagining the Australian suburb through

sustainable urban development.

Interviewees for the project are listed in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 ‐ Thesis interviewees 

Name Organisation Position Area of experience Margaret Bates RMIT Centre for design Sustainable buildings

research officer/Project administrator

Behaviour change initiatives and interventions in transitioning towards carbon neutrality

Professor Frank Fisher

Swinburne University of Technology

Lecturer/Director of Centre for Integrated Design Systems

Systems thinking and energy use

Adjunct Professor Alan Pears

RMIT University/Sustainable Solutions

Senior lecturer/Environmental Consultant

Energy efficiency and retrofit expert

Doctor Dominique Hes

University of Melbourne Lecturer Building sustainability practice and application in the built environment

Associate Professor Ralph Horne

RMIT Centre for Design Director of Centre for Design

Design and planning research in sustainable cities. Environmental sustainability of housing on an urban scale

1.5 Research limitations

It is acknowledged that while the thesis aims to provide an holistic overview of the

development of carbon neutral communities and the need for them in the Australian

built environment, a precise understanding of climate change is still being developed.

Many identified approaches to reducing carbon emissions and progressing toward

goals of sustainability are based on reducing fossil fuel and energy consumption,

however quantifying savings and assessing cost/benefit attributes of different

approaches is difficult to gauge. The project has been prepared based on the belief that

carbon neutral communities will play an important role in curbing urban CO2

emissions. Provision should be made, correspondingly, for further exploration of

 

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carbon neutral development options, with a view to achieving a zero net energy

dependent built environment in the future.

1.6 Key terms

Carbon neutral – a term used to describe the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions to

such an extent that they do not contribute to the greenhouse effect. Achieving carbon

neutrality can involve offsetting emissions or replacing fossil-fuelled energy systems

with green energy. In the context of this thesis, carbon neutrality ideally involves a

reduction of emissions, and provision of energy through renewable systems,

minimising the need for sequestration measures, which have definite shortcomings,

discussed in Chapter 4.5.

Zero carbon – a term which describes development initiatives which produce no

carbon footprint. In such projects, all adverse operational emission impacts have been

eliminated through efficient design, on-site energy generation and integration of

development within sustainable urban frameworks.

Carbon emissions – a term describing the release of carbon dioxide molecules into the

Earth’s atmosphere, associated with the burning of fossil fuels.

Greenhouse gas – greenhouse gases are substances which, when released into the

Earth’s atmosphere, interfere with its ability to regulate the planet’s temperature,

trapping heat energy in the ozone layer and causing the gradual rise in the planet’s

average annual temperatures.

Ecological footprint – The physical area of land needed to support the lifestyle of an

individual, providing the goods they consume and absorbing their waste and carbon

dioxide outputs.

Carbon footprint – The physical area of land needed to absorb the carbon dioxide

produced by the actions of an individual.

Green building – A structure which is designed to operate to energy-efficient

guidelines, and has been developed with consideration of its impact on the local

environment. Key design aspects of such structures are typically the materials used,

energy and water needs, and health benefits of the development.

 

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1.7 Structure of the thesis

Chapter 1 introduces the thesis topic, providing a brief overview and outlining

research method, project approach and research shortcomings.

Chapter 2 provides background and context by summarising the climate change

debate and proposed strategic direction for built form responses to it.

Chapter 3 attempts to inform carbon neutral development opportunities in the

Australian built environment by assessing three case studies of differing scales and

designs.

Chapter 4 examines the prospects for realising carbon neutral development

opportunities in Australia, highlighting significant factors affecting their

implementation and development. These issues are primarily explored with regard to

qualitative research data.

Chapter 5 makes recommendations as to how barriers to carbon neutral development

can be overcome and suggests how carbon neutral development should be encouraged

and provided for in Australia.

Chapter 6 concludes the thesis.

 

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2. Background

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will explore the issues surrounding carbon neutral development and its

place within the climate change debate.

2.1.1 What is climate change? Climate change is the increase in the Earth's average temperature caused by the

release of carbon dioxide molecules and other greenhouse gases into the Earth’s

atmosphere. Traditionally, carbon dioxide molecules have helped to regulate

temperatures on Earth; however human activities have affected the natural processes

of CO2 molecules, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect, as

illustrated in Figure 2.1, illustrates the way in which the sun’s heat becomes trapped

in Earth’s atmosphere, resulting in an increase in average temperatures over time.

Forests and other ecosystems consume CO2 molecules through photosynthesis,

producing oxygen. Decisions affecting forests and the use of fossil fuels can directly

influence the amount of CO2 molecules released into the atmosphere.

Figure 2.1 ‐ The greenhouse effect 

(Greater London Authority, 2007)

 

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2.1.2 What are the environmental implications of climate change? Climate change has been identified as having a number of potentially catastrophic

implications, if measures are not implemented to regulate and reduce humankind's

impact on the environment. More immediate impacts include unpredictable and

extreme weather events and crop damage associated with prolonged drought. Coastal

settlements could also potentially be compromised if polar ice caps continue to melt,

causing sea levels to rise. Other concerns exist relating to the collapse of ecosystems,

as the temperatures affect the equilibrium between animals in the food chain, and the

roles of these creatures within it. The overarching concern of climate change is that it

will result in a disintegration of the Earth’s capacity to provide for, and support,

human life (Campanella, 2008).

2.1.3 Why rethink built form outcomes and urban layout in response to climate change?

Climate change requires greater consideration to be given to the layout and

environmental implications of urban development projects, in order to reduce energy

dependence and preserve atmospheric conditions capable of sustaining life.

It has been identified that urban areas are becoming increasingly popular, with over

half of the world’s population residing within them; a figure expected to reach 60%,

or 4.9 billion people, by 2030 (Girardet, 2008). The population density achieved by

urban areas means they have a large ecological footprint, but are also capable of

delivering necessary measures to reduce CO2 emissions that cannot be achieved in

sparsely populated rural areas. It is because of this significance, that ensuring growth

is properly managed, and sustainability targets are established and pursued, are so

crucial.

The built environment has been recognised as playing a significant role within cities,

in terms of energy usage and CO2 emissions. This role, coupled with the extent of the

climate change issue, and pressures on cities for new development, means that the

introduction of carbon neutral development projects can assist in pursuing long term

sustainability in the built environment (Hennessey, 2008).

It has been recognised that giving greater consideration to the strategic development

of urban areas, and “avoiding mistakes in urban design at early stages ... could

genuinely lead to more sustainable cities and less greenhouse gas emission”

 

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(Lehmann, 2008; 409). The form, in addition to the nature, of urban development can

contribute significantly to reducing the expulsion of CO2 into the atmosphere.

Figure 2.2 illustrates the lifespan of building stock and other factors, which affect

energy consumption. It is important to note, that planning and development of

projects which aim to be carbon neutral depend on, and have the ability to influence a

combination of these dynamics; reinforcing the importance of planning and

developing more ambitious sustainable projects.

Figure 2.2 ‐ Lifespan of built environment factors influencing energy consumption 

(Yudelson, 2008)

2.2 Carbon neutral development

Carbon neutral development is the construction of buildings which exhibit a high

degree of sustainability, and are capable of operating without producing carbon

dioxide emissions, typically over an annual cycle, or the lifetime of the project.

Carbon neutral developments are able to achieve high levels of efficiency due to

design for passive temperature regulation, high-quality insulation and production of

heat and energy from renewable sources. Where traditional development has focussed

primarily on delivering economic returns, acknowledgment of the severity of climate

change and the need for implementation of more sustainability measures to combat it,

 

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has provided an invaluable opportunity for new heights of efficiency and

sustainability to be pursued in the built environment (Lehmann, 2008). The viability

of carbon neutral development and the need for greater sustainability measures in new

projects has been the source of much academic discussion since the development of

the influential Beddington Zero Energy project in Sutton, England, explored further in

Chapter 3.2.

Where carbon neutral development has been recognised as being a “front and centre

priority” in dramatically reducing energy-use, few initiatives have been devised in

Australia, which aim to support carbon neutral development (Yudelson, 2008; 61).

Where innovative and sustainable communities are becoming increasingly encouraged

due to their importance in the climate change issue and the benefits they provide to

users, no provision has yet been made in Australia to support the development of such

schemes. In the United Kingdom, legislation requires that new buildings become

increasingly efficient over the next decade, with all new building stock to be carbon

neutral from 2016. In the United States of America, the American Institute of

Architects have adopted the guidelines of Architecture 2030’s ‘2030 challenge’;

aiming to reduce energy use in buildings by 90% in 2030, based on 2003 levels. It

also requires energy use reduction in new buildings of at least 50%, and will be

instrumental in promoting the design and construction of more resource-efficient

communities (Yudelson, 2008).

Yudelson highlights the crucial importance of reducing carbon dioxide emissions in

the building sector, noting that “energy efficient design and operation of buildings,

along with on-site renewable energy production, are a strong part of the answer”

(2008; 62). Projections from the Centre for International Economics, as illustrated in

Figure 2.3 convey the anticipated growth in energy use in the residential and

commercial buildings sectors, reinforcing the importance of introducing measures to

reduce such trends.

 

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Figure 2.3 ‐ Projected increases in residential and commercial building sector greenhouse gas emissions 

(Centre for International Economics, 2008)

Figure 2.4 illustrates, in the context of the United States’ built environment, the

significant increase of carbon emissions that can be expected from the built

environment if a ‘business as usual’ approach is maintained.

Figure 2.4 ‐ United States' building sector’s projected carbon dioxide emissions 

 

(Yudelson, 2008)

A major argument for the more widespread development of carbon-neutral projects is

that cities, as mass and often ad-hoc agglomerations of people, are inherently

unsustainable (Birkeland, 2008; Girardet, 2008). While the sheer extent of, and

unfamiliarity with, the climate change issue is considered to have affected our ability

to respond to it, many of the World’s cities are already demonstrating initiative by

implementing sustainable strategic directions for planning and urban development.

 

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Responding to the need for sustainability in the built environment requires

consideration as to the impacts of buildings, in terms of carbon emissions and

building materials used in their construction and operation. Based on this,

development projects must be reengineered to reduce their adverse environmental

impacts. The aspiration for carbon neutral development projects to have no net fossil

fuel requirements produces environmental benefits, as well as contributing to the

longevity of the project as an innovative and functional development. This is because

little energy is required to operate the building, and it is protected against anticipated

future adverse climate impacts, fuel and energy price rises (Pinnegar, et al., 2008). It

is anticipated that climate change, and shifting attitudes of sustainability are likely to

make sustainable development “the expected market norm rather than novelty”

(Pinnegar, et al., 2008; 40). It is recognised that sustainable urban development and

“promoting landmark ‘green’ commercial buildings is an important part of

spearheading transition to sustainability” (Pinnegar, et al., 2008; 40). Therefore, the

urban environment and employment of built form measures to address climate change

within them, provide an important opportunity to pioneer more sustainable

development options, maintaining functionality and financial viability in the carbon

constrained future of urban areas.

The Sustainable Sydney 2030 strategic plan has been developed around ten key areas,

which include striving to become a leading environmental performer and providing

for sustainable development, renewal and design in the city. With a large proportion

of Sydney’s anticipated growth, as outlined in the Sydney Metropolitan Scheme, to be

facilitated in existing urban areas, ensuring that urban renewal and development

initiatives are of a high-standard in the future is of great importance. Key

sustainability objectives of the plan include improving the environmental performance

of existing buildings and demonstrating leadership in environmental performance

through the City of Sydney’s operations and activities. Other objectives include the

promotion of design excellence in new development projects, and ensuring renewal

area make major contributions to the sustainability of the city (City of Sydney, 2008).

London’s climate change action plan ‘Action Today to Protect Tomorrow’, is geared

to provide for the reduction of carbon emissions in the city through collaborative

partnerships and employment of energy saving measures. A key focus of the plan is

 

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encouraging reduced emissions through technology policies which “support the

development of a range of low-carbon and high-efficiency technologies on an urgent

timescale” (Greater London Authority, 2007; 10). The plan identifies key areas for the

pursuit of sustainability in the city to include existing and new development, and

requires new buildings to demonstrate a 50% increase in energy and resource

efficiency in comparison to existing stock. The plan acknowledges that existing

buildings will be capable of making significant, affordable emissions reductions and

energy savings. Despite this, the need to pursue sustainability in new buildings is

justified, as “new buildings will be around for a many decades and will form an

increasing proportion of London’s building stock”, including up to one third of homes

in the UK by 2050” (Greater London Authority, 2007; 83).

As with Sydney and London, New York’s PlaNYC 2030 strategic planning document

identifies climate change and energy use as crucial factors affecting the city. The plan

considers that the significance of the climate change issue is such that comprehensive

adaptation measures must be drafted to address it. Objectives of the plan include the

adaptation of strategic planning processes to consider climate change impacts and

building code amendments, to be established prior to 2010. The plan acknowledges

that sustainable development plays a crucial role in supporting the drive for energy

efficiency, and that encouragement must be provided to assist in encouraging

sustainable development initiatives. The plan highlights that the renewable energy

market requires fostering and key areas for target incentives must be developed to

assist in pursuing sustainability (City of New York, 2008).

The Large Cities Climate Change Group, or the ‘C40 Cities’, is a group of Global

Cities which have recognised the need for, and agreed to work towards, reducing their

carbon emissions. One of the central focuses of member cities of the group is

identifying key action areas for pursuing increased efficiencies. Measures to realise

this include the formation of strategic partnerships and policies to exert pressure on

the marketplace. In addition to this, the encouragement of consideration of

sustainability options in development, and providing for the more widespread

implementation of climate-friendly [sic] technologies in cities, are recognised as

imperative to reducing the climate change impacts of the built environment (C40

Cities; 2008).

 

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Such strategic plans and initiatives highlight the way in which the climate change

issue has a spatial dimension and, correspondingly, a profound impact on typical

understandings of the roles and functions of urban areas. This reinforces the relevance

of planning and urban development initiatives in working towards addressing the

issue; which, although scarcely considered in previous decades, now features

prominently at the forefront of urban planning issues. Girardet recognises that “there

is overwhelming evidence that increased energy efficiency, combined heat and power

and new, sustainable energy systems can be utilised in our cities to mitigate climate

change” (2008; 192). His views align with those of the 1992 Earth Summit Director-

General Maurice Strong’s consideration that “the battle to ensure that our planet

remains a hospitable and sustainable home for the human species will be won or lost

in the major urban areas” (Strong, 1992). Where resistance to change is often

perceived to be one of the greatest barriers of progress in cities, the need to respond to

climate change in the built environment is providing a strong impetus for change.

 

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3. Carbon Neutral Development Projects

3.1 Introduction

This chapter aims to form an understanding of zero carbon and carbon neutral

development forms, as relevant to the Australian built environment. This is to be

achieved through the examination of three case studies of existing and proposed

development projects, and will assist in demonstrating precisely how carbon neutrality

can, and has been achieved in the built environment.

The case studies will be used to explore and highlight some of the difficulties and

issues associated with carbon neutral development on individual building, small

neighbourhood and citywide scales. The planning implications and opportunities

presented by such issues will be discussed, and further considered in

recommendations made for carbon neutral development in Chapter 5. The

effectiveness of the projects in achieving carbon neutrality will be assessed, and their

appropriateness for the Australian built environment will be further explored in

Chapter 4.

3.2 Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development (BedZED), Sutton, England.

3.2.1 Overview Located in London’s Borough of Sutton, approximately 15 kilometres south of the

city’s centre, BedZED is a zero net energy development, comprising of 82

conventional maisonettes and a further 18 live-work units. The project includes on-

site facilities and communal services which aim reduce vehicle dependence, and

encourage work from home (Somerhoff, 2003). BedZED is situated in a position that

capitalises on existing transport infrastructure and incorporates a number of measures

which promote sustainability, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.

 

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Figure 3.1 ‐ BedZED Operation 

(Peabody, 2006)

Developed in 2002, the BedZED project is a zero-carbon community that was a joint

venture between the Peabody Trust, the United Kingdom’s largest affordable housing

provider, the Bioregional Development Group, ARUP and Bill Dunster Architects

(Hart, 2007). The project aimed to deliver cost-effective, carbon-neutral housing that

was capable of demonstrating how new and existing technologies can be utilised to

produce development outcomes that may seem ambitious, unrealistic, or dependent on

anticipated technological advances. Jennings and Newman (2008) note that the project

not only realised its target of zero net carbon emissions, but also maintained

protection of the city’s greenbelt. Its development involved recycling of local

materials and illustrated that a unique and innovative project can operate successfully

on a brownfield site without compromising the functionality or appeal of the finished

product. The project was developed and constructed at a cost of £15 million, having

run approximately 30% over budget (Bioregional, 2002). The unique character of

BedZED and the way in which it utilises passive heating from the sun are illustrated

in Figure 3.2.

 

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Figure 3.2 ‐ BedZED Maisonettes 

(Greater London Authority, 2007)

The development demonstrates that carbon neutral development can be realised on a

small neighbourhood level, and that home/work units are a successful option for

reducing vehicle dependence. The development boasts an appropriate density to

support provision of local infrastructure, and although this increases the project costs,

it also allows for an efficient delivery of heat and energy needs to homes, which

would be more difficult to achieve on an individual scale.

3.2.2 Achieving carbon neutrality BedZED uses a variety of methods to achieve zero net carbon emissions. These

include:

• Building situation and orientation to capitalise on passive solar energy for

heating;

 

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• Maximisation of passive lighting and heat through skylights, triple glazed

windows and quadruple-glazed sunroom façade;

• High quality floor, wall and roof insulation to minimise thermal conductivity;

• Use of photovoltaic cells on rooftops and integrated into double-glazed sealed

windows and tilted skylight units on the south-facing façade; and

• Use of an on-site wood offcut-fuelled combined heat and power generator

(Corbey, 2005; Peabody, 2006). The degree of synergy achieved by such a

system is illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 ‐ Combined Heat and Power Generator efficiency 

(Girardet, 2008)

Energy saving results based on BedZED’s first year of occupation are illustrated in

Table 3.1, below.

Table 3.1 ‐ BedZED Efficiency Gains 

Energy Demand Area Monitored Reduction Target Reduction Space Heating 88% 90% Hot Water 57% 33% Electricity 25% 33% Mains Water 50% 33% Fossil Fuel Car Mileage 65% 50%

(Lazarus, 2003)

3.2.3 Criticism While BedZED exemplifies the kind of innovative thinking and bold measures to

begin addressing climate change in the built environment, it has garnered criticism for

a number of reasons. One of the major criticisms of the project was that 80% of the

 

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sustainability measures and benefits could have been realised at 20% of the cost

(Williams, 2005). It is, however, important to note that as a unique and original

pioneer project, the cost of technologies, many of which were created specifically for

the project, would be higher than had they previously existed, or catered for a larger

market.

Despite having won numerous sustainability and design awards, issues have arisen

relating to the functionality of BedZED. Problems with the project include excessive

roof runoff, which is deemed ‘contaminated’ and unable to be reused by Thames

water. Sound insulation issues are further exacerbated by ventilation cowlings. The

combined heat and power generator has monthly costs associated with ash wastage

disposal, and issues exist with the limited amount of energy generated by solar panels

(Williams, 2005). Other criticisms include the necessary lifestyle cutbacks required by

residents to achieve carbon neutrality. Table 3.2 below, indicates the effectiveness of

BedZED in reducing the carbon footprint of its residents, and the extent to which, this

depends on their lifestyle choices.

Table 3.2 ‐ Ecological Footprints of BedZED residents (hectares per person, based on a four person household) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 (Jennings and Newman, 2008)

3.2.4 Conclusion Despite some technological shortcomings, BedZED provides a valuable example of

how carbon neutral cities can be affordable, appealing and realistically achieved, at

 

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present, in an existing urban environment. These factors, coupled with the relative

affordability of the project, and its ability to support an entire community, are

important in assessing its long-term value in pursuing more sustainable development

options in the built environment.

BedZED demonstrates that zero carbon development projects are capable of

functioning within an existing urban context and are capable of supporting densities to

address growth targets in existing urban areas; the project’s six-block core achieving a

density of 309 residents per hectare (Bioregional, 2002). While the BedZED

community is a zero carbon project, the culture of sustainability it encourages depends

significantly on the availability of public transport options to residents of the

community. These factors suggest that planning provision for such carbon neutral

developments with public transport connectivity, and in proximity to transport nodes,

provide a valuable opportunity to simultaneously meet density targets and reduce

vehicular dependence. Both of these factors, as with climate change, are prevalent

issues confronting urban areas, and greatly affect the functionality and environmental

sensitivity of cities.

As a collaborative pilot project, BedZED received significant amounts of funding,

particularly from the United Kingdom’s affordable housing supplier the Peabody

Trust. Future carbon neutral and zero carbon projects, however, may not have the

same funding and skill-sets available for the realisation of objectives. Planning

initiatives must therefore aim to provide incentive and support for further carbon

neutral development projects, and draw best-practice initiatives from corporate social

responsibility realms, into those of mainstream planning and urban development.

Another planning consideration is that of the physical necessities of carbon neutral

development projects. Consideration must be given to how projects, such as BedZED,

might be facilitated in urban heritage precincts, for instance. Such areas severely

restricted by planning controls relating to visual amenity and building character exist.

 

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3.3 Dongtan Eco-City, Shanghai, China

3.3.1 Overview Dongtan is an Eco-City planned for construction on the Chinese island of Chongming,

located at the mouth of the Yangtze River. The island, formed from sedimentary

runoff from the river, is approximately 100 km long and 17 km wide.

The city is expected to cover an 86 square kilometre area, and eventually house up to

half a million residents by 2040/50. Stage one development is expected to house up to

25,000 residents, in time for the Shanghai 2010 World Expo. The initial stage of the

project is anticipated to cost £1.5 billion, and is intended to fulfil the role of a model

city for future urban design (Girardet, 2006).

The city is expected to use 90% less energy than existing Chinese cities. Other targets

for the project compared to a ‘business as usual’ scenario include:

• Zero carbon emissions;

• 60% reduction in ecological footprint;

• 66% reduction in energy demand;

• 40% of energy provision from biofuels; and

• 100% renewable energy for in-use buildings and on-site transport

Dongtan will also recover, recycle and reuse 90% of all waste in the city, with an aim

of eventually becoming a zero waste city (Normile, 2008; Green Places, 2008).

Dongtan illustrates the viability of a citywide approach to carbon neutral

development. The project highlights the way in which planning large urban areas can

allow for the elimination of potential complications in existing urban areas, such as

the configuration of development within existing vehicular-dependent suburbs.

Developing at such a scale can allow for the elimination of complications relating to

incompatibility of landuses, potential conflicts arising from solar and wind energy

generators, and dependence on proximity to transport nodes. Issues associated with

such a project, however, include the time required to produce a finished product of

such a scale and the sourcing of low-impact materials for such a large-scale project.

The fact that the city is being developed, rather than forming as a result of

 

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demographic trends, is another important factor for consideration and observation;

and will help develop a greater understanding of whether such forms of carbon neutral

development are a viable direction for urban areas, in a carbon constrained future.

3.3.2 Achieving carbon neutrality Dongtan’s goal of being a model eco-city will be realised through a number of means.

These include:

• Installation of solar cell panels on building rooftops;

• Use of large wind turbines outside of the city, and smaller turbines in work

and residential areas;

• Biomass energy production using organic waste materials sourced from

Dongtan residences and local farms;

• Rainwater capturing canals and reservoirs; and

• Urban design that eliminates private vehicle need and provides workplaces

easily accessible by pedestrian, bicycle or public transport options.

Petrol and diesel vehicles will not be permitted in Dongtan, which will instead, cater

for electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. A double-piping system will also provide

drinking water and allow for reuse of wastewater for irrigation and toilet water.

Buildings will be properly insulated, rely on low-energy lighting and appliances, and

will be developed with ‘green roofs’. Green roofs will improve water filtration and

assist in regulating temperatures, as well as providing an outlet for irrigation and

waste disposal (Green Places, 2008; Normile, 2008; Wagner, 2008).

3.3.3 Criticism Concern exists that the concept of Dongtan trivialises the seriousness of the climate

change issue, and may create a perception of having resolved the issue, rather than

fulfilling the role of an important, but early step towards it. Critics note that a carbon

neutral city of half a million will not adequately compensate for the carbon footprint

of China’s population of approximately 1.3 billion. As a rapidly modernising society,

China has become increasingly dependent on coal power and private vehicles, with

car ownership expected to exceed the United States of America by 2025 (Green

 

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Futures, 2006). Concern similarly exists that this will undermine the environmental

achievements made by the Eco-City.

Other potential issues include concern that the bridge and tunnel connecting

Chongming Island to mainland China will make the island more accessible, and its

remainder more likely to undergo large-scale redevelopment. The project developer

ARUP has been unable to constrain development that occurs on parts of the island

other than the Dongtan project site. The ultimate challenge for Dongtan as a self-

sufficient eco-city will be how it functions in its wider context (Green Futures, 2006).

Other concerns relate to the city becoming a weekend holiday retreat for Shanghai’s

wealthy, and that if people move to the city from rural areas, they will increase their

carbon footprint, undermining Dongtan’s role as an zero carbon Eco-City. This is

illustrated in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 ‐ Ecological footprints in China 

Resident Ecological Footprint (ha/pax) Dongtan Typical 2.2 Dongtan Ideal ≤ 2.0 Rural Chinese 1.6 Ideal Per Capita goal 1.8

(Adapted from Pearce, 2006)

3.3.4 Conclusion With over half of the world’s population living in urban areas (Girardet, 2008), a

trend displaying no evidence of decline, a blueprint for new urban development which

promotes high-efficiency and small carbon-footprint will provide valuable insight into

potential development approaches for urbanised areas in the future. While Dongtan

cannot be expected to single-handedly negate the climate change impacts of China’s

built environment, it will provide an invaluable model of how to build an

unconventional, functional, self-contained sustainable city.

The project demonstrates that the opportunity for carbon neutral development does

not exist exclusively in existing urban areas, and that principles of sustainability can

be provide a central focus for the development of an entire city. It similarly highlights

that consideration should be given to planning controls and typical understandings of

urban development; if cities are to be restructured around walkable neighbourhoods

and public transport options, understandings must be developed of the impacts of this

on safety, visual amenity, landuse distributions and urban functionality. Planning

 

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instruments are geared to provide for the functional growth and management of cities;

therefore, consideration must be given to the potential of original and experimental

forms of urban development to undermine, or be hampered by typically accepted

planning controls.

Other planning implications of such an ambitious project include how to ensure the

longevity of Dongtan itself. While self-sufficient buildings of a high-standard of

design are likely to have great individual lifespans, what measures will need to be

taken to ensure the city continues to thrive must be anticipated. The application of

planning principles, can potentially render developments functionally obsolete over

time, or less successful when emulated in different locations. An example of this

might be the Radburn Principle, which although was pioneered successfully in the

New Jersey community in 1929, was replicated unsuccessfully elsewhere, including

New South Wales public housing estates (Housing New South Wales, 1999).

Anticipating how pioneering new methods of citywide urban development can have

potential problematic repercussions, must therefore, be given consideration.

3.4 Zero – GHD’s proposed zero-carbon office building

3.4.1 Overview In 2007, engineering company GHD unveiled a design concept for a zero-energy

building entitled ‘Zero’. The commercial building has been designed for an existing

urban area, the corner of Swan Street and Punt Road, Melbourne.

Through developing the project around current worldwide best-practice building

approaches, a structure capable of achieving zero net annual external power

consumption was acheived. Chief architect on the project, Martin Tuktens noted the

“buildings contribute substantially to the world’s emissions, so we set out to design a

building that generates zero net operating CO2 emissions” (GHD, 2007). He noted

that this was to be achieved through “employment of every possible means of on-site

renewable energy generation”. Initial cost studies, including energy generation and

data costs, suggest that the project payback period would be approximately 25-30

years, without any carbon taxes benefits.

It is important to note, however, that the building design is a concept in achieving

zero-carbon built form, and has not been commissioned for construction. Despite this,

 

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it does illustrate that zero carbon commercial buildings can be designed using existing

technologies in a way that is financially viable.

The design of the building involved an integrated approach, with input from a number

of different disciplines. Such a development approach is recognised by Yudelson

(2008) as being essential in reducing the cost of green buildings, and providing

opportunities for single systems to carry out multiple tasks; where traditional

development approaches may be able to optimise outputs for individual systems, the

functioning of the building as a whole may be “pessimised” (Yudelson 2008; 50).

Yudelson asserts that the opportunities for integrated design decline over time, and

can reduce the amount of creative solutions that can be applied to the design, as

illustrated in Figure 3.4

Figure 3.4 ‐ The diminution of integrated design opportunities over time 

 

(Yudelson, 2008)

In addition to zero net carbon emissions Zero aims to meet the targets illustrated in

Table 3.4, overleaf. 

 

 

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Table 3.4 ‐ Quantifiable targets for Zero 

Feature Target Electrical Power Consumption 70 kWh / m2 annum CO2 Emissions 0 kg CO2 / m2 Water Consumption 100 l / m2 / annum Gas Consumption 0.2 GJ / m2

(GHD, 2007)

3.4.2 Achieving carbon neutrality Zero has been designed to achieve zero net carbon use predominantly through use of

amorphous photovoltaic cells, which would line the northern-facade of the building.

In addition to this, conventional solar power panels, which are capable of yielding 65-

70% greater energy, would line the roof of the structure. Each level of the building

has a 4 metre high facade, of which, 1.3 metres would be dedicated to amorphous

cells, and 0.9 to conventional solar cells.

A series of roof-mounted 30kW and 6kW vertical turbines have been designed to

provide the necessary power to make the structure capable of achieving zero net

energy use.

Figure 3.5 illustrates Zero’s photovoltaic-clad facade and the way in which vertical

wind turbines would be vertically stacked at the roof to maximise wind drive.

Figure 3.5 ‐ GHD's Zero ‐ An innovative building concept 

(GHD, 2007)

 

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Combined heat and power solar systems have been designed to generate electricity

and hot water for the building. The system involves a series of glass mirrors, which

track the sun’s movement, reflecting light onto a receiver lined with solar cells,

enabling the system to produce greater energy than through conventional solar

concentration. It is anticipated Zero’s combined heat and power solar system would

produce an annual electrical output of 8MWh, and heat output of 38MWh (GHD,

2007).

The total electrical requirements of Zero, and the way in which it systems will meet

demand are illustrated in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 ‐ Zero energy generation summary 

Technology Annual kWh 30kW Wind Turbines (Qty 22) 1,672,000 6kW Wind Turbines (Qty 48) 672,000 Building Roof PVs at a 27 degree slope 246,635 Station Roof PVs at a 27 degree slope 805,338 Facade Amorpheous PVs on 1.6m per floor 151,820 Facade Solid PVs over core and 0.6m per floor 327,568 Combined Heat and Power Systems 90,000 Required Annual Energy (kWh) 3,900,540 Total Annual Energy Generation (kWh) 3,965,361 Excess Annual Energy Generation (kWh) 64,821

(GHD, 2007)

In addition to these measures, the building has been designed to use efficient lighting

systems, chilled beams for low-energy temperature moderation and algae-filled

photobioreactors. These devices remove carbon dioxide by passing gas through an

algae colony, which feed on it, and can be harvested to produce biodiesel and ethanol.

Zero highlights the way in which large office buildings can achieve carbon neutral

outcomes, and illustrates that the issue of sustainability in a carbon constrained future,

and the need for responses to it, extend beyond places of residence. The project also

lends itself to some adaptability of proposed measures to residential developments of

similar high-density scales. The plan reinforces that existing technologies can be

utilised to produce a financially viable zero-net-energy structure. It also suggests that,

theoretically, the purpose and functionality of the development would not be

compromised by its efficient design and the employment of energy generation

measures within it.

 

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3.4.3 Criticism Despite demonstrating initiative in leading global efforts to develop sustainable

commercial buildings, it is important to note the limitations of GHD’s Zero as a

concept plan. Where the plan discusses the technologies for the building and the

degrees of efficiency achieved by these, issues with sourcing materials and

technologies, and ensuring their optimal functioning, could potentially prove difficult,

as was the case with BedZED. Yudelson (2008) argues that an important part of

sustainability in buildings exists not only in their energy use, but also utilising

salvaged or reclaimed materials, high recycled content materials and agricultural

products. Pears (2008) considers one of the main barriers to developing sustainable

buildings to be a perception of high costs associated with development. Argument

exists that the costs of sustainable development are not as great as perceived to be

(2008, pers. comm. 7 October; Yudelson 2008). The value of the design in

demonstrating the affordability of achieving carbon neutral development outcomes,

however, is largely undermined by its neglect to mention, in dollar terms, the

anticipated costs associated with implementation of measures required to achieve zero

net energy use.

A study undertaken of 872 building owners and developers in the United States of

America revealed perceived barriers to sustainable development, as illustrated in

Table 3.6. The largely conceptual nature of Zero, does not address any of these

barriers to any significant extent.

Table 3.6 ‐ Perceived sustainable development barriers 

Perceived Barrier Percent of participants who perceived this to be an issue

Hard to justify the greater initial cost of green building

57%

Green buildings added significantly to the initial cost

56%

Market is not willing to pay a premium for green buildings

52%

Market is not comfortable with new ideas or new technologies

30%

(Cassidy, 2006)

3.4.4 Conclusion GHD’s Zero illustrates the kind of innovative and proactive approach required to

assist in combating climate change through planning and urban development. Hes

(2008, pers. comm. 13 October) suggests the design, and technologies it utilises, the

 

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algae-CO2 converter in particular, demonstrates the kind forward-thinking required

for new development; “rather than ‘how can we make things just a little bit better’, or

how can we do carbon neutral; we need to think at a much bigger level”. The Garnaut

Review planning background paper (2008a; 10) acknowledges a significant barrier to

the adoption of sustainable development technologies to be “The lack of readily

available information for engineers, architects and builders”. Zero illustrates the way

in which zero-net carbon built form outcomes can be pursued in the built

environment, at the present time, in such a way that is financially viable, and

aesthetically appealing.

Planning considerations for such projects include whether the visual and height

impacts of vertically stacked wind turbines on a proposed development may have

precedence over consideration of their benefits in a development assessment process.

Similarly, consideration would need to be given to the impacts of a development with

no parking options on the surrounding area, and whether existing transport

infrastructure and services could provide for the required demand of the project. As

with BedZED, however, it does illustrate how carbon neutral development can be

applied to an existing urban area and capitalise on the existence of local infrastructure

to support sustainability targets.

Another issue associated with the office building scale is the nature of inner-urban

development and the need to safeguard energy generation methods. Consideration

would have to be given to the potential impacts of future urban development on

existing zero-energy buildings, and how solar access and wind generation

opportunities, may be affected by development in close proximity. Planning measures,

must therefore seek to provide some medium-long term assurance of the protection of

sustainability measures employed in carbon neutral development projects.

3.5 Conclusion

Undertaking the case studies has assisted in identifying the core issues relating to

carbon neutral development in the built environment.

The case studies both illustrate the realisation of carbon neutrality in buildings, while

demonstrating that technologies must be shaped further for more effective, affordable

and sustainable development outcomes. Other identified issues include the

 

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equilibrium between factors encouraging and hampering change, the difficulties of

harnessing renewable energies and the relative ease with which energy can be wasted.

The assessment of such issues is important in developing a greater understanding of

the pursuit of carbon neutral development outcomes in the built environment, and

gives a greater degree of currency and realism to the planning for the intricacies and

implications associated with new, innovative development approaches.

These factors have formed the basis of discussion with project interviewees, which

are explored further in Chapter 4.

 

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4. Carbon neutral development in the Australian Built Environment

4.1 Introduction

Primary qualitative research for the project took the form of several semi-structured

interviews, which were undertaken to develop a greater understanding of carbon

neutral development and climate change, as influencing professionals working and

researching in the sustainable development field. This chapter draws primarily on

research findings and draws comparisons and contrasts between the perspectives of

interviewees. The opinions of other academics who have published works on the

appropriateness of sustainable development approaches in response to climate change

are also explored.

This chapter is structured around six key themes which emerged in interviews, and

aims to develop an understanding of the way in which they affect the widespread

adoption of carbon neutral development approaches in the built environment. These

themes were:

• The need to pursue carbon neutrality in the built environment;

• Suitable scales for development responses;

• The importance of carbon neutral development responses despite other

pressures on urban areas;

• Carbon neutral development and alternative means of pursuing carbon

neutrality;

• Difficulties of achieving carbon neutrality in the built environment; and

• Key benefits associated with carbon neutral development.

Exploration of these themes assisted in developing an informed understanding of

factors influencing the pursuit of carbon neutrality in the built environment.

 

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4.2 The need to pursue Carbon neutrality in the Australian Built Environment

As a nation largely dependent on the availability of energy, Australia is

correspondingly susceptible to climate change and other impacts associated with a

carbon constrained future. All cities, particularly those of modernised countries such

as Australia, have a strong need for energy for their day-to-day operation. As a result

of this, the means by which this energy is produced, and the demand for it within the

built environment, are factors which require consideration. Girardet suggests that the

issue should be embraced in planning and development, and that the “tools,

techniques and partnerships to creating liveable cities can also be central creating

sustainable relationships between people and the planet” (2008; 4).

It is not anticipated that a handful of carbon neutral development projects will

significantly alter climate change impacts in Australia. However, providing the

opportunity for such projects to be pioneered should be encouraged, particularly with

a view supporting more widespread and environmentally ambitious development in

the future. This will provide a significant opportunity to reshape Australia’s urban

areas, and achieve new heights of efficiency and functionality within them.

Interviewee Margaret Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) acknowledges the

need for carbon neutral projects to be developed in the Australian built environment,

highlighting the role of planning and developing in providing for necessary short and

long term infrastructure, built form and transport change. Bates argues that providing

greater opportunities for carbon neutral development projects is important, and can

initiate a ‘snowball effect’, whereby construction of each carbon neutral development

can act as an impetus for the next; “every action or case study that you can pool ... can

help push towards creating a tipping point when you can get those rapid changes all

happening in concert that will get those really good outcomes environmentally”

(2008, pers. comm. 25 September).

Fisher (2008, pers. comm. 3 October) reinforces this idea, highlighting that “the more

fertile ground you can give people for their thinking, the more examples you can

produce that people can engage with, the better”. He goes on to note that although

some uncertainty does exist as to how to approach carbon neutral urban development,

that it is important that it is pursued, and that “it’s all very well to make development

 

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and establish theories, but if you can’t actually put in front of people so they can see,

so they can literally grasp the reality of things, they are less likely to engage”.

Project interviewee Dr Dominique Hes cited the lifespan of development outcomes as

a strong reason for moving beyond the current sustainability paradigm. She argues

that planning and development need to move away from “trying to build slightly

better bad buildings, rather than building good buildings”, and that “moving toward

carbon neutrality is taking the thinking further” (2008, pers. comm. 13 October).

Interviewee Alan Pears similarly considers a push for more sustainable and innovative

development to be crucial, and that “every new investment we make needs to be an

asset in a low-carbon economy, rather than a liability” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October).

Ralph Horne (2008, pers. comm. 24 October) argues that the anticipated effects of

fossil fuel shortages and rising fuel and energy prices in the future mean that

sustainability should be pursued in the built environment, addressing the “need to be

carbon neutral one day”. He believes there to be “such a weight of responsibility on

reducing anthropocentric greenhouse gas emissions that carbon neutrality has to be a

goal, [and] seriously viewed by all the stakeholders in the built environment as a

meaningful endpoint over the next fifty or so years”.

The consensus between interviewees on the need to encourage higher levels of

sustainability in the built environment, with a view to becoming carbon neutral, or

regenerative, demonstrates the importance supporting carbon neutral development

initiatives and preparing urban areas for a carbon constrained future.

4.3 Suitable scales for development initiatives

The scale of a carbon neutral development approaches is an important factor in

consideration of their appropriateness within the future urban context of Australia. In

providing for carbon neutral development projects, it is important to understand the

benefits and limitations associated with different scale projects.

Larger-scale development projects have a number of inherent benefits; such

development initiatives allow for a ‘clean-slate’ approach to urban development,

providing scope for the pioneering and integration of new and innovative planning

and design concepts; rather than development projects having to conform to

 

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requirements of an existing, functioning urban context. A crucial benefit for the

construction of large scale carbon neutral communities is that significant carbon

footprint reductions can be made for large numbers of people. In addition to this,

economies of scale can be achieved in the mass production of necessary materials and

technologies for the development of an entire city.

Disadvantages of city-wide approaches to carbon neutral development include the

capital costs associated with their design and development, which has restricted them

to the economies of China and the United Arab Emirates so far. Other concern exists

that such projects will become ‘boutique-elite’ cities for the wealthy, thus

undermining their role as a means to pursuing a sustainable future (Bates, 2008, pers.

comm. 25 September; Pears 2008, pers. comm. 7 October). Another issue associated

with such ambitious projects is the time required to develop them; the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) suggests that if significant

climate change is to be avoided, greenhouse gas emissions should have already

peaked. If this is the case, it is unlikely that the necessary observations will be made,

and lessons learnt from city-wide development initiatives, to provide for their more

widespread development, globally. The initial development stages of Dongtan and

UAE’s MASDAR carbon neutral cities, for instance, are expected to be completed

over the next four years. Combined, it is anticipated the initial stage developments

will provide for zero-carbon lifestyles for 100,000 people by this time. During the

same period, however, it is anticipated that Sydney alone will grow by 228,320 people

(Salt, 2008), highlighting the limitations of such development, and the need for more

readily available and easily implementable carbon neutral development options.

At a masterplanned community scale, one important benefit associated with carbon

neutral development is that community infrastructure can be capitalised on. Where

combined heat and power generators may not be financially or operationally viable on

an individual-dwelling-scale, in a masterplanned community they are able to support a

large number of people. Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) notes that

masterplanned communities are flexible and provide opportunities for integrated

systems that are able to be shared by inhabitants, where site-specific responses may be

unsuitable. In the instance of a community powered by photovoltaic cells “There will

be some roofs in that community ... where you won’t necessarily get optimal

 

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performance from your solar cells. On the other hand, there will be shared roofs or

pavilions in the park, or a whole bunch of other buildings in the community that have

got fantastic solar access and plenty of space on the roof ... some buildings would be

able to be self-sufficient for energy, whereas others would need to draw energy from

other buildings around, to get an optimum”.

Disadvantages with small neighbourhood scale development projects include

difficulties associated with the scale include delivery of infrastructure. Pears (2008,

pers. comm. 7 October) notes that “where you are distributing energy or things around

facilities, you can have big losses” and that there is often a high cost associated with

providing for the necessary systems to reduce energy use. Williams (2005) notes in

the case of BedZED, that where energy systems fail, or do not produce the anticipated

results, the entire community is affected.

A number of benefits exist for site-specific development responses; Pears (2008, pers.

comm. 7 October) notes that achieving carbon neutrality in housing is not as difficult

and costly as many perceive it to be, and that many health and productivity benefits

can come from a sustainable home. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) notes

that the behaviour and choices of individuals in carbon neutral homes is more likely to

result in a smaller carbon footprint, than if they were to be mass constructed, and

individuals forced to reside within them. Pears also notes that “if you live in a low-

density suburb, or a rural area, you have access to a lot more renewable energy than

someone who lives in a high-rise apartment in the city” (2008, pers. comm. 7

October).

Disadvantages of site-specific developments include the limited ability of individual

carbon-neutral structures to combat what is a global issue. The behavioural choices of

individuals in green buildings can undermine the purpose of the structures, and people

in low-energy homes often display signs of a ‘rebound effect’, whereby they use more

energy. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) notes that “5 star [energy

requirements] has helped reduce the energy use across Victoria, but the actual demand

has increased, because we’ve got these high energy appliances and so on”.

Fisher (2008, pers. comm. 3 October) highlights the importance of all levels working

towards carbon neutral structures, asserting that conflict between what may be

 

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occurring at local and subregional levels can hinder progress; “a whole different

hierarchy to the way the issue is thought about will be encouraged by those structural

transformations – so it is important to work at every level, and they are interlocking”.

Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) argues that development at differing scales

should be encouraged; “some things work better at individual building or very small

scale and other things work better on a broader scale. One of the things that we’ve got

to do is actually understand where each of those sit, or at least understand how the

factors interact”. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) argues that all forms of

carbon neutral development are important, as they provide a definite outcome,

however their importance still depends on the “buy-in and the engagement of the

people living there to make sure that they were still living by those principles that

you’ve tried to build that place under and that its going to operate by, so that into the

long term that it will operate the way that you intended”. Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13

October) argues that “it’s something that should be done at all levels, again if you

change your thinking to carbon-neutral or positive or whichever approach you take –

it starts happening at all levels, not just at one”. Hes argues that with regard to

development that decisions made must become increasingly about “how to add value

and benefit, absorb carbon, clean the air, catch water. Every design decision, every

planning decision will be based on how do we fit within the urban context, how do we

make things better environmentally, socially, economically”.

Where definite advantages and disadvantages exist within each scale of development,

it is considered that provision for carbon neutral outcomes at any scale are important

in contributing to a built form response to climate change. Where Bates (2008, pers.

comm. 25 September) notes that “you can’t predict and control the outcome ... at any

level really, as the implementation will vary ... probably on each scale”, it is

considered that all forms of development fulfil an equally important role in pursuing

the long-term vision of a functional, integrated urban environment in a carbon

constrained future.

4.4 The need for Carbon neutrality despite existing pressures on urban areas

One of the critical factors inhibiting the development of carbon neutral projects in

Australia relates to the range and urgency of issues existing urban areas are

 

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confronted by. In planning for carbon neutral development projects, it is important to

understand the way in which they relate to, and will have to function within existing

urban environments. Girardet considers modern cities to be “the most complex

manifestation of human activity ever to emerge” (2008; 4); considering positive

planning outcomes and sustainable development initiatives to fulfil inextricably linked

roles within them.

Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) argues that addressing existing issues in urban

environments and encouraging innovative sustainable development approaches do

not necessarily have to be mutually exclusive, but fundamental issues exist with

regard to how they are addressed. Pears considers an inherent opportunity to exist in

the range of issues in existing urban areas, and that the positive outcomes associated

with sustainable development are based around “very basic design concepts”, and

play a crucial role in contributing to the longevity of urban areas as functional

structures. Pears believes things such as “good public transport and really good

organisation of urban systems and sensible densities” to be achievable in new

development projects, and can ultimately provide a significant contribution to the

functionality of places (2008, pers. comm. 7 October).

Pears does, however, note that a lot of idealistic visions do not necessarily produce

anticipated results in objective terms. Citing the example of urban food production,

Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) notes that despite the presence of unused space

in cities that could produce food, if space is taken up with intensive food production,

urban density is lowered, and travel distances are increased; “so there’s actually a

trade-off between urban food production and other aspects of sustainability of a city”.

Pears considers mismanagement of market gardens, landuse problems and use of

pesticides to affect the productivity and success of such initiatives within their local

environment, and that “some of the wonderful visions of everyone living a semi-

agrarian lifestyle in cities don’t actually stack up when you actually see how people

run a lot of those things” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October). Such a concept is similarly

applicable to sustainable development, where despite the potential for projects to

generate beneficial outcomes on local or subregional scales, consideration to

influential factors operating within the local environment are necessary to allow for

the smooth integration of a development into a complicated urban context. Pears

 

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considers an important feature of sustainable development approaches to be that “they

may stack up really well in terms of social sustainability factors; so maybe what you

need to do is work on improving your efficiency and overcoming some of the

sustainability disadvantages, and acknowledging the very positive social dimensions

of sustainability that they might contribute to” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October).

Hes (2008) highlights the importance of taking an holistic approach to sustainable

development within urban areas and that focussing on one particular aspect of

development can shift adverse impacts onto others. Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13

October) argues that it is necessary to rediscover the ability to look at issues in a

broad and complex way; an ability that has declined with professionals becoming

increasingly specialised. Hes considers that “if we don’t, we’ll be forced to, and then

it will be a reactionary approach to dealing with the city, and that will be much worse

than having actually thought about and planned for it” (2008, pers. comm. 13

October).

Fisher (2008, pers. comm. 3 October) argues that carbon neutral development in urban

areas is already occurring, as evidenced by such projects as BedZED; demonstrating

the urgency of the issue, and that complications in the urban environment should not

impede progress. Fisher considers that attempting to contemplate the role of carbon

neutral development is unnecessary, considering that leading initiatives will inevitably

start somewhere. He argues, rather, that once such project start occurring, that it is

crucial to “regulate or legislate to make these planning initiatives broad scale or

universal” (2008, pers. comm. 3 October).

In providing for carbon neutral development in Australia’s built environment it is

important to consider the interrelationship between the proposed development, and

existing urban context. Carbon neutral development provides an inherent opportunity

to work towards redressing, or at the very least, progressing beyond some of the major

shortfalls of traditional urban development. If undertaken correctly, it will provide a

testament to the opportunity which exists to achieve new heights of sustainability,

innovation and creative flexibility in planning and development within a carbon

constrained future. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) argues that, despite the

complexity of urban areas, that there is “always potential for change and innovation,

 

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it’s how you activate those, and how you follow through ... and not [feel]

disempowered and overwhelmed”.

4.5 Carbon neutral development and the existence of alternative options

In understanding why carbon neutral built form should be pursued in an Australian

context, it is important to examine the feasibility of development responses in

comparison to other options. The existence of commercial carbon offsetting

companies has contributed to a perception that becoming carbon neutral is as simple

as offsetting all emissions through sequestration measures, or replacing all power

produced by non-renewable energy plants with power generated from renewable

sources. Droege (2002; 1) maintains that this is not a long-term or sustainable option,

arguing that cities “have to be reengineered in terms of their transport and land-use

systems, their facility and urban design principles, and the very use patterns they

engender”. He goes on to suggest that abatement and carbon trading measures “have

only a limited capacity to reduce fossil fuel use and combat global warming”,

suggesting rather, that pursuing large scale global reductions in fossil energy use, and

correspondingly greenhouse gas emissions, “calls for the systematic integration of

renewable energy products, systems, and processes in cities and regions” Droege

(2002; 6).

Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October), argues that although “in principle, it is feasible

to simply switch from fossil fuel energy, the bind with that is that if you have ongoing

energy growth, and also if you’re inefficient, then the amount of renewable energy

infrastructure that you have to put in place is much larger and will keep growing, and

you will push the costs and you will also push the availability of adequate resource

without [consideration of] other conflicts”. Pears suggests that the best approach to

carbon-neutrality is to optimise the mix of strategies by driving energy efficiency as a

top priority, then using green energy, and buying offsets only if necessary. This

logical hierarchy is conducive to a cost-effective, practical and ‘future proof’ means

of responding to the need for greater sustainability in the built environment. Pears

argues that “what it comes down to is if you’ve got an efficient society trying to use

wind energy, you mind need ‘x’ wind generators, if you’ve got an inefficient one, you

 

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might need 3‘x’ wind generators – so you’ve got three times the potential for planning

conflicts and all sorts of issues” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October).

Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) reinforces the views of Pears, stating that

“there are quite practical problems... in terms of a solution and a component of

carbon neutral, it’s a last gasp, or very last thing you would do in that sequence of

things you would do to become carbon neutral”. Bates similarly argues that becoming

efficient in energy use is critically important to becoming carbon neutral, followed by

green energy and offsetting options. Bates goes on to express a belief that offsetting

carbon emissions and looking at larger scale provision of green energy “is trying to

take a bit of an easy way out ... and not have to actually look at our lifestyles and

reduce our energy uses, and question our way of operating and the things that we do

that our quite wasteful” (2008, pers. comm. 25 September).

Fisher (2008, pers. comm. 3 October) maintains, with regard to offset and green

energy schemes, that “these things are not answers, fundamentally”. He goes on to

mention, however that they are important in giving the climate change issue some

legitimacy; that “these things are beginning, and that what we have to work on

ultimately is changing the framework ... itself to accommodate these changes, not just

introduce a little gimmick on the side”. Fisher recognises that “the gimmick on the

side is a start”, but other measures play more crucial roles in pursuing carbon

neutrality (2008, pers. comm. 3 October).

Horne (2008, pers. comm. 24 October) argues offsetting carbon emissions and using

renewable energy measures does not necessarily generate a carbon neutral outcome.

Horne cites the complexity of the issue as requiring a contemplated approach; “we

have to see practices and then an interface with technology in a much more

sophisticated way” (2008, pers. comm. 24 October). He argues that such an approach

is highly susceptible to the documented rebound effect, whereby low energy appliance

users often increase energy use in other spheres of their lives, and that if “we’re

unidirectional and oversimplify the processes and technologies and their uptake, then

we can’t expect to get these sorts of results, ... it’s not logical that that is going to be

the outcome” (2008, pers. comm. 24 October). Horne goes on to mention that such

measures do have an important purpose, and should be introduced more widely,

 

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however “they need to be undertaken within a wider understanding of the changes that

take place” (2008, pers. comm. 24 October).

Where providing green energy and planting and maintaining forests are considered

important factors in offsetting carbon emissions, cities must move beyond such

measures and encourage sustainable and efficient development form and layout

patterns. Low et al. (2005) argue that sustainable cities must emerge from

experimental to mainstream and that addressing rising emission levels in urban

development must move beyond sequestration programs. Further provision for, and

exploration of, carbon neutral development options provides an invaluable

opportunity to demonstrate at-source emission reduction measures, providing the most

affirmative shift towards sustainable urban centres.

4.6 Difficulties with implementation

A strong case exists for pursuing new heights in sustainability in the built

environment in the form of carbon neutral and zero carbon development projects due

to the numerous local and larger scale benefits associated with this. The realisation of

widespread sustainable development, however, is affected by a number of varied

factors, which hamper the perceived viability of such development approaches to

produce lasting, positive outcomes. Australia’s 2020 summit acknowledged the need

for a strategic direction and new initiatives in sustainability, highlighting the need for

“a national approach to urban and regional planning that puts a priority on water and

carbon efficiency”, with a view to becoming “the world’s leading green and

sustainable economy ... on track to dramatically reduce our ecological footprint”

(Australia 2020 Summit Report, 2008; 6). Both market and statutory factors exert

influence over the ease with which carbon neutral development projects can be

pursued in the built environment.

Background Papers of the Garnaut Review (2008) identify key barriers to emissions

reduction in the built environment to include:

Informational barriers – A lack of information about the financial savings and benefits

of sustainable buildings may contribute to the lower upfront costs of less sustainable

development options as being more financially viable in the long-term. Yudelson

(2008) supports this idea, maintaining that barriers to the adoption of green building

 

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practices, technologies and systems exist, and that perceptions of cost and difficulty of

implementation hamper their more widespread adoption in buildings. Eason et al

(2003; 3) similarly recognise low impact urban design projects have the “potential to

benefit all stakeholder groups through lower costs, improved environmental assets,

and potentially improved returns to developers”.

Risk – Reluctance exists in the building industry to trial new technologies, and often

older, less efficient products are depended upon Sairinen and Peltonen, similarly

argue that despite more widespread pusuit of sustainable building options,

“development of a systematic approach for dealing with risk and uncertainty [in new

development] has still been lacking” (2004; 5).

Local Impacts – the local environment can greatly influence the effectiveness of

passive heating and cooling measures, through contributing to urban heat island

effects and blocking sunlight or wind flow. There is little opportunity for designers

and developers to influence the urban context of a development project. This means

there will inevitably be some variance and unpredictability in the performance and

cost-effectiveness of sustainable development initiatives (Bates 2008, pers. comm. 25

September; Eason et al, 2003).

Access to funding (capital) – Meeting the higher upfront costs associated with low

emission buildings which incorporate energy provision measures, although more cost-

effective in the long-term, can be particularly difficult for low-income firms and

households.

Consumer preferences – Consumers have a number of various options available to

them, and may opt to purchase less energy efficient buildings and appliances (Fisher,

2008, pers. comm.. 3 October; Bates 2008, pers. comm. 25 September). Pears (2008,

pers. comm. 7 October) recognises that the option does exist for such projects to be

upgraded and improved after their development, however maintains that “it’s always a

lot cheaper to build something right, first time, than to try and renovate or upgrade it

later”. Eason et. al. (2003; 2) underpin this argument, stating that development can be

made more cost-effective through “reducing the need for construction and regular

renewal of physical assets”.

 

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Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) considers a lack of support structures reinforcing

growth, and an unpreparedness of urban areas to foster sustainable development

initiatives, to impede a widespread push for them. Citing the example of Melbourne’s

sustainable 60L building, Pears notes that despite its black water treatment system,

excess treated water, which is not consumed in the building, goes into the sewer. This

is because there is no third pipe system in the area, nor any legal mechanism to allow

for capitalisation on excess water in the local environment. Pears highlights that in

this instance, “failure to provide local infrastructure has meant that a building that’s

doing all the right things, is not actually fully utilising the benefits of what it’s trying

to do” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October). Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September)

reinforces this concept, noting the perversity of solar feed-in tariffs in certain States.

The tariffs, which are capped, limit the extent to which remuneration can be received

by buildings that put energy into the grid.

Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) considers one shortfall of carbon neutral

development to be that its success depends greatly on the availability of people

interested in making the necessary lifestyle changes and paying the higher upfront

costs to live in a sustainable community; “you still do have that element of how

people act within the building, you’d still have to get the buy-in and the engagement

of the people living there to make sure that they were still living by those principles

that you’ve tried to build that place under and that its going to operate by [them]”.

Bates also note that in some instances energy efficiency measures cause a rebound

effect, whereby users of sustainable buildings use more energy because of a

perception that energy savings made mean more energy can be used (2008, pers.

comm. 25 September). Bates considers that new heights of sustainability in the built

environment depend strongly on behaviour of individuals living and operating within

them, and that “people will maintain [their] behaviour more into the long term, if it is

something that they have consciously decided and chosen” (2008, pers. comm. 25

September).

Eason et al. (2003) consider the integration of low impact urban design and

development principles into development practices to be impeded by a lack of

incentives for change, and a poor understanding of the relative importance and

performance of improved low-impact development approaches. Eason et al. argue that

 

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providing for widespread implementation of more sustainable development practices

requires a translation of improved performance from new development into economic

values (2003). In addition to this, variability and poor integration of sustainability

initiatives amongst different types of regulatory instruments should be addressed and

wider dimensions of urban sustainability efficiencies should be incorporated into

development assessment criteria. It is considered that these initiatives will “provide a

platform for more rational development of incentives to facilitate the broad-scale

adoption of low-impact urban development practices” (Eason et al, 2003; 11).

A study undertaken by the Turner Construction Company of 665 development

executives aimed to understand which factors they understood to impede the

development of green buildings. Identified factors are illustrated in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 ‐ Development barriers for green buildings 

Green building obstacles Perceived difficulty Perceived higher costs 68% Lack of awareness of green construction benefits 64% Short-term budget horizons 51% Long payback period 50% Difficulty of quantifying benefits 47% Complexity of construction involved 30%

(Turner Construction Company, 2006)

Gleeson acknowledges the difficult nature of the issue, in that “cities are hard to

reshape. The ‘built environment’ is a heavy, fixed thing that is slow and expensive to

change” (2008; 7). It is understood that carbon neutral development will not single-

handedly address climate change; however it does play an important role in

exemplifying built form innovation and fostering an attitude of sustainability in design

and development. Interviewee Associate Professor Ralph Horne argues that “it is

eminently possible for us to achieve carbon neutrality, but it will only occur through a

range of different disciplinary approaches”, and in this regard, it is imperative that

barriers to sustainable planning and development approaches be addressed (2008,

pers. comm. 24 October).

4.7 Factors Encouraging pursuit of carbon neutral development outcomes

There are perceived to be a wide range of benefits associated with the realisation of

carbon neutrality in urban development. Where contributing to a climate change

 

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solution is the possibly the foremost of these, other benefits associated with highly

sustainable built form exist; further reinforcing the rationale for their more widespread

development. A study undertaken by McGraw-Hill identified key drivers of

sustainable development as perceived by building owners illustrated in Table 4.2. 

Table 4.2 – Building owners perceived sustainable development advantages 

Key Issue Percentage of Owners Mentioning Issue Energy cost increases/utility rebates 74% Achieving superior energy performance 68% Lower life-cycle operating costs 64% A positive environmental impact 60% Secure a competitive advantage 53% Respond to government regulations 53% Secure productivity benefits 53%

(McGraw-Hill, 2007)

Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) considers low energy use and the elimination

of a development’s carbon footprint to be important benefits associated with carbon

neutral development. In addition to this, the opportunity to integrate other

sustainability measures is recognised as another important factor provided by such a

development approach. Bates considers the opportunity to simultaneously reduce

water use or provide green roofing which can absorb toxins as important auxiliary

benefits 2008, pers. comm. 25 September). She also considers the health and

productivity benefits associated with sustainable buildings to provide a strong

incentive for their development. Bates notes that the nature of carbon neutral

development through high-quality design and development is a valuable investment

for the longevity and operational needs of the building; “it can become about future-

proofing the building with the different scenarios of how the climate is going to

change in the different climate zones ... if you design it well, it should be able to

adapt, with minor changes, to make it operate really well in those more severe

conditions” (2008, pers. comm. 25 September).

Pears (2008, pers. comm. 7 October) considers a number of benefits to exist in

relation to carbon neutral development outcomes. Pears cites one important factor of

sustainable development to be a preventative means of low-cost abatement. He

considers that “if we fail to capture that, what we’re actually doing, is forcing more

abatement into higher-cost areas, which hurts the economy” and that “in a societal

sense, it’s cheaper and better to get new buildings right, instead of creating something

that’s going to have to be upgraded in the future” (2008, pers. comm. 7 October). He

 

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notes that occupant health is often higher in insulated homes, and that sustainability

and performance can contribute significantly to quality of life, workplace productivity

and reduced peak electricity demand.

Horne (2008, pers. comm. 24 October) considers that carbon neutrality in the built

environment will deliver benefits in terms of environmental sustainability on a local

level, as well as a stabilisation of levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. He

also notes that the contribution to economic sustainability through creating more

resilient and functional communities and “innovation required to form technologies

and change practices towards those carbon neutral outcomes” to be other key

benefits(2008, pers. comm. 24 October).

A study undertaken by the Turner Construction Company in 2005 aimed to ascertain

the key advantages of green buildings over traditional structures. 665 development

executives were interviewed, and identified key benefits as illustrated in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 ‐ Recognised benefits of green buildings 

Green building advantage over traditional development

Perceived benefit

Occupants’ Health and Wellbeing 88% Building Value 84% Worker Productivity 78% Return on Investment 68%

(Turner Construction Company, 2006)

The pursuit carbon neutral development provides an important opportunity to consider

and improve the standard of the built environment. The benefits of carbon neutral

development have been observed, not to relate exclusively to the environment.

Sustainable development produces economic, human-resource, health and wellbeing

returns on investment, which reinforce the importance of its pursuit in a carbon

constrained future. Challenging understandings of green buildings as being costly and

capable of producing only limited benefits is a necessary and important step in

realising carbon neutrality in the built environment. Existing projects demonstrate this

to some extent; however further provision for cutting-edge development projects will

provide an opportunity to develop a greater understanding of this.

 

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5. Recommendations

5.1 Introduction

Although it should not be considered an end in itself, carbon neutral urban

development will play an increasingly important role in combating climate change. It

provides an invaluable opportunity to redefine the form and function of the urban

milieu, and presents an ultimate sustainability aspiration for urban areas to work

towards.

While responding to climate change can be considered to be as much about lifestyle

choices and socio-behavioural trends as the provision of carbon neutral development

options, it is important to recognise that neither one can be absolutely successful in

addressing energy demand and corresponding carbon emissions, without

consideration given to the other. Urban society can only be expected to achieve the

long-term sustainability that the built environment can allow for. However, such an

approach can only function entirely effectively if those who utilise the place are able

to make the necessary lifestyle decisions which will reduce their carbon footprints.

Horne (2008, pers. comm. 24 October) notes that a strong link exists between these

factors, in that “technology scripts behaviour, because you can’t use technology

without exercising some form of behaviour ... and vice-versa ... the two are not

different options. Anything that we choose to do, by way of an action to reduce the

effects of climate change involves both technology and behaviour in combination”.

Recommendations are based on the concept that technology is influenced by, and has

the ability to script behaviours, and thus, represents an important step forward in

pursuing sustainability in the built environment.

5.2 Providing for carbon neutral development opportunities in the Australian planning framework

Recalibrating Australian planning frameworks to encourage, if not provide for carbon

neutral development opportunities will be crucial in addressing the severity of energy

use in the built environment. Fisher (2008, pers. comm. 3 October) acknowledges that

to take a lassiez-faire approach to the issue is overly optimistic, and that we need to

actively provide for carbon neutral development projects “because in doing it, we will

 

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discover its limitations; if we don’t do it we’ll going on theorising if it is a good thing

to do, and in a sense, do nothing”.

At present, the United Kingdom Department of Communities and Local Government

is developing a planning framework to provide for more stringent energy efficiency

requirements in new homes, with a view to having all new buildings producing zero

net carbon emissions by 2016 (DCLG, 2006). While such a strategy may seem

ambitious for Australia, if metropolitan growth schemes are to be recalibrated to cater

for unprecedented population growth over the next 50 years, measures to encourage

growth and urban expansion that is sustainable should form a vital part of this.

Requiring all new development to be carbon neutral by 2016 may be difficult to

achieve in Australia, particularly due to lower densities in urban areas, the nations

geographical isolation and effects of this on sourcing goods and building materials.

Despite this, a target should be set to encourage and provide a goal for carbon neutral

development projects to work towards. The 2020 vision of a carbon neutral built

environment, as discussed earlier, despite providing such an objective, is more of an

idealistic vision than a strict industry benchmark. Yudelson (2008; 79) argues that

“any commercial green building project started today that does not explicitly

incorporate green features and certify itself according to a recognised third-party

standard will be functionally obsolete the day it opens and may be economically

disadvantaged the rest of its lifetime”. This reinforces the need for implementation of

statutory measures, in order to give the pursuit of carbon neutrality in the built

environment legitimate grounding.

At present, under Part 3A of the New South Wales Environmental Planning and

Assessment Act 1979, development projects deemed as being of state significance, are

subject to an ‘integrated assessment’. This allows the Minister for Planning to

approve, or grant concept approval to a project; allowing for construction to

commence more quickly, pending design refinements based on community and

Ministerial concerns. It is suggested that amendment be made to part State

Environmental Planning Policy (Major Projects) 2005, which stipulates which

projects are eligible for assessment under Part 3A of the Environmental Planning and

Assessment Act 1979 to include development projects of medium-large scale, which

aim to be carbon neutral through efficient design. At present, residential, commercial

 

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or retail projects with a capital investment value of more than $50 million that are

considered to be of state significance, and important in achieving planning objectives;

therefore, they are eligible for concept approval. While this gives some provision for

integrated assessment of carbon neutral projects, the incentive is limited to support

particularly large-scale high-budget developments. It is considered that similar

provision should be made for integrated assessment of projects which aim to be

carbon neutral, as they are aiming to achieve government objectives of sustainability,

and may be impeded by local planning controls. Projects such as BedZED, for

instance, where the necessary layout of structures for passive heating and cooling, and

provision of on-site combined heat and power generation are necessary for achieving

carbon neutrality, this may be problematic on a local scale, and hampered by local

government development regulations. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September) notes

that “there’s planning roles that you would have to work with, policy and regulations

and getting those things all in line to actually enable those changes to occur, that’s the

important and also the difficult [thing]”.

On a localised scale for carbon neutral individual structures and masterplanned

communities, it is suggested a ‘fast-track’ development assessment system be

established to provide greater incentive for individuals and developers to pursue

carbon neutral built form outcomes. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September)

highlights the importance of removing barriers “so that people can be empowered to

build those really well designed green homes”. She notes that “there are people who

work very hard to get around those barriers, and they do, but you shouldn’t

necessarily have to”. Birkeland (2008) similarly believes that the planning system is

flawed and more conducive to development focussed on avoiding negative impacts,

rather than aiming to achieve positive outcomes. She notes that the counter-intuitive

nature of the planning system adversely affects the incorporation of innovative

sustainability measures in buildings; “instead of rewarding responsible developers, we

make them pay a lot extra for green building ratings” (2008; 7).

The extent and means by which local government initiatives can influence the nature

and form of new build are illustrated in Figure 5.1, which illustrates mayoral ability to

influence new build in the context of London.

 

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Figure 5.1 ‐ Mayoral influence over new building stock 

(Greater London Authority, 2007)

Creating a cultural of sustainability on a local level can play an important role in

informing communities about the benefits, measure and importance of pursuing

carbon neutrality in the built environment. In the context of Bathurst City Council, a

heritage management system which provided residents with free advice, a direct

planning contact at council and special avenues for development assessment, assisted

in creating an attitude of awareness and celebration of heritage in the community

(Croft, 2008). Although heritage management and sustainable development differ

greatly, they are both often perceived with a degree of contempt. Providing avenues

for collaboration and delivery of information to residents on a local scale may assist in

changing attitudes toward sustainability and raising awareness of how to make homes

carbon neutral. Girardet (2008; 18) supports such an approach, arguing with regard to

the unpredictable and significant impacts of climate change, that “Municipal

authorities ... should seek to play an active role in ensuring a sense of continuity for

their populace”. Dhakal (2008; 190) similarly notes that as public awareness of the

issue is minimal, and the impacts of action cannot be immediately observed, the

exhibition of environmental stewardship by agencies and governmental bodies is

instrumental in fostering positive attitudes of sustainability in development.

Eason et. al (2003) highlight the difficulties associated with best practice approaches

to low impact urban design and development. They recognise that the profit margins

of developers are often 5% or less, prices and running costs are key concerns for

buyers, and councils want to reduce adverse environmental impacts, but are

 

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constrained by a relative lack of information to underpin development controls. Eason

et al. argue, therefore, that councils must provide more incentives for change and that

“gathering the information needed to develop real incentives needs to be the focus for

the future” (2003; 11). The case studies further reinforce this, GHD’s Zero, for

instance, notes that the length of the project payback period is affected significantly

by current development climate, and lack of subsidies for zero carbon development

initiatives (GHD, 2007). Dongtan and BedZED, similarly, were generously funded

projects. Without the availability of the burgeoning economy of China, or the

numerous sponsors of BedZED to fund the projects so extensively, it is unlikely that

such new and innovative projects would have been pioneered.

As Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13 October) highlighted, pursuing sustainability in the

built environment needs to be part of a long-term objective, of creating functional,

appealing, sustainable cities. It is crucial other planning considerations are not

neglected in providing for carbon neutral development. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25

September) notes that the Bonnyrigg Solar Village, which exhibited a high degree of

energy efficiency and ecologically sustainable development principles, failed socially.

The project, which is 23 years old, is currently undergoing demolition, and highlights

the importance of engagement and collaboration in the planning and development of

carbon neutral development projects. Bates (2008, pers. comm. 25 September)

considers that engagement and support for processes are critical to their success and

that “you can’t just do things to people and expect them to like it”. The Dongtan case

study, also highlighted this issue, questioning how planning measures can be best

utilised to ensure its success and ongoing functionality as a highly original and

ambitious design concept. While it is anticipated the lifestyle benefits associated with

living in the Eco-City will generate significant interest from buyers, this may have

been the case with the Bonnyrigg Solar Village as well. It is therefore crucial that

planning controls and measures seek not just to encourage carbon neutral

development, but ensure the viability and success of development initiatives.

Girardet (2008) asserts, with regard to sustainable development, that it would be “an

illusion to think that the necessary changes can be achieved only by top-down public

policy” (2008; 18), however it is considered that this is a necessary step in providing

greater scope for sustainable development, and encouraging the development of

 

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collaborative partnerships. Horne (2008, pers. comm. 24 October) reinforces this idea,

and considers that “we should be thinking about how when we design technologies,

that we script particular practices that we expect to arise out of those technologies;

and then we look to monitor the uptake of those particular practices very carefully,

and empirically then adjust the technologies to suit the sorts of practices that we’re

looking to script”.

It has been recognised that the climate change issue is significant, and greatly affected

by cities, Horne argues that the issue “requires technical fixing, but it requires a lot

more than that” (2008, pers. comm. 24 October). Planning roles must seek to facilitate

the delivery of new and innovative forms of development, while aiming to ensure that

they function successfully as structures and places. The extent of potential impacts of

climate change are such that opportunities for best-practice planning and development

initiatives that may otherwise be considered too costly or risky can be pioneered.

Capitalising on this, it is paramount that planning controls and strategic directions are

cultivated around encouraging, supporting and safeguarding carbon neutral

development initiatives.

 

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6. Conclusion

6.1 Introduction

This chapter illustrates the way in which key research questions have been examined,

and research objectives fulfilled. It also acknowledges potential areas for future

research and the roles of planning and development in facilitating the development of

carbon neutral built form.

6.2 Key findings

There are a significant number of benefits associated with carbon neutral development

and realisation of highly sustainable development outcomes, which are more

achievable and rewarding than is widely perceived. While carbon neutral forms of

development have not been understood to play a significant role in responding to

climate change, research findings suggest that it will be difficult to achieve a future-

proof built environment without them. Despite a lack of coercive measures or

provision of incentives for their development, the model set by early projects is

increasingly being followed, and if properly nurtured, could possibly lead to more

widespread implementation of carbon neutral projects in the Australian built

environment, in the future.

While an understanding of climate change and the most appropriate responses to it are

still being contemplated, carbon neutral development options should be increasingly

supported. Carbon neutral development outcomes are understood to play an important

role in maintaining the ongoing viability and functionality of urban areas, reducing

their fossil fuel dependence, energy use and waste outputs. In addition to responding

to the significant threat of a carbon constrained future, encouraging carbon neutral

development will inevitably encourage creative design and innovation, which will

form a new direction for urban areas away from the typical vehicular-dependent,

concentric circle model of 20th century development. Encouragement of carbon

neutral development will provide an invaluable opportunity to rethink the ways in

which cities take shape. It also provides a crucial avenue for the pursuit of sustainable

buildings outcomes, which do not aim to reduce negative impacts, but rather, provide

positive built form outcomes, capable of delivering beneficial impacts on differing

and varied scales.

 

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Examine identified need for carbon neutral housing options in Australia

As a nation characterised by high carbon footprints and strong dependence on fossil

fuels, it is imperative that Australian cities begin to consider their role and

functionality in a carbon constrained future. Despite there being little widespread

demand for carbon neutral housing options in Australia at present, some developers

have expressed will to demonstrate initiative and pioneer development projects which

aim to be carbon neutral. While many of these projects remain in their infancy, they

will prove invaluable in setting a standard for future initiatives, and provide a learning

ground for the practical application of carbon neutral development measures in the

Australian built environment.

Explore the theory and practice of carbon-neutral residential development

As explored in Chapters 3 and 4, the theory of carbon neutral development is that it is

achievable and capable of producing a range of benefits. However, it is also

acknowledged that these can come at a significant cost, and that the success of the

development depends greatly on the way in which it is utilised. It is broadly

understood that climate change poses a significant threat to human ways of life, and

that the built environment contributes greatly to this issue as a significant generator of

carbon dioxide. It is correspondingly understood that carbon neutral development

projects should be implemented to stifle climate change impacts; however an

optimum approach has yet to be identified.

In practice, BedZED and Dongtan have illustrated how projects can potentially run

over budget, and timeframe constraints, respectively. It is acknowledged that as

groundbreaking projects, they are much more susceptible to design and development

complications, and that projects will become increasingly cost-effective and quick to

deliver as they continue to take shape.

Critically assess proposed and existing carbon neutral development projects

As discussed in Chapter 3, existing and proposed zero carbon projects of Dongtan and

BedZED have some shortcomings, however have been largely recognised as

invaluable projects in pursuing a sustainable future for the built environment.

BedZED has highlighted the way in which a net-zero carbon output can be achieved

 

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in a masterplanned community scale development, without necessarily compromising

on affordability or quality of life. Both projects have attracted a lot of attention and

will be likely continue to champion carbon neutral development efforts in the future.

Issues associated with carbon neutral development projects include the need for

implementation of necessary infrastructure to provide for carbon neutral operation.

Shortcomings of BedZED include the limited effectiveness of photovoltaic cells in

producing enough electricity to meet the needs of residents. Dongtan has been

criticised as becoming a potential weekend getaway for Shanghai’s wealthy and a

tokenistic approach to the climate change issue, unlikely to effect any significant

positive change in the burgeoning nation of China. An important shortcoming of

carbon neutral development is the ease with which the behaviours and lifestyles of

those who utilise them, are capable of undermining the culture of sustainability they

fundamentally exist to achieve.

Explore whether, and how such development approaches can be facilitated in

Australia

Carbon neutral and zero carbon development projects are viable development options

within the Australian built environment. The proposed Alkimos, Crace and Taree

Waterfront projects in Western Australia, The Australian Capital Territory and New

South Wales, respectively, highlight the acknowledgement of the importance and

associated benefits of carbon neutral built form outcomes in Australia.

Carbon neutral development projects would be best encouraged within the Australian

built environment by recalibrating planning frameworks to allow for more efficient

assessment of projects which aim to be carbon neutral; particularly where this is

achieved through innovative design, as opposed to sequestration and renewable

energy switchover methods.

Consider factors in Australia which may act as an impetus, or adversely affect a shift

towards carbon neutral development

Factors encouraging carbon neutral development in Australia include the anticipated

growth its urban centres will be confronted by over the next 50 years; catering for this

demand will allow for existing shortfalls of urban areas to be addressed in new

 

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development. The significance of the climate change issue, and its potential impact on

development in the future, also provides incentive for carbon-neutral development,

not only as a response to climate change, but also for the ‘future-proofing’ of the

development itself. Current carbon neutral projects will also provide valuable

information as to the effectiveness and shortfalls of different approaches in piloting

the application of carbon neutral development principles in an urban context.

Difficulties in pursuing carbon neutrality in the built environment include a reluctance

to commit to making change without a fairly well developed understanding of the

issue and a most appropriate course of action. Similarly, urban areas are already

confronted by complex and interrelated issues, and while some development projects

may strive to lead, others are designed to fulfil only the necessary requirements for

development approval. Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13 October) underpins this idea,

commenting that people often “hide behind complexity” as a means of avoiding

addressing an issue. Perverse incentives also play a role in stymieing carbon neutral

development; a recurring theme in interviews undertaken that conflicts between the

objectives of governmental bodies and of individuals pursuing sustainability further

complicates the pursuit of carbon neutrality in new development projects.

Develop insight into the personal and professional opinions of planners and

developers working as forerunners in the field of sustainable development

As indicated in Chapter 4, in-depth interviews undertaken provided great insight into

the extent of the issue within the built environment, and its interrelation with other

areas. Key findings included the different ways and the hierarchical approach that

should be taken to pursuing carbon neutrality in the built environment, the

interrelationship between the built environment and human behaviours, and the

implications of this on energy use. Another important finding was the limited

effectiveness of carbon neutral development in a climate where consumption and

energy demands continue to increase.

6.3 Implications for future planning practice

A ‘best-practice’ approach and recognition of the need to provide more sustainable

built form options in response to climate change has resulted in leading companies

designing and developing carbon neutral projects in Australia. It is expected such

 

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projects will continue, due to the site-specific and broader benefits they produce.

However, widespread development of innovative carbon neutral projects of varying

scales should not be expected until a precedent has been set, and a planning

framework has been tailored to exploit the benefits of this in future development

projects. Carbon neutral development projects are already underway in Australia, and

are likely to continue, however it is expected that they will only flourish once the

appropriate measures have been put in place to encourage and support them.

Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13 October) noted that the need for carbon neutrality in new

development to ‘add value’ to urban environments, and not come at a compromise on

social, economic and other less pressing environmental factors. The best-practice

approach to rethinking planning and urban development caused by climate change

necessitates a cohesive approach to development which does not neglect other

important factors recognised as being crucial to the success of urban areas.

6.4 Opportunities for further research

Hes (2008, pers. comm. 13 October) argues that it is not sufficient for new

development to aim to be carbon neutral or zero carbon only, but that projects should

aim to be regenerative, or carbon positive; emulating the role of natural eco-systems

within the built environment itself and replacing the total ecological base that their

construction has affected. Birkeland (2008) argues that cities must be designed to

replace natural systems, and that cities must become ecologically-productive systems.

Further research could be undertaken into the ways development projects can produce

regenerative outcomes, and if and how this extends beyond electricity, water and

waste. Further consideration could also be given to how viable carbon-positive

projects are in the Australian built environment, particularly where widespread

realisation of carbon-neutral development is complicated. Assessment could also be

given the long-term viability of such projects, and whether they should be pursued

exclusively instead of carbon-neutral built form options, which are inferior in terms of

environmental benefits produced.

It has been documented that energy savings and use of green energy, can result in a

‘rebound effect’, whereby “the extent of the energy saving produced by an efficiency

investment ... is taken back by consumers in the form of higher consumption”

 

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(Herring and Roy, 2007; 195). Examination as to the effects of this on pursuing

carbon neutrality, and the extent to which higher energy use can undermine, or

challenge the achievement of carbon-neutrality in a project could be undertaken. Such

a study would likely assist in gauging the ongoing operational challenges likely to be

experienced once a project has been established, it could also allow for preventative

measures to be further integrated into the design and development of future carbon

neutral projects.

Overcoming shortfalls of existing carbon neutral development infrastructure is

another important area for examination in understanding how to produce the best

possible outcomes from such projects. Similarly, the holistic nature of carbon neutral

development projects could be assessed to develop an understanding of whether, and

how their carbon focus trades-off on water, social and other factors.

The behaviours of people who live and work within carbon-neutral developments

would also be important in generating insight into the effectiveness of the

developments, and the extent to which they influence, or are undermined by what

occurs within them. This could potentially be explored with consideration of the

availability of transport options and the success of carbon neutral projects where

accessibility and connectivity are prevalent or absent.

Developing a better understanding of the benefits and issues associated with differing

scales of carbon neutral development, the economies of scale that can be achieved in

different approaches is an important avenue for further exploration. The optimal scale

for carbon neutral development and a greater understanding of some of the cost-

benefit characteristics of carbon neutral projects of different scales would be

particularly valuable in the Australian political climate, where budgeting and

performance are significant initiative drivers.

Another area for potential exploration is the likely impacts of a carbon-constrained

economy on individuals who reside in peri-urban lower-income suburbs, typically

characterised by high vehicle dependence and poorer quality housing. If suggested

carbon taxing schemes and commuter tolls are introduced, an understanding of the

potential impact of these can assist in reinforcing the rationale for pursuit of carbon

neutral development. Gleeson (2008; 7) notes that “Suburbia may be ‘punished’ for its

 

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environmental ‘misbehaviour’ and denied the public investment that it desperately

needs to meet the new vulnerability threats, especially rising oil prices”. Research can

develop insight into the effectiveness of carbon neutral built form in particular urban

areas, and shape an understanding of the way in which peri-urban areas of poorer

quality housing, less transport and fewer infrastructure options will be affected in a

carbon constrained future.

6.5 Conclusion

In conclusion, this thesis has explored the role of carbon neutral development as a

built-form response to climate change. Despite being very much in its infancy, the

theory and practice of carbon neutral development has enjoyed a degree of success,

and is expected to continue to grow, as the flaws and key benefits of pilot projects

continue to be uncovered and understood. It is important that the example set by

leading innovators in the development of carbon neutral communities is nurtured, to

assist in pioneering the pursuit of carbon neutrality in the built environment. It will

also further assist with realising the benefits of innovative and creative design within

the urban context. While carbon neutral development options cannot be considered a

means of securing a sustainable future in themselves, they play an important part in

dictating the energy used in our cities, and must continue to encourage sustainability

in a carbon-constrained future. Case studies and pioneering developments provide

invaluable insights into the application of best-practice sustainability principles in the

built environment. Such projects require careful examination, as they hold significant

potential to shape and inform broader policy and practice.

Despite the capability of modern cities to adapt and function while confronted by an

array of issues, it is crucial that innovative design and development initiatives are

encouraged. The incremental turnover of buildings in Australia’s cities, coupled with

the long-term lifespan of new structures, means that providing for carbon neutral

development options is of critical importance. Such projects will continue to add

value to their local environments throughout their lifespans, and present more

financially viable alternatives to retrofitting less efficient structures to maintain

functionality in a carbon constrained environment. Eliminating perverse incentives,

and conflict between different legislative and planning structures will provide a

greater impetus for the exploration of carbon neutral development approaches in

 

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Australia. It is perceived that such measures will be central to encouraging the

proliferation of innovative and highly-sustainable development. It is only through

provision of development incentives, requirements and support structures that the

individual, community and more widespread environmental benefits of such projects

can be realised.

Whether urban development aspires to be carbon neutral, zero-carbon or regenerative,

it is vital that planning measures aim to encourage such initiatives; as they will play a

vital role in future-proofing developed urban areas from the potential complications of

a carbon-constrained future. They are valuable individually as pilot-projects and

market-leaders, and collectively are playing an increasingly important role in shaping

the form of urban development and reducing the environmental impacts of urban

development. It is recognised that sustainable development approaches cannot be

considered to be a highly-effective independent means of addressing climate change,

however high levels of sustainability can only be realised where they are provided for

in planning and development processes, and individuals can only be as sustainable as

the wider structures in which they live and operate.

Climate change is a confronting and uncertain issue. Preparing our urban areas for a

carbon constrained future represents one of the most significant challenges modern

cities are likely to face. Planning roles have the unique opportunity to foster

leadership and innovation in the form of carbon neutral development options, as a

sustainable alternative to typical forms of urban development. Such projects have the

capacity, not only to produce environmental benefits and maintain urban functionality

in a carbon constrained future, but also reshape and enhance the ways in which

modern cities operate.

 

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7. References

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Croft, S. (2008) Heritage management in Bathurst, lecture notes distributed at Bathurst Regional Council Chambers, Bathurst on 20 September, 2008.

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Appendix A

 

 

 

 

Interview Question Template

Can you begin by telling me about your academic background?

What is your opinion on the severity of, and need for responses to, climate change through planning and development practices?

Do you feel that exploration of sustainable development options with a view to achieving carbon neutrality in buildings plays an important role in responding to climate change?

Debate exists as to whether the key opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the built environment exists in retrofitting existing housing stock, or in developing high-end, self-sufficient carbon neutral communities. What is your opinion on this?

What do you perceive to be the key benefits (if any) of pursuing carbon neutrality in the built environment?

Do you feel the ambitious nature of carbon neutral development projects will act as an impetus for their implementation in the future? Or, conversely, do you feel they may be too farfetched for the Australian built environment?

Do you feel any particular advantages or disadvantages are associated with developing carbon neutral and low-carbon projects on particular scales? Be they site-specific, masterplanned community, or citywide scales?

It has been speculated that creating carbon neutral cities is as simple as a large-scale changeover to green energy, or mass use of tree planting carbon offset schemes. Do you feel these are viable long-term options to addressing the climate change issue? If not, why? And what other alternatives may be more suitable?

Do you feel opportunity exists to integrate principles of green urbanism and renewable energy into urban development? Or are cities and urban development confronted by too many complex issues for this to be factored in?

 

 

 

 

Appendix B

 

 

F AC U L T Y O F T H E B U I L T E N V I R O N M E N T

H U M AN R E S E AR C H E T H I C S

A D V I S O R Y P AN E L

22nd July 2008 Application No: 85024 Project Title: Carbon Neutral cities Attention: Hamish Sinclair Dear Hamish,

Thank you for your application requesting approval to conduct research involving humans. The Panel has evaluated your application and upon their recommendation, has attached the decision below.

Please be aware that approval is for a period of twelve months from the date of this letter, unless otherwise stated below.

Decision

Approved with conditions

Your application is approved; however, there are certain things you must do, before you may conduct your research. Please see below for details, and your responses will assist us in completing your file.

Items that must be completed before research can commence:

Item 1

The information provided in your application about the timing of your research is either too vague or implies that the research may have already started. We cannot approve your application retrospectively. Please confirm that your research involving interviews or questionnaires has not commenced. Also please provide your detailed timing schedule to the HREA panel.

Advisory comments:

1 2 3

We do not recommend that you use your own personal address or telephone number on any documents issued to participants. If possible, you should supply an office or University contact details. Should you or your participants be making photographic, video or audio recordings that include people, please be aware that: • Recordings in public places do not generally require the permission of the people who are in those public places; however, this will depend upon the sensitivity of the subject matter and the situation • If you will be specifically identifying any person in photos or videos which you intend to publish, you will require their signed consent • Photographs or videos of identifiable people on private property should not be made without their consent, even when taken from public property The area that you are investigating is a sensitive or risky one. You should rephrase your questions, in order to avoid offence being taken.

SYDNEY 2052 AUSTRALIA Email: hreap.contact@fbe.unsw.edu.au

2

Approval is granted to the applicant for a twelve month period from the date of this letter, on condition that: • The applicant fully understands, and agrees to ensure, that all questions put in questionnaires, interviews,

and surveys, must strictly comply with the protocols, policies and rules of UNSW in relation to research data collection and must meet the overriding requirement of UNSW for 'minimal ethical impact' in research (the applicant is referred to: http://www.ro.unsw.edu.au/ethics/human/minimal_ethical_impact.shtml); and

• When required or applicable, Letters of Support (conforming to Form 6) will be obtained with a copy of each

letter kept by the Course Authority to be made available to the HREAP when requested. Any approval to conduct research given to the applicant Researcher is done so on the condition that the applicant Researcher is at the date of approval: (a) a Student undertaking an approved course of study in the FBE; or (b) a member of Academic Staff in the FBE. If, at any time subsequent to the date of approval and prior to completion of the research project the applicant Researcher ceases to be either of (a) and (b) above, then any prior approval given to the applicant Researcher to conduct will be deemed to be revoked forthwith. The applicant Researcher must inform the FBE HREA Panel immediately upon any change, or possible change, to the applicant’s status that may affect any prior approval given by the Panel to the applicant Researcher to conduct research. Evaluation Authority: Approving Authority:

Michael Brand (Convener) FBE HREA Panel

Jim Plume Head of School Faculty of the Built Environment

Copy to: Simon Pinnegar, Supervisor

 

 

 

 

Appendix C

F AC U L T Y O F T H E B U I L T E N V I R O N M E N T

H U M AN R E S E AR C H E T H I C S

A D V I S O R Y P AN E L

26th August, 2008

Application No: 85024 Project Title: Carbon Neutral Cities. Attention: Hamish Sinclair Student Number: 3131288 Dear Hamish, Thank you for providing additional information for your HREAP application. It will be placed on your file.

Any approval to conduct research given to the applicant Researcher is done so on the condition that the applicant Researcher is at the date of approval: (a) a Student undertaking an approved course of study in the FBE; or (b) a member of Academic Staff in the FBE. If, at any time subsequent to the date of approval and prior to completion of the research project the applicant Researcher ceases to be either of (a) and (b) above, then any prior approval given to the applicant Researcher to conduct will be deemed to be revoked forthwith. The applicant Researcher must inform the FBE HREA Panel immediately upon any change, or possible change, to the applicant’s status that may affect any prior approval given by the Panel to the applicant Researcher to conduct research.

Evaluation Authority: Approving Authority:

Michael Brand (Convener) FBE HREA Panel

Jim Plume Head of School Faculty of the Built Environment

Copy to: Simon Pinnegar , Supervisor