Pink Disease Caused by Erythricium Salmonicolor Berk Broome Burdsall an Epidemiological Assessment of Its Potential Effect on Cocoa Production in Ghana 2157 7471.1000215

8/12/2019 Pink Disease Caused by Erythricium Salmonicolor Berk Broome Burdsall an Epidemiological Assessment of Its Pote

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Research Article Open Access

Plant Pathology & MicrobiologyAkrofi et al., J Plant Pathol Microb 2014, 5:1

http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000215

Volume 5 Issue 1 1000215J Plant Pathol Microb

ISSN: 2157-7471 JPPM, an open access journal

Keywords: Erythricium salmonicolor; Pink disease; Symptoms;Teobroma cacao

Introduction

Te worldwide threat to cocoa production rom the major cacaopests and diseases continue to overshadow other problems o local

or sporadic importance. Since the introduction o cacao (Teobromacacao, L.) into Ghana in 1879, the main ungal disease limitingproduction has been Phytophthora pod rot. Pink disease caused byErythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Burdsall (syn. Corticiumsalmonicolor Berk. & Broome), (syn. Phanerochaete samonicolor Berk.& Broome, Jlich) has been known on cacao or many years [1], but hasonly been studied in detail as a pathogen o rubber [2]) and Eucalyptusspp. [3]. Te disease had earlier been described in Ceylon in 1873 [4].Edgerton [5] made the first report o the occurrence o E. salmonicoloron a fig tree in Louisiana in the United States. Te pathogen is not onlya commonly distributed ungus, but it is also virtually omnivorous,

having been ound on many plant species and over 141 genera [6].

Te host plants o economic importance include rubber, tea, coffee,

cocoa, graperuit, orange, nutmeg, mango, apple, coca and kola. InNew Guinea and Malaysia, pink disease is associated with cover crops

and shade trees such as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and Crotalaria,

ephrosia, Leucaena and Gliricidia [6-9].

Erythricium salmonicolor, Berk. & Broome was first reported in

Ghana by Wharton [10]. In 1999, the disease was ound to be severely

affecting different varieties o cacao on experimental plots at Bunso in

the Eastern Region o Ghana [11]. During routine surveys to monitor

the spread and distribution o the black pod pathogen, Phythophthora

megakarya on cacao in Ghana, pink disease was ound on cacao arms

at Ahao Ano North and Atwima Nwabiagya districts in the Ashanti

Region; Asutifi, Dormaa and ano North districts in the Brong AhaoRegion; Atiwa, Birim South, East Akim, Fanteakwa and Kwaebibirim

districts in the Eastern Region and recently at Asankragua and SewiWiawso in the Western Region [12].

Pink disease can cause significant losses, ranging rom the loss

o individual branches to death o the whole tree i the main stem orseveral branches are affected. Te pathogen usually causes girdlingcankers which disrupts the physiological processes leading todeoliation and death o the distal parts o the tree. Disease incidence oabout 80% or more in cacao was reported in Western Samoa [13]) andthe disease was also reported to severely affect plants o about 2-6 years

old, causing death o the whole tree [2,14]. In Ghana, yield losses due tothe disease on experimental plots at Bunso in the Eastern region ranged

between 60 and 100% [11]). Te upsurge o the disease in the Western

Region o Ghana, a region which accounts or over 40% o the national

cocoa output and earlier reports o sporadic occurrences in the other

cacao growing regions [12] is o great concern to the cocoa industry. It

is apparent that very soon production levels in these areas will decline

as a result o the pink disease unless there is rapid intervention.

In spite o reports o the disease in the country over the years,

armers in outbreak areas have little knowledge o the disease and are

unable to identiy the disease. Te effects o the disease on yield andevaluation o management methods have also not been assessed indetail. Tis study was aimed at assessing the incidence and severity o

pink disease in selected districts o the Western Region and the effecto the disease on yield o cacao. It was also to confirm the identity othe pink disease pathogen, describe symptoms on cacao in Ghana to

*Corresponding author:Andrews Y Akro, Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana,

P. O. Box 8, Akim Tafo, Ghana, Tel: 233 244715009; Fax: 233 342021157; E-mail:

[email protected]

Received:December 24, 2013; AcceptedJanuary 09, 2013; PublishedJanuary

14, 2014

Citation:AkroAY, Amoako-Atta I, Assuah M, Kumi-Asare E(2014) Pink Disease

Caused by Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Burdsall: An Epidemiological

Assessment of its Potential Effect on Cocoa Production in Ghana. J Plant Pathol

Microb 5: 215. doi:10.4172/2157-7471.1000215

Copyright: 2014 AkroAY, et al.This is an open-access article distributed underthe terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted

use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and

source are credited.

Abstract

Pink disease caused by Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Burdsall has been reported on Theobroma

cacao, L (cacao) in Ghana for many years but has not been studied in detail. During an epidemiological assessment

of the potential effect of the disease on cocoa production in the Western region of Ghana, the disease was found on

393 out of 25,600 cacao trees inspected and on 46 out of 128 farms surveyed. Typical symptoms of pink disease

were observed on infected branches and four different growth forms, cobwebby, pink to salmon encrustation, creamy

pustules and orange fruiting bodies were identied. Based on the symptoms in the eld, microscopic examinationof the fruiting bodies and pathogenicity tests, all the isolates were identied as E. salmonicolor, Berk. & Broome.

Generally, pink disease signicantly (p


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Citation:AkroAY, Amoako-Atta I, Assuah M, Kumi-Asare E(2014) Pink Disease Caused by Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Burdsall:

An Epidemiological Assessment of its Potential Effect on Cocoa Production in Ghana. J Plant Pathol Microb 5: 215. doi:10.4172/2157-

7471.1000215

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acilitate easy identification by armers and extension personnel, andalso evaluate selected ungicides or the management o the disease.

Materials and MethodsDisease survey

From September to December, 2013, 128 cacao armers arms in11 administrative districts in the Western region o Ghana (Figure1) were surveyed or incidence and severity o pink disease. Te bulko Ghanas cocoa is produced in the Western region. Te number oarms surveyed per district ranged between 5 and 25. On each arm,disease incidence was estimated through visual inspection o 200cacao trees along a diagonal transect. Inected cacao trees were taggedand symptoms on the various parts o the tree described. Extensionagents, arm owners or caretakers o inected arms were interviewedto estimate the year they first observed the disease. Shade trees on thearms were also observed or pink disease symptoms.

Each inected cacao plant on each arm was assessed or diseaseseverity. Disease severities were categorized as ollows:

a. mildly inected - trees with 1-25% o branches inected

b. moderately inectedtrees with 26-50% inection

c. severely inectedtrees with 51-75% inection

d. very severely inectedtrees with 76-100% inection.

Isolation

Isolations were made directly rom cobwebby and pink pustulargrowth orms on the surace o inected branches. A 44 mm2portiono advancing margins o lesions rom the two growth orms was surace

sterilized in 70% alcohol or 3 min. and washed in three changes osterile distilled water. Te portion was transerred to a selective mediumor the isolation o basidiomycetous ungi containing dichloran,benomyl and streptomycin [15] and incubated at 28C or 8 days. Tecolony morphologies o the pathogen on the media and microscopicobservation o the ruiting bodies were described.

Effect of pink disease on yield

A armers arm at Akim Asamama in the Atiwa district (6 18 50.4N, 0 3524W) o the Eastern Region o Ghana with high incidenceo pink disease was selected and used to assess the effect o the diseaseon cocoa pod production. Te arm eatures undulating terrain andplanted with mixed hybrid cocoa interspersed with permanent shade

trees. Te level o inection on each cacao tree on the arm was assessedand the trees were categorised into severity groups as above. wentytrees per severity group were randomly selected and twenty healthytrees served as control. Pods in the canopy and on the trunk o trees ineach severity group were counted separately at monthly intervals, andto avoid possible double counting, counted pods were tagged.

Pathogenicity testing

wo isolates o E. salmonicolor Berke. & Broome, one rom AkimAsamama in the Atiwa district (6 1850.4N, 0 3524W), Easternregion and the other rom Elubo in the Jumoro district (5 17' 0" N, 246' 0" W) in the Western region were tested or pathogenicity on eight-month old hybrid cacao seedlings grown in black polybags (12.515cm) containing heat-sterilized top soil. Te inoculum was 5 cm long

cocoa twig artificially inected with E. salmonicolor. Te twigs were cutrom 3-week old chupons rom a hybrid cacao tree and dipped intoone-cm deep malt extract agar media centrally inoculated with single

strand Akim Asamama and Elubo isolate o E. salmonicolor Berk. &Broome grown on water agar. Te twigs were arranged 2cm rom theinoculum and incubated at 28C until each twig was entirely covered by

the ungal mycelia. Te inected twig was aseptically removed and thenattached to the seedling by astening with a transparent polythene sheetat 15cm rom the soil surace. Uninoculated seedlings served as control.Tere were 15 plants or each treatment. Te treatments were lef undermature cacao trees, which provided shade and a humid environmentor inection. Te seedlings were watered every other day and observedor lesion establishment and development.

Effect of fungicides on pink lesion development

Tree ungicide ormulations, Kocide 2000DF (53.8% Copper[II] hydroxide), Fungikill 50WP (35% copper [II] hydroxide and 15%metalaxyl) and Carlit (31.1% osetyl aluminium+31.1 metalaxyl+2.2%benalaxyl), which proved promising rom laboratory assay, were testedat two- and our-weekly intervals on progress o pink disease lesiongrowth on naturally inected cocoa trees on a armers arm at AkimAsamama. Te arm was selected based on its proximity to Akim aoand its accessibility to acilitate continuous monitoring and also todemonstrate to armers in the locality, management option available tothem. All Cocoa Research Institute o Ghanas recommended culturalpractices including pruning were carried out on the arm. Fungicideswere sprayed rom September to December, 2012, a period when pinkdisease symptoms were apparent in the field. Kocide 2000DF, Fungikill50WP and Carlit at 100 g, 75 g and 50 g in 15 L o water respectively weresprayed at two- and our-weekly intervals with pneumatic knapsacksprayer. Five replicate trees were maintained or each treatment andfive untreated trees served as control. Inected branches were assessedmonthly and the lesion growth measured.

Statistical analyses

Regression analyses were used to estimate the relationship betweenobserved and expected reduction in cocoa yield due to pink disease inthe cacao canopy and on the trunk.

Results

Incidence and severity of pink disease

Pink disease was identified on 46 out o the 128 cacao armsand in seven out o the 11 districts surveyed. A total o 25,600 cacaotrees were inspected and 393 (1.6%) were inected by pink disease.In the inected districts, pink disease incidence ranged rom 0.5% inthe Wassa Amenfi West (Amw) district to 4.9% in the Juaboso (Jua)

district (able 1). Te highest number o inected trees (115) was oundin the Sewi Wiawso (Sw) district. Te disease was not ound in Aowin(Aow), Mpohor/Wassa East (Mpe), arkwa/Prestea/Huni Valley(ph) and Akontombra (Ako) districts indicating that pink disease ismore prevalent in the eastern part o the Western region (Figure 1). Oninected arms, the disease was not contiguous but more common inhumid areas and in closely spaced plantings with interlocking branches.Te earliest date the disease was ound in the region was in 2006 duringa survey to ascertain the distribution o Phytophthora megakaryaoncocoa arms in Ghana. All severity groups were recorded in the WassaAmenfi East and Sewi Wiawso districts. However, majority o thediseased trees were mildly inected (62.4%), and only 2% were severelyinected and apparently killed (able 2).

Symptoms in the fieldDisease symptom was characterized initially by dieback o inected

branches with the brown dead leaves within the otherwise green canopy
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o the trees. Te dead leaves remained attached to the declining treesor several weeks when observed rom a distance. Te disease appear

as coating o brown to pink incrustation o hyphae (ruiting bodies),yellowing and browning o leaves and complete deoliation on severelyaffected branches and twigs. A closer observation o an inected branch

revealed a coating o drab paint on the branch. Irrespective o age,affected branches maniest the ollowing symptoms (Figure 2, toppanel); typical pinkish to orange coloration (Figure 2a) and diebacksymptoms. Desiccated flowers (Figure 2b) and mummified ruits(Figure 2c) remain attached to declining trees or several weeks. Teaffected barks o such declining trees were usually dry with severallongitudinal cracks (Figure 2d). Although tree dieback occurredthroughout the year, symptoms were more prevalent during the dryseason, especially or trees on arms with little or no shade.

Four distinct growth orms o pink disease were identified on thebark o inected cacao trees in Ghana (Figure 2, middle panel). Tesewere cobwebby, pink to salmon-colored incrustation, creamy pustulesand orange ruiting bodies. Te cobwebby stage appeared as a layer o

light white to pink-coloured vegetative mycelia on the surace o thebark (Figure 2e) and was ollowed by the ormation o pink to salmon-colored pustules on any part o the inected branch (Figure 2). Te thirdgrowth stage consisted o creamy pustules which are more conspicuouson the underside o the branch (Figure 2g) which developed into orangeruiting bodies (Figure 2h) on dying inected stems, branches andtwigs. All our growth orms may be ound together on the diseasedbark at the same time but the most conspicuous and distinctive arethe salmon-pink encrustations ormed by hyphal ruiting bodies earlierdescribed on branches and stems o the tree, causing twig and branchinjuries, stem canker, and eventually host plant death [16].

Morphology on agar media

On the selective medium, colonies rom cobwebby growth orm

appeared cottony-white with thread-like mycelia at the advancingmargins (Figure 2i) but turned creamy with age (Figure 2j). Incontrast, colonies rom pink pustules were initially pink (Figure 2k)but turned creamy (Figure 2l) within one week. None o the isolatesrom the different growth stages produced spores in culture. However,microscopic examination o naturally inected branches showed thepustular orms producing hyaline non-septate hyphae (Figure 2m) andmasses o irregularly shaped hyaline, unicellular, ellipsoid spores, 10-24 8-12 (Figure 2n). All the isolates were identified as Erythriciumsalmonicolor (syn. Corticium salmonicolor,Berk. and Broome) basedon symptoms in the field and microscopic examination o the ruitingbodies.

Pathogenicity test

Both Akim Asamama and Elubo isolate o E. salmonicolor, Berk.

and Broome established on the inoculated seedlings. However, while

mycelial growth rate o Asamama isolate was aster, Elubo isolate

proved to be more virulent. Afer 6 months, 90% o the inoculated test

plants became irreversibly desiccated reproducing symptoms similar

to that observed on branches in the field. In contrast, the uninoculated

control plants remained healthy. Erythricium salmonicolor, Berk. and

Broome was re-isolated rom all inected plants.

Effect of pink disease on cocoa pod production

Pink disease inection reduced cocoa pod production significantly(p


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inected trees (Figure 3). Similarly, an increasing trend o pod reductionwith increase in pink disease severity was observed on the trunk.

Disease management

Te effects o different ungicides and their interval o applicationon pink disease progress on naturally inected cacao trees at AkimAsamama are presented in Figure 4. Pink disease was not controlledwith Fungikill 50WP applied at two- and our-weekly intervals thoughlesion growth at 2-weekly interval application was slower than on the

4-weekly interval. Carlit and Kocide 2000DF at two- and our-weeklyintervals proved effective against the disease in the initial stages oapplication. However, eight-weeks afer application, lesion re-growthwas recorded on Carlit sprayed at our-weekly interval and afer 20weeks, the lesion length had reached 5 cm. Similar re-growth wasobserved on Carlit sprayed at two-weekly interval but lesion re-growthwas delayed until 12 weeks and at 20 weeks, the lesion had unexpectedlyattained a length o 9 cm. Tere was no growth o pink disease lesion onKocide 2000DF treated trees.

Discussion

Other than preliminary reports [10,11], this study representsthe first detailed report o pink disease on cacao on armers armsin the Western region o Ghana. Pink disease was earlier reported

in the Western region on cacao arms at Asankragua in the AmenfiWest district and later at Sewi Wiawso during a survey to establishthe distribution o Phythophthora species in the country. Te current

study shows that the disease is spreading widely in the eastern parto the region, and it is currently confirmed in five more districts,Amenfi East, Amenfi Central, Juaboso, Bia and Sewi Bekwai/Bibiani/Anwiaso, and a total o 17 cocoa growing districts in the country.Te distribution o the disease on arms and in the districts is notcontiguous, and thus, the disease was not ound in some districts inthe region and on any o the shade trees on the cocoa arms surveyed.Tis confirms the earlier finding by Opoku et al. [11] in which noneo the shade trees on the experimental plots surveyed were inected.However, E. salmonicolor, Berk. and Broome is known to be a commonwidespread pathogen o tropical woody trees, having been ound on

over 141 genera o plants causing shoot blight and dieback o trees and

shrubs [6]. All the inections on the arms surveyed were natural and

the source(s) and amount o primary inoculum were unknown. Tese

actors could be variable in the districts and arms surveyed and could

account or the absence o the disease on some arms and on trees other

than cacao. Te absence o the disease on some arms and on some

cacao and orest trees could also have been due to escape rather than

their inherent resistance. Further surveys will thereore be required to

confirm this present finding. Te districts where the disease has been

confirmed have high annual rainall averages (above 1000 mm). Tis

agrees with findings that pink disease becomes increasingly prevalent

and damaging in areas o high rainall [17]. Basidiospore germination

in E. salmonicolorhas also been shown to be efficient at 100% relativehumidity [18]. Tis correlation suggests that the disease can easilyspread in the cacao growing regions and will help to ocus uture

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a b

c

d

e f g h

i j k l m n

Figure 2:Symptoms of pink disease (top panel) showing pinkish colouration of infected branches (a), desiccated owers (b),

mummied pod (c) and severe cracks on bark of declining infected cacao tree (d); development stages of E. salmonicolor(Berk.

& Broome) on cacao (middle panel) indicating vegetative mycelia mat (e), pink to salmon-colored pustules (f), creamy pustules (g)

and orange pustules on a branch (h); and colony morphology and microscopic examination of E. salmonicolor(Berk. & Broome)isolate (lower panel) showing colony morphology 7 dai (i) and 28 dai (j) from cobweb growth stage and 3 dai (k) and 7 dai (l) from

pink-coloured pustules, incubated at 28C 2C on selective medium for basidiomycetes and hyaline non-septate hyphae (m) and

irregularly shaped hyaline, unicellular, ellipsoid spores (n) from pustules on naturally infected branches.
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surveys or pink disease in Ghana because most cocoa growing areas inthe country have annual rainall above 1000 mm per annum.

Most armers were not amiliar with the disease and regarded itas sun-burns. A description o the symptoms on cacao and variousgrowth orms will acilitate easy identification o the disease by armersand extension personnel. Te study showed that even though there areour different growth orms, all these orms could be ound together ona diseased branch. o acilitate identification o the disease by armersand extension personnel, a act sheet highlighting and describing thesymptoms with pictures is required. Education on the disease alsoneeds to be intensified.

From the study, pink disease was ound to significantly reducecocoa yield. Te effect o the disease was also more pronounced inthe canopy than on the trunk. Inections were largely confined to thebranches, although the trunks o a ew stands below the first jorquettewere in the advanced stage o inection. Although all the affected treessurvived the attack, most o their branches died rom the inections.

Te disease is known to result in girdling cankers which disrupts thephysiological processes leading to deoliation and death o the distalparts o the tree. Tis ultimately results in reduction in photosynthate

production and consequently, reduction in cocoa yield. Te studyshowed that flowers as well as pods could be inected. It is thereorenot surprising that pod numbers in both the canopy and on the trunk

decreased as the severity o the disease increased.

Apart rom ensuring good drainage, shade reduction and removalo susceptible orest and shade trees to control pink disease [9,19]the disease can also be controlled by requent pruning and burningo inected parts, supplemented with ungicide treatment. Fungicides

reported to show activity against E. salmonicolor, Berk. and Broome

include copper ormulations such as Bordeaux mixture, copper

oxychloride, copper carbonate [20-23], tridemorph paints in an

ammoniated latex base [24]); triadimeon granules [25]; chlorothalonil

paints in a latex/bitumen base [8] and enpropimorph [26]. In the

current study, Kocide 2000DF, a copper-based only ungicide was

the most effective in controlling the disease. Tus cultural control,

including pruning o inected branches supplemented with monthly

spraying o Kocide 2000DF ungicide holds promise or effectivecontrol o pink disease in Ghana.

Conclusions

Although pink disease is known to occur in Ghana, its spread inthe Western Region, the major cocoa producing region in the countryis being reported or the first time. Also, or the first time in Ghana, anelaborate description o symptoms o the disease has been documentedand the effect o the disease on cocoa yield has been demonstrated. Amethod or managing the disease has also been demonstrated and thusarmers have assurance that pink disease, hitherto, suspected to be astrange disease on cacao can be managed.

Acknowledgements

Our thanks go to Dr. G. Akum-Ameyaw for his suggestions in the preparation

of this paper. The assistance of the technical staff of Plant Pathology Division

of CRIG in the disease assessment is also gratefully acknowledged. This paper

CRIG/06/2013/037/ is published with the permission of the Executive Director,

Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana, Akim Tafo.

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0

5

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0 4 8 12 16 20

Cummula

tvelenghtoflesion(cm)

Weeks

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Citation:AkroAY, Amoako-Atta I, Assuah M, Kumi-Asare E (2014) Pink Disease Caused

by Erythricium salmonicolor (Berk. & Broome) Burdsall: An Epidemiological Assessment

of its Potential Effect on Cocoa Production in Ghana. J Plant Pathol Microb 5: 215.

doi:10.4172/2157-7471.1000215

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indianforester/article/view/10024http://www.jnronline.com/index.php/indianforester/article/view/10024http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractSearchTerm=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&query=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractID=19841303189http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractSearchTerm=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&query=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractID=19841303189http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractSearchTerm=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&query=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractID=19881117453http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractSearchTerm=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&query=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractID=19881117453http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractSearchTerm=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&query=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractID=19881117453http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000215http://www.cabi.org/ISC/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractSearchTerm=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&query=sn%3A%220370-7962%22&AbstractID=19841396061http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractSearchTerm=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&query=do%3A%22ASCOLFI+Informa%22&AbstractID=19881117453http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractSearchTerm=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&query=au%3A%22Jacob%2C+C.+K.%22&AbstractID=19841303189http://www.jnronline.com/index.php/indianforester/article/view/10024http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule=CABISEARCHRESULTS&query=do:%22Annual+Report+of+the+Research+Branch%2C+Department+of+Agriculture%2C+Sarawak%2C+for+the+year+1984.%22http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=au%3A%22RAM%2C+A.+%22&AbstractSearchTerm=au%3A%22RAM%2C+A.+%22&query=au%3A%22RAM%2C+A.+%22&AbstractID=19841396060http://books.google.co.in/books/about/Pests_and_Diseases_of_Tropical_Crops_Han.html?id=N1SgMmaJXWQC&redir_esc=yhttp://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=4066&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=au%3A%22Schl%C3%B6sser%2C+E.%22&AbstractSearchTerm=au%3A%22Schl%C3%B6sser%2C+E.%22&query=au%3A%22Schl%C3%B6sser%2C+E.%22&AbstractID=19861319https://archive.org/details/diseasesandpests029745mbphttp://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND91038871http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/361840http://www.cabi.org/isc/Default.aspx?site=144&page=2540&LoadModule11=CABISEARCHRESULTS&LoadAction=LoadAbstract&term=do%3A%22Alafua+Agricultural+Bulletin%22&AbstractSearchTerm=do%3A%22Alafua+Agricultural+Bulletin%22&query=do%3A%22Alafua+Agricultural+Bulletihttp://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000215http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000215http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000215

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