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chapter

Physico-chemical

Parameters

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CHAPTER 3

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

3.1 Introduction

Water is ‘life’. It is one of the basic needs in the world. Water is probably the

only natural resource to touch all aspects of human civilization from agricultural and

industrial development to cultural and religious values rooted in society. The total

amount of water on the earth is about 1.35 billion cubic kilometers. About 97.1 % has

been locked into oceans as saltwater. Ice sheets and glaciers have arrested 2.1 %, and

only 0.2 % is the fresh water present on the earth, which can be used by human for

variety of purposes. Remaining 0.6 % is in underground form and India has 4% of

water resources of the world, while it has to support 16% of the world population and

15% of livestock, unfortunately it has been getting polluted day by day due to

different anthropogenic activities. So it is necessary to conserve the water and prevent

it from every type of pollution. There should be proper investigation of quality and

management of water. This could be possible by continuous water quality monitoring.

Freshwater is one of the basic needs of the mankind and is vital to all forms of life. It

exists in lentic and lotic habitats. All the lentic habitats, such as reservoirs, ponds and

lakes, are extremely important as they are endowed with abundance of other natural

resources too. Dams are also called artificial lakes. In order to fulfill the various needs

of man, dams have been constructed across the rivers so as to form a pool of water on

the upstream side of the barrier. These artificial lakes are called water reservoirs. The

quality of this reservoir water is not much different from that of a natural lake. The

water stored in the reservoir can be used easily not only for water supplies but also for

irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and aquaculture. It also enhances the

aesthetic as well as ecological value of the area.

Water has a unique place on planet as it supports life on earth. The entire

fabric of life is woven around it. Man uses this important resource collected in

depressions on earth or creates depressions by blocking the streams and constructing

reservoirs, because of industrial development and unplanned urbanization. This

important resource for life has been polluted to a point of crisis. A healthy

environment is necessary for any organism, since life depends upon the continuance

of a proper exchange of essential substances and energies between the organisms and

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its surroundings (Welch, 1952)

The adverse impact is felt on the unique physical and chemical properties of

water. The fish and other organisms that inhabit these reservoirs are also affected

which in turn influence the functions of the reservoir. Water Quality is important for

drinking, irrigation, fish production, recreation and other purposes. The water quality

deterioration in reservoirs usually results from acidification, heavy metal

contamination, organic pollution, obnoxious fishing practices and excessive nutrient

input that leads to eutrophication. The effects of these imports into the reservoir not

only affect the socio-economic functions of the reservoir negatively, but also lead to

the loss of structural biodiversity of the reservoir. The physico-chemical properties of

water quality assessment give a proper indication of the status, productivity and

sustainability of a water body. The changes in the physico-chemical characteristics

like temperature and chemical elements of water such as dissolved oxygen, nitrates

and phosphates provide valuable information on the quality of the water, the source

(s) of the variations and their impacts on the functions and biodiversity of the

reservoir.

Hence, the consideration of the physico-chemical factors in the study of

limnology is basis for the understanding of trophic dynamics of the water body. The

physical and chemical properties of water immensely influence uses of a water body

for the distribution and richness of biota. Each factor plays its own role but at the

same time the final effect is the actual result of the interactions of all the factors.

These factors serve as a basis for the richness or otherwise biological productivity of

any aquatic environment. Looking at the importance of understanding physico-

chemical properties of water in a water body for supporting various biota, a study was

planned to find out physico-chemical status of water of Budki M.I. Tank, a perennial

water body present at Budki. Following parameters we considered for the study.

3.1.1 Temperature (Temp.)

Temperature is a measure of the intensity (not the amount) of heat stored in a

volume of water measured in calories and is the product of the weight of the

substance (in grams), temperature (°C) and the specific heat (Cal/gram °C).

Temperature of water may not be as important in pure water because of the wide

range of temperature tolerance in aquatic life, but in polluted water, temperature can

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have profound effects on dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand

(BOD)

In general atmospheric ambient and water temperature depend on

geographical location and meteorological conditions such as rainfall, humidity, cloud

cover, wind velocity, etc. Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at

different levels of earth surface. It is governed by many factors including incoming

solar radiation, humidity and altitude. Atmospheric temperature varies as one move

vertically upwards from the earth's surface. The atmospheric and water temperature

go more or less hand in hand (Macan, 1958). Water temperature is an important

factor which influences the chemical, biochemical and biological characteristics of

water body. Water temperature is of enormous significance as it regulates various

abiotic characteristics and activities of an aquatic ecosystem (Hutchinson, 1957 and

Kataria et. al., 1995).

3.1.2 Water cover (WC)

In Indian climatic conditions the water level of any fresh water body fluctuates

seasonally influencing water cover. The rate of inflow and outflow of water with

resultant water level have a direct bearing on productivity of water body as the sudden

fluctuations directly affect the biotic communities. Plankton, benthos and periphyton

pulses coincide with the months of least water fluctuations, that is, all the

communities are at their ebb during the months of maximum levels and water

discharge (Sugunan and Pathak, 1986). The spillway discharge, apart from dislodging

the standing crop of plankton, removes the oxygenated clear water of the top layer,

leaving the oxygen deficient bottom water. Conversely, the deep drawdown removes

the decomposing material including nutrients (Jhingran, 1975). Percentage of shallow

area (littoral formation), which varies at different seasons depending on the contour of

water body, is also an indicator of productive nature of the Lakes (Sugunan, 2000).

An irregular shoreline encompasses more littoral formation and areas of land and

water interface. Thus, a high value of shoreline development index is believed to be

indicative of productive nature of the water body. High shoreline indices of Hirakud

(13.5), Gobindsagar (12.26), Tilaiya (9.12), Konar (8.78), Nagarjunsagar (7.89) and

Rihand (7.04) have been correlated to a moderate to rich plankton community

(Sugunan, 2000).

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3.1.3 Transparency (Trans.)

Transparency is a characteristic of water that varies with the combined effect

of colour and turbidity. It measures the depth to which light penetrates in the water

body. Transparency gives an idea about the degree of suspended particles in the

water, which in turn affects the light penetration (Verma et.al., 1980). Clear water

permits light to penetrate more deeply into the lake than does cloudy water. This light

allows photosynthesis and production of oxygen in deeper water while pollution tends

to reduce water clarity.

Evaluation of the vertical extinction and spectral characteristics of light in

natural waters is commonly accomplished in situ with modern underwater quantum

sensors. The Secchi disc transparency is essentially a function of the reflection of

light from its surface and is therefore influenced by the absorption characteristics of

both, the water and its dissolved and particulate matter. The Secchi disc

transparencies range from few centimeters in turbid reservoirs to over 40 m in a few

rare clear lakes. The Secchi disc transparency correlates closely with the percentage

transmission of light. Higher water transparency is recorded at the beginning of dry

season as a consequence of reduced rain (Cleber and Giani, 2001). Transparency of

water is generally influenced by factors like wind action, plankton concentration,

suspended silt particles and decomposition of organic matter at the bottom.

3.1.4 Total solids (TS), Total suspended solids (TSS) and Total dissolved solids

(TDS)

Total solids are dissolved solids plus suspended and settleable solids in water.

In stream water, dissolved solids consist of calcium, chlorides, nitrates, phosphorus,

iron, sulfur, and other ion particles that will pass through a filter with pores of around

2 microns (0.002 cm) in size. Suspended solids include silt and clay particles,

plankton, algae, fine organic debris, and other particulate matter. These are particles

that will not pass through a 2-micron filter. A high concentration of total solids will

make drinking water unpalatable and might have an adverse effect on people who are

not used to drinking such water.

Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which

will not pass through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and

many types of industrial waste water. There are also nonpoint sources of suspended

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solids, such as soil erosion from agricultural and construction sites. As levels of TSS

increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to support a diversity of aquatic life.

Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water temperature and

subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen (warmer water holds less oxygen

than cooler water). Some cold water species, such as trout and stoneflies, are

especially sensitive to changes in dissolved oxygen. Photosynthesis also decreases,

since less light penetrates the water. As less oxygen is produced by plants and algae,

there is a further drop in dissolved oxygen levels. TSS can also destroy fish habitat

because it can harm fish directly by clogging gills, reducing growth rates, and

lowering resistance to disease. Most people consider water with a TSS concentration

less than 20 mg/L to be clear. Water with TSS levels between 40 and 80 mg/L tends

to appear cloudy, while water with concentrations over 150 mg/L usually appears

dirty. The nature of the particles that comprise the suspended solids may cause these

numbers to vary.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts and small amounts of

organic matter that are dissolved in water. The principal constituents are usually the

cations Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium and the anions carbonate,

bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate and, particularly in groundwater, nitrate (from

agricultural use). (TDS) are solids in water that can pass through a filter (usually with

a pore size of 0.45 micrometers). TDS is a measure of the amount of material

dissolved in water. This material can include carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides,

sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, organic ions, and other

ions. A certain level of these ions in water is necessary for aquatic life. Some

dissolved solids come from organic sources such as leaves, silt, plankton, and

industrial waste and sewage, other sources come from runoff from urban areas, road

salts used on street during the winter, and fertilizers and pesticides used on lawns and

farms.

As per APHA (1998), solids refer to the matter that is suspended or dissolved

in the water or waste water. The total suspended solids (TSS), is a portion of total

solids (TS) retained by a filter while the total dissolved solids (TDS) are the in

filterable solids, mostly inorganic salts and small amount of organic matter dissolved

in the water. These have been proved to be very useful parameters in determining the

productivity of water, and of biological and physical waste water treatment processes.

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A limit of 500 mg/L TDS is permissible in drinking water. The concentration of total

dissolved solid gives an idea about suitability of this water for various uses including

potability of water (Trivedy, 1995).Water in nature contains both organic and

inorganic solids varying both qualitatively and quantitatively with the season. TDS

may affect the water quality adversely in a number of ways. Waters with highly

dissolved solids are generally of inferior potability and may induce an unfavorable

physiological reaction in the transient consumer. Highly mineralized water is not

suitable for many industrial applications (APHA, 1985) as it increases hardness and

corrosive properties of the water and may create an imbalance for the aquatic life,

whereas the suspended sediments are probably key factors controlling the availability

of light.

The amount of hydrocarbonates and corresponding TDS in the water are

positively correlated with phytoplankton and zooplankton diversity (Karatayev et. al.,

2008). The wetlands act as sinks for the nutrient deposition and hence, the high TDS

value may also depends on the age of the lake (Anitha et. al., 2005) as a result of

gradual salt deposition.

3.1.5 pH (Potentia hydrogenii)

pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration, is one of the most

important and frequently used test in the water chemistry. It is a valuable indicator

for the acid alkali balance of water. Practically every phase of water supply and waste

water treatment of acid base neutralization and water softening, precipitation,

disinfection and corrosion control are pH dependent. In case of pollution by acidic

and alkaline wastes, the pH serves as an index to denote the extent of pollution. pH

changes in water are governed by the amount of free carbon-dioxide, carbonates and

bicarbonates. The alteration of hydrogen ion concentration of water is accompanied

by changes in other physico-chemical aspects. In addition to factors like temperature,

salinity, atmospheric pressure, disposal of industrial wastes, etc., biological factors

such as respiration and photosynthesis also influence pH.

The pH of water determines the solubility and biological availability of

certain chemical nutrients such as Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Carbon as well as heavy

metals like Lead, Copper, Cadmium, etc. It indicates how much and what form of

Phosphorus is most abundant in water and whether aquatic life can use the form

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available. Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH because they are more soluble in

acidic water. Measured on a scale of 0-14, pH of natural water usually lies in the

range of 4.4 to 8.5. The rise in pH parallels with the rise in carbonate alkalinity and

percentage of Oxygen saturation. It is probably not affected by photosynthetic

activity of a water body (Kobbia et. al., 1992; Kebede, 1996). A weak correlation

between pH and fresh water gastropod species richness has been established by

Sarkar and Hakuriat (1964) whereas, with temperature, pH has been considered to

cause summer minima of total phytoplankton density (Hujare, 2005). Further, Sharma

et.al, (2008) have described role of pH in formation of algal bloom too. Thus, pH

plays important role in controlling biotic community structure of a water body

3.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen ( DO)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) plays a vital role for the survival of organisms in a

water body, the presence of Oxygen is a positive sign and the absence of Oxygen is a

sign of severe pollution. Waters with consistently high dissolved oxygen are

considered to be stable aquatic systems capable of supporting many different kinds of

aquatic life. Dissolved oxygen (DO) refers to the volume of Oxygen that is contained

in water. Oxygen enters the water by photosynthesis of aquatic biota and by the

transfer of Oxygen across the air-water interface. The amount of Oxygen that can be

held by the water depends on the water temperature, salinity, and pressure. Gas

solubility increases with decreasing temperature (colder water holds more oxygen).

Gas solubility increases with decreasing salinity (freshwater holds more Oxygen than

does saltwater). Both the partial pressure and the degree of saturation of oxygen will

change with altitude. Finally, gas solubility decreases as pressure decreases. Thus, the

amount of Oxygen absorbed in water decreases as altitude increases because of the

decrease in relative pressure (Smith, 1990).

The concentration of DO diverse significantly over 24 hours, mostly due to

photosynthetic activity of plants. During the day time photosynthesis occurs and

release Oxygen into the water and during night, respiration occurs which remove

Oxygen from the water. In cold water the more oxygen can be dissolved therefore,

DO concentrations at one location are usually higher in the winter than in the summer.

During dry (summer) seasons, water levels decrease and the flow rate of a river slows

down. As the water moves slower, it mixes less with the air, and the DO concentration

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decreases. During rainy seasons, Oxygen concentrations tend to be higher because the

rain interacts with Oxygen in the air as it falls. More sunlight and warmer

temperatures also bring increased activity levels in plant and animal life; depending

on what organisms are present, this may increase or decrease the DO concentration.

The aquatic plant density also affects the concentration of Oxygen, fewer plants grow

in winter because of cold temperature and shorter day length and more green plants

mean more photosynthesis, which produces more Oxygen during the day when the

sun is shining. The anthropogenic activities also change DO due to organic wastes,

urban runoff, removal of aquatic vegetation and construction of dams.

According to Ramchandra and Solanki (2007) dissolved Oxygen is essential

to the respiratory metabolism of most aquatic organisms. The dynamics of oxygen

distribution in inland waters are governed by a balance between inputs from the

atmosphere and photosynthesis and losses from the chemical and biotic oxidations.

DO is a very important parameter for the survival of fishes and other aquatic

organisms. It is also needed for many chemical reactions that are important for lake

functioning such as oxidation of metals, decomposition of dead and decaying matter

etc.

3.1.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Free carbon dioxide is present in water in the form of a dissolved gas, surface

waters usually contain less than 10 ppm free carbon dioxide and some ground waters

may easily go beyond that concentration. Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water;

over the ordinary temperature range (0-30 0C) the solubility is about 200 times that of

Oxygen. Calcium and Magnesium combine with carbon dioxide to form their

carbonates and bicarbonates. Aquatic plant life depends upon carbon dioxide and

bicarbonates in water for growth and microscopic life suspended in the water,

phytoplankton, as well as large rooted plants and utilize carbon dioxide in the

photosynthesis of plant materials such as starches, sugars, oils, proteins. The carbon

in all these materials comes from the carbon dioxide in water.

Free CO2 in water accumulates due to microbial activity and respiration of

organisms. It imparts the acidity to the water because of the formation of carbonic

acid. Photosynthesis and respiration are two major processes that influence the

amount of CO2 in water. Algae and submerged macrophytes require an abundant and

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readily available source of Carbon for high sustainable growth. The dissolved carbon

dioxide influences water quality properties such as acidity, hardness and related

characteristics. Thus, it is essential that the rudiments of dissolved inorganic Carbon

reactivity be evolved. Hence, CO2 forms an important component in aquatic

ecosystem.

A high level of carbon dioxide usually indicates that there is a lot of dead

material undergoing decomposition. This may occur naturally, but could be the result

of different types of water pollution or water treatment. The carbon dioxide in a lake

is not constant but it changes. Dead organisms usually sink as a result the carbon

dioxide level caused by their decomposition is usually greater near the bottom of the

lake. The level of carbon dioxide will be higher at night because the plants will be

using Oxygen and producing carbon dioxide at the time. The carbon dioxide level

will be greater in the fall due to dead algae and animals that have died over the winter

and are now decaying and in terms of succession; an older lake will have more

carbon dioxide because of more decay due to more organisms.

3.1.8 Total hardness (TH)

Total hardness (Calcium and Magnesium) is an important parameter in the

detection of water pollution. It exists mainly as bicarbonates of Ca++ and Mg++ and to

a lesser degree in the form of Sulphates and Chlorides. Calcium is an essential

nutritional element for animal life and also aids in maintaining the structure of plant

cells and soil. Magnesium possesses no major concern with public health. Limits of

concentration of hardness set for water are based mainly on palatability, corrosion and

incrustation.

The water hardness is a traditional measure of the capacity of water to react

with soap. Hard water requires a considerable amount of soap to leather. Calcium and

Magnesium are the most abundant elements that render hardness to natural surface as

well as ground waters. They exist mainly as bicarbonates of (Ca++), (Mg++) and to a

lesser degree in the form of Sulphates (SO4-) and Chlorides (Cl-). Hardness caused

by, bicarbonates and carbonates of Calcium and Magnesium is called temporary

hardness whereas that caused by their sulphates and chlorides is called permanent

hardness. Natural hardness of water depends upon the geological nature of the

catchment area. It plays an important role in the distribution of aquatic biota and

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many species are identified as indicators for hard and soft waters (Ramchandra et. al.,

2006). In the presence of carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate is dissolved in water. It

maintains the pH of the most natural waters between 6.0 to 8.0. However, dissolved

Magnesium concentrations are lower than Calcium for a majority of the natural

waters. Because of the high solubility of magnesium salts, this metal tends to remain

in solution and is less readily precipitated than Calcium. Calcium is an essential

nutrient element for animal life that aids in maintaining the structure of plant cells and

soils. The hardness may range from zero to hundreds of milligrams per liter

depending on the source and treatment to which the water has been subjected.

According to Larry (1996) total hardness observed for streams and rivers

throughout the world range between 1-1000 ppm as CaCO3. Hardness reflects the

composite measure of polyvalent cations whereas Calcium and Magnesium are the

primary constituent of hardness. Hardness value above 500mg/L is generally

unacceptable, although this level is tolerable in some communities (Zoeteman, 1980).

Total hardness is an important parameter in the detection of water pollution and

causes various diseases. Hardness of water is mainly caused by Calcium and

Magnesium in addition to water sulphates, nitrates, and silicates may also contribute

to hardness. Temporary hardness is caused by carbonate and bicarbonate ions and

they are removed by boiling of water on the other hand chlorides, sulphates and heavy

metals are difficult to remove. Hardness has been evaluated and correlated by

different workers for different purposes. Kudari et. al., (2006) classified water bodies

based on the hardness as slightly hard moderately hard and hard. While, Moshood,

(2008) stated that the utilization of Calcium and Magnesium ions by organisms

probably causes decrease in the concentration of total hardness in the dry season.

Higher hardness and conductivity of water in winter has been correlated to more

productive during this season. Hardness is very important parameter in decreasing the

toxic effects of poisonous elements.

3.1.9 Chlorides (Cl-)

The chloride concentration is one of the important indicators of water

pollution (Munawar, 1970 and Khare et. al., 2007). The maximum permissible limit

i.e. 500mg/L. for drinking water prescribed by WHO. According to Rajkumar et.

al.(2004) Chlorides occur naturally in all types of waters, high concentration of

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chlorides is considered to be the indicators of pollution due to organic wastes of

animal or industrial origin and chlorides are troublesome in irrigation water and also

harmful to aquatic life. In high concentrations, chlorides in urban areas are indicators

of large amounts of non-point pollution; pesticides, grease and oil, metals and other

toxic materials with high levels of chlorides. Chlorides are commonly found in

sewage, streams and wastewater. Chlorides are leached from various rocks into soil

and water by weathering. The chloride ions highly mobile and is transported to closed

basins. Chloride increases the electrical conductivity of water and thus increases its

corrosivity. In metal pipes, chloride reacts with metal ions to form soluble salts, thus

increasing levels of metals in drinking water. In lead pipes, a protective oxide layer is

built up, but chloride enhances galvanic corrosion. It can also increase the rate of

pitting corrosion of metal pipes.

The concentrations of four major cations Ca++, Mg++, Na+ and K+ and four

major anions, HCO3-, CO3

-, SO4- and Cl-, usually constitute the total ionic salinity of

the water for all practical purposes. Of these chlorides influence, in general, osmotic

salinity balance and ion exchange. However, metabolic utilization does not cause

large variations in the spatial and seasonal distribution of chlorides within most lakes,

but high chloride content may indicate the pollution by sewage/ industrial waste or

intrusion of the saline water (APHA, 1998).

3.1.10 Nitrates (NO3-)

Nitrates are one of the most important nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem. They

are the highly oxidized form of nitrogen compounds commonly present in the natural

water. They are the products of the aerobic decomposition of nitrogenous matter

received from domestic sewage, agricultural runoff and industrial effluents. Nitrate is

an inorganic chemical that is highly soluble in water; major sources of nitrate in

drinking water contain fertilizers, sewage and animal manure. Nitrogen is a major

nutrient that affects the productivity of fresh water. Dominant forms of nitrogen in

fresh waters include dissolved molecular N2, ammonia (NH3), nitrite (NO2-), nitrate

(NO3-) and large number of organic compounds like amino acids, amines,

nucleotides, proteins and refractory humic compounds of low nitrogen content

(Wetzel, 2006). Most nitrogen containing materials in natural waters tend to be

converted to nitrate. Nitrates also occur naturally in the environment, in mineral

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deposits, soil, seawater, freshwater systems, and the atmosphere.

Human activities and mainly those related to agriculture are a major cause of

the presence of nitrates and nitrites in surface water. These two substances are

responsible for many problems not only for environment but also for human health.

Indeed, although not directly toxic, they participate in eutrophication phenomena of

surface water. The nitrate concentration in the range (0-7.00 mg·/L), the nitrites

concentration in the range (0-0.28 mg·/L), and the ammonium ion concentration in the

range (0-0.03 mg·/L). This allows us to notice that the rates of nitrates obtained are

lower than the standards required which are in the order of 50 mg·/L. (WHO, 2004).

Their presence can be explained by an incomplete oxidation of the ammonia water or

a nitrate reduction reaction. This pollution can be caused by intense agricultural

activity (the studied region is known for its agricultural vocation) and misuse of

chemical fertilizers around the sewage waste water.

Nitrates generally occur in trace quantities in surface waters but may attain

low levels in ground water. However, the high amounts of nitrates are generally

indicative of water pollution. The runoff water coming from intensive agricultural

activities like use of fertilizers, also contributes to significant nitrate contents in

surface waters.

In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires EPA

to find out the level of contaminants in drinking water at which no complicated health

effects are likely to occur. These non-enforceable health goals, based solely on

possible health risks and exposure over a lifetime with an adequate margin of safety,

are called maximum contaminant level goals (MCLG). Contaminants are any

physical, chemical, biological or radiological substances or matter in water. The

MCLG for nitrate is 10 mg/L or 10 ppm. EPA has set this level of protection based on

the best available science to prevent potential health problems. EPA has set an

enforceable regulation for nitrate, called a maximum contaminant level (MCL), at 10

mg/L or 10 ppm. MCLs are set as close to the health goals as possible, considering

cost, benefits and the ability of public water systems to detect and remove

contaminants using suitable treatment technologies. In this case, the MCL equals the

MCLG, because analytical methods or treatment technology do not pose any

limitation.

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Nitrates are found only in small amounts in fresh domestic water. It is an

essential nutrient for many photosynthetic autotrophs and in some cases has been

identified as growth limiting nutrient. Many workers have reported the presence of

nitrates at higher levels in effluent water compared to fresh water. Adeyeye and

Abulude, (2004) Nitrates in natural waters can be traced to percolating nitrates from

sources such as decaying plant and animal materials, agricultural fertilizers and

domestic sewage. The presence of nitrates in the water samples is suggestive of some

bacterial action and bacterial growth (Narayan et. al., 2007). Low levels of nitrates

and phosphates are not indicative of low productivity as these nutrients are quickly

recycled (Sugunan, 2000). The natural concentration of 0.3 mg/L of nitrates may be

enhanced by fertilizer in the runoff, industrial and municipal waste waters up to 5

mg/L. In Lakes, concentration of nitrates in excess of 0.2 mg/L is found Nitrogen

stimulates algal growth leading to eutrophication (Ramchandra and Solanki, 2007).

According to Trevisan and Forsberg (2007) phytoplankton of Amazonian system of

lakes is mainly controlled by the availability of nutrients, especially nitrogen, during

the dry period. The concentration of nutrients, mainly Nitrogen and Phosphorus, are

the factors which govern the phytoplankton growth and distribution. Forbes et. al.,

(2008) could not detect any significant relationship between bioavailable nitrogen (i.e.

nitrate) and N2 fixation potentials with the help of both multiple linear regressions and

the pruned regression tree analysis. However, the roles of bioavailable nitrogen, as

well as temperature are normally revealed in the seasonal N2 fixation (Scott et. al.,

2008). A relationship between total Nitrogen and total phosphate exists which

indicates that both zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass increase with the increase

of total Nitrogen and total phosphate concentrations (Chun et. al., 2007).

3.1.11 Phosphates (PO4-3)

Phosphorus is necessary for the growth of biological organisms, including

both their metabolic and photosynthetic processes, it occurs naturally in water bodies

mainly in the form of phosphates a compound of phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphorus

is a nutrient essential for all organisms for the basic processes of life and natural

element found in rocks, soils and organic material. Phosphorus clings tightly to soil

particles and is used by plants, so its concentrations in clean waters are generally very

low. However, Phosphorus is used extensively in fertilizer and other chemicals, so it

can be found in higher concentrations in areas of human activity. Many harmless

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activities added together can cause Phosphorus overloads. Phosphates promote the

growth of plankton and aquatic plants which provide food for larger organisms,

including zooplankton, fish, humans, and other mammals. Plankton represents the

base of the food chain. Initially, this increased productivity will cause an increase in

the fish population and overall biological diversity of the system. The role of

Phosphate in promoting plant growth actually makes it a dangerous pollutant when

dumped in excessive quantities into aquatic ecosystems. In fact, plants have so much

difficulty that the chemical is a limiting nutrient. The rate at which plants can grow

and reproduce is limited by the amount of usable phosphates in the soil or water (for

aquatic plants). When humans add extra Phosphorous to water, they create a

condition called eutrophication that can wipe out aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication

is characterized by a rapid growth in the plant population called algal bloom. With

more living plants come more dead plants needing decomposition. The bacteria that

decompose the dead plants use Oxygen, and eventually burn up so much that not

enough remains to support fish, insects, mussels, and other animals, leading to a

massive die-off. The deposition of Phosphorus into lake sediments occurs by

mechanisms such as a) sedimentation of Phosphorus minerals imported from the

drainage basin, b) adsorption or precipitation of Phosphorus with inorganic

compounds c) uptake of phosphorus from the water column by algal and other

attached microbial communities (Bostrom et. al., 1988). The quantities of Phosphorus

entering the surface drainage vary with the amount of Phosphorus in catchment soils,

topography, vegetative cover, quantity and duration of runoff flow, land use and

pollution.

The presence of phosphates in almost every detergent, including household

cleaners and laundry soap, used to contribute significantly to eutrophication. In the

United States, the problem was moderated somewhat in the 1970 when the Clean

Water Act and other laws mandated the removal of Phosphates from many detergents

(next time you do laundry, look on the side of the box and should find the phrase

“Contains No Phosphates”), although industrial cleaners and some specialty

detergents still use phosphates.

3.1.12 Sulphate (SO4 -2)

Sulfate is a substance that occurs naturally in drinking water, regarding to

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health sulfate in drinking water have been raised because of reports that diarrhoea

may be associated with the ingestion of water containing high levels of sulfate. The

general population that may be at higher risk from the laxative effects of sulfates

when they experience a quick change from drinking water with low sulfate

concentrations to drinking water with high sulfate concentrations. According to

Delisle and Schmidt (1977), sulfates are discharged into water from mines and

smelters and from kraft pulp and paper mills, textile mills and tanneries. Sodium,

Potassium and Magnesium sulfates are all highly soluble in water, whereas calcium

and barium sulfates and many heavy metal sulfates are less soluble. Atmospheric

sulfur dioxide, formed by the combustion of fossil fuels and in metallurgical roasting

processes, may contribute to the sulfate content of surface waters. Sulfur trioxide,

produced by the photolytic or catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide, combines with

water vapour to form dilute sulfuric acid, which falls as “acid rain.” According to

Greenwood and Earnshaw (1984), sulfates and sulfuric acid products are used in the

production of fertilizers, chemicals, dyes, glass, paper, soaps, textiles, fungicides,

insecticides, astringents and emetics. They are also used in the mining, wood pulp,

metal and plating industries, in sewage treatment and in leather processing.

Aluminum sulfate (alum) is used as a sedimentation agent in the treatment of drinking

water. Copper sulfate has been used for the control of algae in raw and public water

supplies (McGuire , 1984).

Iron sulphides such as, FeS may be exposed to water and atmospheric Oxygen

by mining or rock excavation, producing sulphuric acid, which contributes sulphate to

ground and surface waters. Sulphates are also released during blasting and the

deposition of waste rock in dumps at metal mines. This is known as acid rock

drainage and is a significant source of sulphate generation in British Columbia. The

burning of fossil fuels is also a major source of Sulphur to the atmosphere. Most of

the man's emissions of Sulphur to the atmosphere, about 95%, are in the form of SO2.

Sulphate fertilizers are also a major source of sulphate to ambient waters. Sulphate

concentrations typically range between about 2 and 30 mg/L for most lakes and rivers

in British Columbia. Although, some lakes in the Cariboo Region and in Richter Pass

near Osoyoos have particularly high natural sulphate levels in the thousands of mg/L.

Seasonal fluctuations in dissolved sulphate concentrations are obvious in most rivers,

with low concentrations during freshet and elevated concentrations during winter low

44

flows.

Sulfates in drinking water currently have a secondary maximum contaminant

level (SMCL) of 250 milligrams per liter (mg/L), based on aesthetic effects (i.e., taste

and odor). This regulation is not a federally enforceable standard, but is provided as a

guideline for states and public water systems. EPA estimates that about 3% of the

public drinking water systems in the country may have sulfate levels of 250 mg/L or

greater. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), as amended in 1996, directs the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC) to jointly conduct a study to establish a reliable dose-response

relationship for the adverse human health effects from exposure to sulfate in drinking

water, including the health effects that may be experienced by sensitive

subpopulations (infants and travelers).

According to Cocchetto and Levy, (1981) ingestion of 8 g of sodium sulfate

and 7 g of magnesium sulfate caused catharsis in adult males. Cathartic effects are

commonly reported to be experienced by people consuming drinking-water

containing sulfates in concentrations exceeding 600 mg/L (US DHEW, 1962).

Dehydration has also been reported as a common side-effect following the ingestion

of large amounts of magnesium or sodium sulfate (Fingl, 1980)

3.1.13 Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is present in seawater and amounts about 1300 ppm., after Sodium

it is the most commonly found cation in oceans. Rivers contain approximately 4 ppm

of Magnesium, marine algae 6000-20,000 ppm and oysters 1200 ppm. Magnesium

and other alkali earth metals are responsible for water hardness. Water containing

large amounts of alkali earth ions is called hard water, and water containing low

amounts of these ions is called soft water. According to Pitter (1999) Magnesium is

usually less abundant in waters than Calcium, which is easy to understand since

Magnesium is found in the earth’s crust in much lower amounts as compared with

Calcium. In common underground and surface waters the weight concentration of Ca

is usually several times higher compared to that of Mg, the Ca to Mg ratio reaching up

to 10. Drinking water contains magnesium salts, the level of which varies depending

on the geographical region. It can enter the environment from discharge and

emissions from industries that use or manufacture Magnesium.

45

According to Weast (1987), Magnesium is the eighth most common element

in the crust of the Earth and is mainly tied up within mineral deposits, for example as

magnesite (magnesium carbonate [MgCO3]) and dolomite. The most plentiful source

of biologically available Magnesium, however, is the hydrosphere (i.e. oceans and

rivers). In the sea, the concentration of Magnesium is ∼55 mmol/L and in the Dead

Sea as an extreme example the concentration is reported to be 198 mmol/L

Magnesium has steadily increased over time. Magnesium salts dissolve easily in water

and are much more soluble than the respective Calcium salts. As a result, Magnesium

is readily available to organisms. Magnesium plays an important role in plants and

animals alike. In plants, Magnesium is the central ion of chlorophyll . In vertebrates,

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation and is essential, especially within cells,

being the second most common intracellular cation after Potassium, with both these

elements being vital for numerous physiological functions. Magnesium is also used

widely for technical and medical applications ranging from alloy production,

pyrotechnics and fertilizers to health care. Traditionally, magnesium salts are used as

antacids or laxatives in the form of magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2], magnesium

chloride (MgCl2), magnesium citrate (C6H6O7Mg) or magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).

3.1.14 Calcium (Ca)

Calcium (Ca++) and Magnesium (Mg++) ions are both common in natural

waters and both are essential elements for all organisms. Calcium and Magnesium,

when combined with bicarbonate, carbonate and sulphate, contribute to the hardness

of natural waters. The effect of this hardness can be seen as deposited scale when such

waters are heated. Normally hardness due to Calcium predominates although in

certain regions, Magnesium hardness can be high. In some river catchments, hardness

can vary seasonally reaching peak values during low flow conditions.

According to Annalakshmi and Amsath, (2012) Calcium is an important

micronutrient in an aquatic environment and this environment is affected by

adsorption of calcium ion on the metallic oxides. In addition to this it has effect on

microorganisms, which play an important role in Calcium exchange between

sediments and overlying water. Calcium is the fifth most abundant natural element.

As per NAQUADAT (1977), the greatest concentration, 365 mg/L, was recorded in

Prince Edward Island, and the lowest, 0.3 mg/L, in Newfoundland. Data collected

46

from 24 stations in Saskatchewan in 1980 and 1981 showed that the concentration of

Calcium in surface waters ranged from 2 to 141 mg/L, whereas the average

concentrations from sampling stations in all provinces ranged from 1 to 336 mg/L.

Calcium enters the freshwater system through the weathering of rocks,

especially limestone, and from the soil through seepage, leaching and runoff.

(Day,1963). The leaching of calcium from soil has been found to increase

significantly with the acidity of rainwater. (Overrein,1972).

Calcium occurs in water naturally. Seawater contains approximately 400 ppm

calcium. One of the main reasons for the abundance of Calcium in water is its natural

occurrence in the earth's crust, Calcium is also a constituent of coral. Rivers generally

contain 1-2 ppm of Calcium, but in lime are as rivers may contain Calcium

concentrations as high as 100 ppm. Examples of calcium concentrations in water

organisms: seaweed luctuca 800-6500 ppm (moist mass), oysters approximately 1500

ppm (dry mass). In a watery solution calcium is mainly present as Ca2+ (aq), but it

may also occur as CaOH+ (aq) or Ca(OH)2(aq), or as CaSO4 in seawater. Calcium is

an important determinant of water hardness, and it also functions as a pH stabilizer,

because of its buffering qualities. Calcium also gives water a better taste. Water

hardness influences aquatic organisms concerning metal toxicity. In softer water

membrane permeability in the gills is increased. Calcium also competes with other

ions for binding spots in the gills. Consequently, hard water better protects fishes

from direct metal uptake. pH values of 4.5-4.9 may harm Salmon eggs and grown

Salmons, when the Calcium, Sodium and Chlorine content is low.

3.2 Material and Methods

The study site was visited at an interval of a month from January, 2009 to

December, 2010. Total 24 visits were made during the study period. To collect water

samples for analysis, plastic containers of two liters capacity were used. Surface

water samples were collected from three sites at Budki M.I. tank namely A, B and C

between 8 a.m. to 10 a.m. in three separate clean containers and labeled station wise

to indicate date, location and brought to the laboratory for analysis. The parameters

such as Water Temperature (WT), pH and Carbon-dioxide were analyzed at the field

station itself while Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was fixed in separate BOD sample

bottles. Analysis of other parameters such as Total Hardness (TH), Chlorides (Cl-),

47

pH, Nitrates (NO3) and Phosphates (PO4-3) were carried out in the laboratory. To

retain the chemical properties, all the samples were protected from heat and direct

sunlight during transportation and until estimated.

3.2.1 Physical parameters

3.2.1.1 Temperature (Temp.)

Both Atmospheric or Ambient (AT) and Water Temperature (WT) were

measured using Mercury thermometer and noted in 0C.

3.2.1.2 Water Cover (WC)

The water cover was estimated visually in terms of percentage as compared to

maximum filled level.

3.2.1.3 Transparency (Trans.)

Transparency was determined using Secchi disc, a metallic disc of 20 cm

diameter with four alternate black and white quarters on the upper surface. The disc

with centrally placed weight at the lower surface is suspended with a graduated cord

at the centre. Transparency was measured by gradually lowering the Secchi disc at

respective sampling stations. The depths at which it disappears (A) and reappears (B)

in the water were noted. The transparency of the water body was computed as

follows, Secchi disc light penetration = A + B / 2

Where, A = depth at which Secchi disc disappears.

B = depth at which Secchi disc reappears.

3.2.1.4 Total Solids (TS)

Total solids were determined as the residues left after evaporation of the

unfiltered sample. An evaporating dish of 100 ml capacity was ignited at 550 ± 50 C

in muffle furnace for half an hour, cooled in desiccators and weighed. Then 100 ml of

unfiltered sample was evaporated in an evaporating dish on a hot plate at 98 C. After

heating the residues at 103-105 C in an oven for one hour the evaporating dish was

cooled in a desiccators and weighed. TS was calculated as,

Total Solids in mg/L = (A − B) × 1000VWhere, A = Final weight of the dish in gm.

48

B = Initial weight of the dish in gm.

V = Volume of sample taken in ml.

3.2.1.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids were determined as the residues left after evaporation of

the filtered sample. As reported for TS an evaporating dish of 100 ml capacity was

ignited at 550 ± 50 C in muffle furnace for half an hour, cooled in desiccators and

weighed. 100 ml of filtered sample was added to it and evaporated in a pre-weighed

evaporating dish on the hot plate at 98 C. The residues were heated at 103-105 C in

an oven for one hour and final weight was taken after cooling the evaporating dish in

a desiccators. TDS was calculated as,

Total Dissolved Solids in mg/L = (A − B) × 1000VWhere, A = Final weight of the dish in grams.

B = Initial weight of the dish in grams.

V = Volume of sample taken in ml.

3.2.1.6 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

It is the difference between the total solids and total dissolved solids.

TSS = TS – TDS

3.2.2 Chemical parameters

3.2.2.1 pH (Electrometric method)

The pH of water sample was measured by electronic portable pH

meter. The pH meter was calibrated with phosphate buffer of known pH. It uses

electrodes (Eqip-Tronics, Model No.EQ-615) that are free from interference. At

constant temperature, a pH change produces a corresponding change in the electrical

property of the solution. This change was read by the electrode and the accuracy was

the greatest in the middle pH ranges.

3.2.2.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (Winkler's method - APHA, 1998)

The Manganese sulphate reacts with alkali (KOH) to form a white precipitate

of manganous hydroxide. In presence of oxygen it gets oxidized to form a brown

coloured manganese oxyhydrate which is equivalent to the amount of dissolved

49

Oxygen present in water. In the presence of iodide ion acidification, oxides of

manganese revert to divalent state with the liberation of Iodine equivalent to

originally dissolved Oxygen content in the sample. The Iodine is then titrated with

standard solution of sodium thiosulphate using starch as an indicator.

For the estimation of Dissolved Oxygen the water samples were collected with

care in BOD bottles without bubble formation. The DO was then fixed at the station

itself by adding 1 ml each of Manganese Sulphate and Alkali-iodide azide reagents.

The precipitates formed were dissolved by adding 2 ml. of concentrated Sulphuric

acid. From this 50ml sample was taken and titrated against 0.1N Sodium thiosulphate.

To estimate Iodine generated starch was used as an indicator and the end point was

noted as the solution turns from blue to colorless. The DO was calculated using

following formula

DO mg/L = B. R. × N × 1000Amount of sample taken (ml)Where, C. B.R. = Constant Burette Reading (Amount of titrant used).

N = Normality of Sodium thiosulphate.

3.2.2.3 Free Carbon dioxide(CO2) (APHA, 1998)

The method is based on the principle that free carbon dioxide (CO2) in water

reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium bicarbonate (Na2CO3) and the

end point is indicated by development of pink colour using phenolphthalein as an

indicator at pH 8.3. To estimate CO2 in water in 100 ml. sample 2 to 3 drops of

phenolphthalein were added and the sample was titrated against 0.05N Sodium

hydroxide until a pink color was obtained. The free carbon dioxide was calculated

using following formula:

Free carbondioxide mg/L = B. R. × N × 44 × 1000Amount of sample taken (ml) Where,C.B.R. = Constant Burette Reading (Amount of titrant used).

N = Normality of Sodium Hydroxide (0.05N).

44 = Equivalent weight of CO2.

3.2.2.4 Total Hardness (TH) (EDTA Titrimetric Method, APHA, 1998)

Hardness is generally due to Calcium and Magnesium ions present in the

50

water. EDTA (Ethylene di-amine tetra acetic acid) and its sodium salts as well as

Eriochrome Black-T form a chelated soluble complex when added to a solution of

certain metal cations. When a small amount of Eriochrome Black-T Calamite

indicator is added to the aqueous solution containing Calcium and Magnesium ions at

pH 10.0 it forms Calcium and Magnesium ion complexes and the solution becomes

wine red. Since EDTA has strong affinity towards Calcium and Magnesium ions,

with the addition of EDTA as titrant, the complex binds to EDTA and Erichrome

Black T is released free. As a result the solution turned from wine red to blue,

indicating the end point.

For the estimation of total hardness, in 100 ml. of sample, 1 to 2 ml of buffer

solution and a pinch of Eriochrome Black-T (used as an indicator) were added. After

the appearance of wine red colour, the mixture was titrated against EDTA stirring

continuously till end point change of wine red to blue colour was achieved. The total

hardness was calculated using following formula,

Total hardness expressed as mg CaCO /L = A × N × 1000Amount of sample taken (ml) Where A = ml of titrant (EDTA) used.

N = Normality of EDTA.

3.2.2.5 Chlorides (Cl-) (Argentometric Titremetric method, APHA, 1998)

Silver nitrate reacts with chlorides to form very slightly soluble white

precipitates of AgCl2. In a neutral or slightly alkaline solution, chloride is estimated

with silver nitrate as titrant using potassium chromate as an indicator. Silver chloride

is precipitated quantitatively before red silver chromate is formed.

In 100 ml. sample, 1 ml. of K2CrO4 indicator was added and titrated against

0.02N AgNO3-till brick red precipitates were formed. The formula used to calculate

mg. of Cl-/l is as follows,

mg of Cl /L = C. B. R.× N × 35.45 × 1000Amount of sample taken (ml) Where, C.B.R. = Constant Burette reading (Amount of titrant used).

N = Normality of Silver Nitrate.

35.45 = Equivalent weight of Chloride.

51

3.2.2.6 Nitrates (NO3) (Cadmium Reduction Method, APHA, 1998)

Nitrite (NO2) is reduced to nitrate (NO3-) in the presence of Cadmium (Cd).

This method uses commercially available Cd granules coated with 2% copper

sulphate (CuSO4) packed in a glass column. The Nitrates (NO3-) produced was

determined by diazotizing it with color reagent containing sulfanilamide coupled with

N-(1- naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NEDD) to form highly coloured

azo dye. The color developed was measured colorimetrically at 410 nm. A correction

was made for any NO3- present in the sample by analyzing the sample without the

reduction step. A standard graph was plotted to obtain the factor. Nitrates were

calculated as

NO mg/L = O. D.× FactorAmount of sample taken (ml) Where, O.D. = Optical Density

3.2.2.7 Phosphates (PO4-3) (APHA, 1998)

The phosphates in water react with ammonium molybdate and form complex

molybdophosphoric acid which gets reduced to a complex of blue colour in the

presence of SnCl2. The absorption of light by this blue colour can be measured at 690

nm to calculate the concentration of phosphates.

In a conical flask containing 100ml. of sample, 4ml of strong acid and 4 ml of

ammonium molybdate were added followed by 10 drops of SnCl2. The blue colour

developed was measured after 10 minutes at 690 nm with colorimeter model

Photochem 5.0. It is necessary to make a standard graph before the analysis of

sample to obtain the factor. The instrument was set by running a reagent blank. The

Phosphates were calculated as

PO as mg/L = O. D.× FactorAmount of sample taken (ml) Where, O.D. = Optical Density

For the convenience of analysis the monthly data were pooled for three

seasons: namely 1.Summer (January, February, March and April) ; 2.Monsoon (May,

June, July and August) and 3.Winter (September, October, November and December).

The results given are in the form of Mean ± SEM. The data were subjected to

ANOVA across the season with the help of Prism 3 software (Graphpad software, San

52

Diego, California U.S.A.). The P value for ANOVA is non significant if P > 0.05

(ns), significant if P < 0.05(*), significantly significant (**) if P is < 0.001 and highly

significant (***) if P < 0.0001. The Pearson Correlation between various parameters

were also calculated with the help of SPSS 7.5/12 for windows. If (**) Correlation is

significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed), whereas at (*) correlation is significant at

0.05 level (two-tailed).

3.2.2.8 Sulphates (SO4) Turbidimtric method

1. 100 ml of clear sample was taken (not containing more than 40 mg/L of SO4 ) or

a suitable aliquot diluted to 100 ml in 250 ml conical flask and 5.0 ml of

conditioning reagent was added.

2. The sample was stirred on a magnetic stirrer and during stirring, a spoonful of

BaCl2 crystals were added. Stiring for only one minute after addition of BaCl2

crystals was done.

3. The reading were taken on a spectrophotometer (Schimabzu, 2450) at 420 nm

exactly after 4 minutes. The concentration of sulphate from the standard curve

were calculated.

4. The standard curve was prepared by employing the same procedure as described

above, for 0.0-40.0 mg/L.

3.2.2.9 Magnesium (Mg ) EDTA Titration

1. The volume of EDTA used in Calcium determination was found out.

2. The volume of EDTA used in hardness (Ca++ Mg ++) determination with same

volume of the sample as taken in the Calcium determination was also noted.

Magnesium,, mg/l= Y-X ×400.8

ml of sample×1.645

Where, × = EDTA used for Ca determination for the same volume of the sample

Y= EDTA used for hardness (Ca+Mg)

3.2.2.10 Calcium (Ca ) EDTA Titration

1. 50 ml sample in a conical flask was taken. If the sample having higher alkalinity,

use smaller volume diluted to 50 ml.

2. 2.0ml of NaOH solution added in the sample.

3. 100 to 200 mg of murexide indicator was added a pink color changes.

53

4. Titrated against EDTA solution until the pink color changed to purple. For better

judgment of end point, compared the purple color with the distilled water blank

titration end point.

Calcium, mg/L = X ×400.8

ml of sample

Where, × =Volume of EDTA used.

3.3 Result and Discussion

For convenience, the results we accessible into two groups: Group I (Physical

Parameters) Ambient Temperature (AT), Water Temperature (WT), Water Cover

(WC), Transparency (Trans), Total Solids (TS), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and

Total Suspended Solids (TSS). Group II (Chemical Parameters) pH, Dissolved

Oxygen (DO), Carbon Dioxide(CO2),Total Hardness (TH) and Chlorides(Cl-),

Nitrates (NO3-),Phosphates(PO4

-3) and Sulphates (SO4-2).

3.3.1 Group I: Physical Parameters

3.3.1.1 Temperature (Temp.)

Atmospheric (AT) and water temperature (WT) are two important

environmental factors. The range of atmospheric temperature recorded during the

period of two years January 2009 to December 2010. The minimum temperature

recorded during winter season (24.40C ± 0.560C) and maximum temperature recorded

in summer (310C ± 1.320C ) during the study period (Table 3.1). Similar results are

observed by Gaike and Shejule (2012), the atmospheric temperature recorded between

ranging from 160C to 320C and the water temperature recorded from 160C to 290C. In

Kasura dam, maximum atmospheric temperature was recorded in the month of May

320C and minimum 160C was recorded in the month of December. The maximum

water temperature recorded in May was 290C and the minimum of 160C was recorded

in December. Temperature is a physical factor indicated the quality of water and it has

effect on growth and distribution of aquatic life, concentration of dissolved gases and

chemical solutes. Chavan et. al. (2012), observed minimum temperature 21.40C

during winter season and maximum temperature 26.530C summer in season. The low

water temperature in the winter might be due to high water levels and lower solar

radiation whereas maximum in the summer might be due to low water level, greater

solar radiation and clear atmosphere. According to Sahni and Yadav (2012),

54

temperature (AT) was observed ranging between 16.12 to 36.750C of which

maximum value (36.750C) was noticed in summer season and the minimum value

(16.120C) in winter season. Similar observations were reported by Wagh et. al.

(2012), minimum temperature (AT) was recorded during winter (23.20C) and

maximum was in summer (41.10C) season and the minimum (WT) recorded (22.20C)

in winter, maximum (42.10C) in summer season from manmade reservoir Parnear ,

Dist Ahmednagar, Arvind Kumar and Singh (2002) in the Mayurakshi River,

Jharkhand and Dwivedi and Pandey, (2002), Sedamkar and Angadi (2003). The

values of AT are given in (Table3.1).It showed highly significant seasonal variations

(P<0.0001 F2 2112.3) in the region of Budki M.I.Tank (BMIT). It showed positive

significant correlation (Table3.3) with Cl-, CO2, PO4-3, TDS, TH, TS and WT while it

was negatively correlated with DO, Transparency and WC both at 0.01 levels.

Similarly, maximum water temperature (Table 3.1) was also recorded in summer

(26.5oC). It slightly decreased in monsoon (24.8oC) and it was minimum in winter

(21.5 °C) with highly significant seasonal variations (P<0.0001 F2 21 10.7).Water

temperature showed significant positive correlations (Table3.3) with AT, Cl-, CO2,

PO4-3, TDS, TS and TH (at 0.01 level, two-tailed), while it showed negative

significant correlations with DO, Trans and WC at 0.01 level. Das (2000),

Transparency (Reid and Wood, 1976), and water cover at the same level, similar

result reported by Patil (2011) during the study of selected faunal biodiversity of

Toranmal area, Lotus lake as well as Ekhande (2011) at Yashwant Lake Toranmal in

Maharashtra. According to Sutar et. al. (2008), the atmospheric temperature of

Mhaswad reservoir was recorded in the range between 23.70C to 38.20C. According to

Bhandarkar and Bhandarkar (2013), temperature was higher during summer months

and lower during winter months and water temperature recorded the ranged between

23.950C to 29.40C. The minimum water temperature recorded in the winter season

and maximum in the summer months, similar observations were recorded by Mithani

et. al.(2012) of River Wardha (23.130C to 31.130C) Chandrapur, Maharashtra, Bade

et.al. (2009) in Sai reservoir, Latur and Manjare et. al.(2010) in Tamdale tank,

Kolhapur. The atmospheric temperature was found to be in the range between 230C to

35.70C. It was minimum during January and December and maximum in the month of

April and May (Rai et.al.,2013).

Water Temperature is mainly most important for its special effects on a certain

chemical and biological behavior in the organism attributing in aquatic media. The

55

water temperature and air temperature were found more or less similar. In Indian

subcontinent, the temperature in most of the water bodies varied between 7.80C to

38.50C was reported by Sirighal et. al.(1986). Water temperature also controls the

physiological activities and distribution of aquatic organisms and has effect on natural

environment. Variation of water temperature is generally governed by the

atmospheric condition. According to Desai (1995) water temperature may be

depending on the season, geographic location and sampling time from Dudhasagar

river. This is reflected by lower water temperature at Budki M.I.Tank in monsoon due

to cloudy weather and rainfall while in winter due to cold climatic conditions with

shorter sunshine period. During summer season solar radiation and clear sky condition

enhanced the climatic condition. The variation in the temperature of the present study

is similar with the findings of Rao et. al., (1982) for Nainital lake (80C to 230C),

Billore and Vyas (1982) for Pichhola lake (0.60Cto26.30C) and Singhai et. al.,

(1990).Temperature control the hydrochemistry of parameters like Dissolved Oxygen,

Solubility, pH, Conductivity, etc. Patil (2011),Ramachandra and Solanki (2007). In

general water holds lesser Oxygen as the temperature increases Kulkarni et. al.,

(2007) in Khushavati river; Awasthi and Tiwari (2004) of Govindgharh lake, hence an

inverse relationship between the two, but a positive significant correlation with

Alkalinity, Acidity, Atmospheric Temperature, Chloride, CO2, pH, Phosphate, TDS,

TS and water cover is noted at 0.01 level in the present study. With reference to

thermal cover between AT and WT and annual variations in temperature, Jaychandra

and Joseph (1988) recorded maximum difference of 2.70C between AT and WT at a

tropical Vellayani Lake in Kerala while Kanan and Job (1980) have reported a

difference of 5.5 0C in Diurnal depth wise and seasonal changes of physicochemical

factors in Sathiyar reservoir and Sreenivasan at.el.(1997) a difference of 6 0C in

Limnological study of a shallow water body (Kolovoi Lake) in Tamilnadu. Water

temperature of Indrapuri dam ranged between 21.30C to 28.80C. It was minimum

during November and December and maximum in the month of April and May (Rai

et.al., 2013). In the present study maximum mean value of AT was recorded in

summer (31.0 ± 1.320C) and minimum value was recorded in winter (24.4 ± 0.560C).

The difference between AT and WT were between 4.5 0C to 2.9 0C respectively in

summer and winter. It is a well established fact that land heats up and cools down

faster than water the same effect is produced at BMIT. Water temperature regulates

the biochemical behavior in the aquatic environment. The physiological and

metabolic activities of organism such as feeding, reproduction, movements and

distribution are seriously influenced by water temperature.

3.3.1.2 Water Cover (WC %)

At BMIT study area the maximum percentage of water cover (

Fig.3.2) was recorded in winter (84.4%) and minimum in summer (61.5%),

medium in monsoon (79.4%).

The maximum water

in the summer indicated

monsoon. At BMIT water cover start

water and collection continue

Water cover was minimum in summer due to

was used for domestic purposes by the people

reservoirs compared to the tanks

and therefore, more dissolution of atmospheric

Hence, water cover was positively correlated to DO at study area. The seasonal

variation in the percentage of water cover with the contour of water

the littoral formation; it is an indicator of productive nature of the

(Sugunan2000). An irregular shoreline encompasses more littoral formation produces

more area of land and water interface. At BMIT the shoreline is less i

hence less littoral formation in water cover. The space is essential for colonization and

clearly affects the composite production of periphytic communities (Wetzel, 2006).

Large lakes are typical repositories of the greatest numbers of specie

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Summer

Fig. 3.1 : water TemperatureºC during January, 2009 to December, 2010

Atmospheric Temperature (AT) ˚C

Tem

p. ̊C0

C0 C

iously influenced by water temperature.

Water Cover (WC %)

At BMIT study area the maximum percentage of water cover (

) was recorded in winter (84.4%) and minimum in summer (61.5%),

(79.4%).

aximum water surface recorded at BMIT in the monsoon and minimum

d that the area received rainfall mainly during south

monsoon. At BMIT water cover started increasing in rainy season because of rain

continued from tributary present in the surrounding of BMIT.

minimum in summer due to percolation, evaporation of water and

s used for domestic purposes by the people around BMIT. The high DO in the

reservoirs compared to the tanks is slightly lesser than high water level (

and therefore, more dissolution of atmospheric Oxygen (Hegde and Hudder, 1995).


variation in the percentage of water cover with the contour of water body determines

the littoral formation; it is an indicator of productive nature of the lakes

. An irregular shoreline encompasses more littoral formation produces

more area of land and water interface. At BMIT the shoreline is less i



Large lakes are typical repositories of the greatest numbers of species because their

Summer Monsoon Winter

Fig. 3.1 : Seasonal variation in Atmospheric(Ambient) and water TemperatureºC during January, 2009 to December, 2010

Atmospheric Temperature (AT) ˚C Water Temperature (WT) ˚C

56

At BMIT study area the maximum percentage of water cover (Table 3.1,

) was recorded in winter (84.4%) and minimum in summer (61.5%), and

surface recorded at BMIT in the monsoon and minimum

rainfall mainly during south-west

increasing in rainy season because of rain

ry present in the surrounding of BMIT.

evaporation of water and

BMIT. The high DO in the

water level (Water Cover)

xygen (Hegde and Hudder, 1995).


body determines

lakes in India

. An irregular shoreline encompasses more littoral formation produces

more area of land and water interface. At BMIT the shoreline is less irregular and



s because their

Seasonal variation in Atmospheric(Ambient) and water TemperatureºC during January, 2009 to December, 2010

Water Temperature (WT) ˚C

greater surface area provides more opportunities for colonization. They contain a

greater variety of microhabitats and their internal environmental conditions are more

stable compared to smaller water bodies (Pip, 1987). These opportunities

development of various organisms are provided by water cover that in turn determines

the extent of littoral formation. As far as producers like algae are concerned spatial

heterogeneity in their rates of production is usually very high because of the

variability in littoral habitats within freshwater ecosystem. Most lakes of the world are

shallow and possess large littoral zone. Such shallow lakes with a well developed

littoral habitat can function as a refuge for zooplankton

predation that prevails in the open water. In the current investigation at BMIT water

cover ,the maximum mean percentage of water cover (

winter (84.0 ± 2.56 %) and minimum in summer (61.5 ± 3.50 %), and med

monsoon (79.4±5.13). Water cover showed positive significant correlations

(Table3.3) with DO while it showed negatively significant correlations with AT, Cl

CO2, TDS,TS, TH, and WT at 0.01 level.

3.3.1.3 Total Solids (TS)

During the period of researc

were found to be increased in

in winter season(156 ± 4.40 mg/

3.1, Fig 3.3.).

Total Solids are

0

20

40

60

80

100

Summer

Fig.3.2 :

%



compared to smaller water bodies (Pip, 1987). These opportunities



heterogeneity in their rates of production is usually very high because of the



littoral habitat can function as a refuge for zooplankton, fish and invertebrate


cover ,the maximum mean percentage of water cover (Table3.1) was recorded in

winter (84.0 ± 2.56 %) and minimum in summer (61.5 ± 3.50 %), and med

5.13). Water cover showed positive significant correlations

while it showed negatively significant correlations with AT, Cl

TH, and WT at 0.01 level.

Total Solids (TS)

During the period of research at BMIT water study, the total solids in water

increased in monsoon period (205±4.36 mg/L) and minimum during

in winter season(156 ± 4.40 mg/L), it was moderate in summer (198±4.5

useful parameter demonstrating the chemical status of the


Fig.3.2 : Seasonal variation in Water cover (%) at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December, 2010

57



compared to smaller water bodies (Pip, 1987). These opportunities for



heterogeneity in their rates of production is usually very high because of the great



fish and invertebrate


) was recorded in

winter (84.0 ± 2.56 %) and minimum in summer (61.5 ± 3.50 %), and medium in

5.13). Water cover showed positive significant correlations

while it showed negatively significant correlations with AT, Cl-,

h at BMIT water study, the total solids in water

) and minimum during

±4.5Lmg/) (Table

useful parameter demonstrating the chemical status of the

Seasonal variation in Water cover (%) at Budaki

water and can be considered as

productivity within the water body

water in the monsoon period which r

large amount of dissolved solids and suspended solids with it as well as agitation of

lake water due to water current. As the rain stops the solids settle down minimizing

their levels by winter. TS were lower d

interferenced due to flood and precipitation

levels during summer may be due to concentration due to evaporation. Deshkar

(2008) were observed higher in summer (2.6 mg/L) an

of wetlands in semi-arid

maximum TS in Monsoon

Lotus lake from Maharashtra

variations (P<0.0001, F2 21

3.3) with AT, Cl-, CO2

significantly correlation to DO

3.3.1.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

In the present research at BMIT total

2.94 mg/L in summer and minimum 127 ± 3.12 mg/L in winter

4.36 mg/L in monsoon

correlated (Table 3.3) with AT, Cl

with DO, Trans. and WC

020406080

100120140160180200220

Summer

Fig 3.3 : at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December 2010

mg

/ L

water and can be considered as an initiator of edaphic relations that constitute to

productivity within the water body (Goher 2002). Maximum total solids of BMIT

water in the monsoon period which reflects the input of rain water which b



their levels by winter. TS were lower during the lean month’s winter and when the

due to flood and precipitation were low. However, comparatively higher


were observed higher in summer (2.6 mg/L) and lower in winter (0.27 mg/L)

arid zone of Central Gujarat and Patil et. al.(2011)

maximum TS in Monsoon (203.2 mg/L) and minimum in winter (160.5 mg/L)

Lotus lake from Maharashtra. Total Solids also showed highly significan

2 21 35.4). TS showed positive significant correlations (

2, NO3, PO4-3, SO4, TDS, TSS and WT while,

to DO, Transparency and WC both at 0.01 level.

Dissolved Solids (TDS)

In the present research at BMIT total dissolved solids were maximum 160 ±

2.94 mg/L in summer and minimum 127 ± 3.12 mg/L in winter, while it was 150 ±

4.36 mg/L in monsoon. (Table3.1, Fig, 3.3). TDS were positively significantly

with AT, Cl-, CO2, PO4-3, TS and while negatively significantly

with DO, Trans. and WC with highly significant seasonal variations (P< 0.0001, F


Fig 3.3 : Seasonal variation in TDS, TSS and TS (mg/L) at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December 2010

TDS TSS TS

58

initiator of edaphic relations that constitute to

Goher 2002). Maximum total solids of BMIT

eflects the input of rain water which brought



winter and when the

re low. However, comparatively higher


d lower in winter (0.27 mg/L)

(2011) recorded

(160.5 mg/L) of

. Total Solids also showed highly significant seasonal

35.4). TS showed positive significant correlations (Table

while, negative

.

maximum 160 ±

hile it was 150 ±

positively significantly

while negatively significantly

P< 0.0001, F2 21

Seasonal variation in TDS, TSS and TS (mg/L)

59

23.8). Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) at algae tank of Bandra and Sayed et.al (2011) of

Wadi El-Rayan Lakes, western desert, Egypt also observed highest (13772 mg/L)

concentration of total dissolved solids during summer, which decrease during rainy

seasons due to dilution of rainwater. Medudhula et.al.(2012)TDS value ranged from

261.25 to 269.05 mg/L in winter and Summer seasons, Shib Abir, (2014) also

recorded maximum TDS during Summer(216 mg/L) and minimum during winter (80

mg/L) at Rudrasagar wet land, Tripura. Salve and Hiware, (2006) reported seasonal

analysis and stated that low TDS recorded in winter season while maximum value in

monsoon due to addition of solids from surface run off in Wanparakalpa reservoir,

Nagapur near Parali Vaijanath Dist. Beed, Maharashtra.

According to Rahaman the maximum TDS values of the Ganges, Brahmaputra

and confluence were 376 mg/L, 245 mg/L & 231 mg/L and minimum values were

102 mg/L, 62 mg/L & 61mg/L and the average values were 260±96 mg/L, 155±61

mg/L & 155±55 mg/L. The total dissolved solids (TDS) mainly indicate the presence

of various kinds of minerals like ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, alkalis, some

acids, sulphates and metallic ions etc which are comprised both colloidal and

dissolved solids in water. As per the investigation of Aggarwal and Arora (2012) of

Kaushalya River TDS and TSS are common indicators of polluted waters and

observed that TDS values ranged between 152mg/L to 252 mg/L and TSS values

ranged from 2 mg/L to 27 mg/L. The water with TDS and TSS can be considered to

be good. Shivayogimath et.al (2012), reported seasonal changes TDS from various

station of River Ghataprabha. The average TDS values at station 1 were 128.48 and

116.48 mg/l during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. From stations 2 to 7 the

values ranged between 182 to 254 mg/L and 163 to 227 mg/L during pre-monsoon

and post-monsoon seasons, concluded that the values of TDS in both the seasons were

well within the limits of drinking water. Mafruha Ahmed (2013) were found

maximum value (334 mg/L.) of TDS in dry season and minimum value (212 mg/L) in

wet season from Gulshan lake.

The higher values of TDS were recorded by many workers such as Sahni and

Yadav(2013)Total dissolved solids (TDS) value ranged from 2908.70 to 4373.00

mg/L of which higher value (4373.00 mg/L) was reported in summer season while the

lower value (2908.70mg/L) in winter season from Bharawas Pond, Rewari, Haryana.

Higher values of TDS in summer season may be due to evaporation of water,

60

contamination of domestic waste water, garbage and fertilizers etc. Olatunji et.al

(2011) the mean values of the total dissolved solids (TDS) range from 704.60 to

1,799.80 mg/L. in Asa River. The total dissolved solids ranged between 88 and 2560

mg/L. reported by Lawson (2011) from the Mangrove Swamps of Lagos Lagoon,

Lagos, Nigeria. Dhanalakshmi et.al.(2013) TDS of Pollachi town pond water recorded

during (2006-07 and 2007-08) the maximum value of 1320 mg/L and 1346 mg/L in

monsoon month and minimum of 842 mg/L and 925 mg/L in summer month

respectively.

The high amount of TDS increased turbidity which in turn decreased the light

penetration in water. This affects the photosynthesis thereby suppressing the primary

production in the form of algae and microphytes. Positive significant correlation with

AT, CL, CO2, PO4, TS and WT while; the significantly negative correlations between

with DO, Trans. and WC both at 0.01 levels were noted at BMIT. Positively

significant correlation with CO2 at study stations indicate decline in photosynthetic

activity due to lower light penetrance. The highest TDS recorded in summer at BMIT

may be due to decaying vegetation (Table3.1) The products of decaying vegetation at

the surface when started sinking might have increased the TSS as well as TDS (Khan

and Khan, 1985 in Seikha jheel at Aligarh.; Iqbal and Kataria (1995) of upper Lake of

Bhopal). It reduces solubility of gases (like Oxygen), utility of water for drinking

purpose and also enhances eutrophication of the aquatic ecosystem of Pushkar Lake,

Ajmer Rajasthan (Mathur et. al., 2008). The wetlands act as sinks for nutrient

deposition hence, the high TDS values may also depend on the age of the lake Anitha

et. al. (2005) as a result of gradual salt deposition, an observation not always

applicable for monsoonal wetlands in Mir Alam Lake, Hyderabad. However, at BMIT

the values of TDS were within the permissible limits of 500 mg/L (BIS, 1991), thus

water can be used for drinking as well as agriculture purpose.

3.3.1.5 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

At BMIT maximum TSS mean value recorded 54.6 ± 1.89 mg/L in monsoon

and minimum 29.5±2.46mg/L in winter, while it was 37.9±1.66 mg/L in summer

(Table3.1) with variations at P < 0.0001 across the season. Total suspended solids

administered positive significant correlations (Table3.3) with AT, CL,CO2, TDS and

WT at the level of 0.05 and NO3, PO4, SO4,TS at 0.01 level while Trans. at the level

of 0.01 were significantly negatively correlated.

61

During tenure research work of BMIT the highest concentration of

TSS found in monsoon (54.6 mg/L.) and lowest in winter season (29.5 mg/L.) Similar

trend was observed by Garnaik et.al. (2013) of Nagavali River, Odisha (maximum in

Monsoon 82 mg/L and minimum in Post Monsoon (38 mg/L), where as Anhwange

et.al. (2012), reported the mean values for total suspended solid (TSS) observed

ranged between 12.55 to 49.57 mg/L during the wet season and range of 4.80 to

347.60 mg/L was recorded during dry season from Bengue river. Raut et. al.(2011) of

Ravivar Peth Lake at Ambajogai, the high values of total suspended solids during

monsoon (146.3±20.87 mg/L) may be due to siltation, deterioration and heavy

precipitation and low during winter (70.01±22.23 mg/L.) Solids concerned to

suspended and dissolved matter in water. They are useful parameters to describe the

chemical constituents of the water and can be considered as general relation that

contributes to productivity in the water body by Goher (2002) in Qarun lake. In

accordance to TSS, maximum was recorded in monsoon as a result of water runoff

from the catchment area which brings various suspended matter. TSS also increases

due to decaying vegetation. When the products of decaying vegetation at the surface

start sinking, it may increase the TSS as well as TDS (Khan and Khan, 1985; Iqbal

and Kataria, 1995). Such processes are minimum in winter hence the minimum TSS

in winter when the water of the lake is stabilized and most of the suspended matter

settles down. Increased level of suspended solids results in increased turbidity and

lower photosynthesis, rise in water temperature and decrease in dissolved Oxygen

Sharma et.al. (2008). According to Prabhakar et. al.(2012) of Palar River in Tamil

Nadu. TS and TSS varied from 800.63 to 903.15 mg/L, 453.19 to 510.10 mg/L and

346.00 to 390.20 mg/L respectively. The TSS value exceeded the desirable limit of

WHO and BIS standards, therefore, water was not recommended for drinking and

bathing purposes.

3.3.1.6 Transparency (Trans) (Secchi Depth).

The transparency of water fluctuated both spatially and temporally. In general,

the highest transparency values were recorded in winter (111±3.32 cm), and the

lowest in monsoon season (71.1±5.45 cm.) (Table. 3.1, Fig.3.4). Transparency

showed positive correlation with dissolved Oxygen DO with at 0.001 level while Ca,

Mg, TH, WC were non significantly correlated and significant negative correlation

with AT, Cl, NO3, PO4, SO4, TS, TSS and TDS at 0.01 level. Transparency also

62

showed highly significant seasonal variations (P< 0.0001, F2 21 28.2).

According to Nayak and Behara (2004), transparency recorded that the whole

lagoon remained turbid throughout the year, the highest Secchi disc depth was 0.91

M. The turbid nature of the lagoon due to influence of freshwater influx during

monsoon from Chilika lagoon near Sipakuda. Sahni and Yadav (2012),transparency

noted ranged between 12.12 to 15.12cms of which higher value (15.12 cm) was

reported in winter season while the lower value (12.12 cm) in summer season. Lower

value of transparency during summer season might be due to low level of water.

Similar conclusion was reported by Kamal et. al. (2007) reported highest in winter

(66 cm) and lowest in monsoon (15 cm) of Mouri River, Khulna, Bangladesh. Kadam

et.al.(2007) from Masoli reservoir of Parbhani district, Maharashta , Syeda and

Shaikh (2013) from Rupsha River, Bangladesh , reported that higher transparencey

occurred, during winter in December (42.4±8.72cm) due to absence of rain, runoff

and flood water as well as gradual settling of suspended particles. Ibrahim

et.al.(2009), reported from Kontagora Reservoir the higher dry season Secchi disc

transparency mean value compared to that of the rainy season could be due to absence

of floodwater, surface run-offs and settling effect of suspended materials that

followed the ending of rainfall. Similar observation was also recorded by Ikom

et.al.(2003) of river Adofi from Nigeria, the higher transparency observed during the

dry season could also be due to reduction in allochthonous substances that find their

ways into the reservoir with flood. According to Adebisi (1981) in Upper Ogun River.

Wade (1985), who observed that onset of rain decreased the Secchi-disc visibility in

two mine lakes around Jos, Nigeria. Lower transparency recorded during rainy season

when there was turbulence and high turbidity, has a corresponding low primary

productivity, because turbidity reduces the amount of light penetration, which in turn

reduces photosynthesis and hence primary productivity.

Idowu et.al. (2013), transparency of the water was lower during the period of

heavy rainfall probably due to flooding of the reservoir, which may have been caused

by higher amount of rainfall during this period due to high turbidity. It could also be

due to decrease in sunlight intensity due to presence of heavy cloud in the

atmosphere, which in turn reduced the quantity of light reaching the water thereby

decreasing light penetration, Egborge (1981) in Asejire Reservoir ; Ikom et. al. (2003)

in River Adofi; Ayoade et.al. (2006) in lakes.

Transparency is considered as an important parameter of trophic status of

water bodies. It depends on the intensity of sunlight, suspended soil particles, tur

water received from catchment area and density of plankton Mishra and Saksena

(1991). The transparency in BMIT

minimum in monsoon (71.1Cm)

monsoon due to accumulation of su

matter into the water body and high value found

rain, runoff and flood water as well as gradual settling of suspended particles. The

water transparency is sign

depends on the transparency of standing water column. Further, transparency of water

is inversely proportional to turbidity, created by suspended inorganic and organic

matter Saxena (1987). The transparency of water b

planktonic growth, rainfall, sun's position in the sky, angle of incidence of rays,

cloudiness, visibility and turbidity due to suspended inert particulate matter. Higher

TS, TDS and TSS, resulted in minimum transparency

the reports on several water bodies especially in Indian climatic conditions Zafar

(1964); Singhai et. al., (1990); Kaur et

3.3.2 Group II Chemical Parameters

3.3.2.1 pH

In the present research work the pH value was maximum in summer (7.90 ±

0.13) and minimum in m

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Summer

Fig.3.4 : Seasonal variation in Transparency (cm) during

cm


water bodies. It depends on the intensity of sunlight, suspended soil particles, tur


(1991). The transparency in BMIT was maximum in summer (90.0 Cm) and

minimum in monsoon (71.1Cm) low values of transparency ware

monsoon due to accumulation of suspended matter such as silt, clay and organic

matter into the water body and high value found during summer due to absence of


is sign of productivity. The extent to which light can penetrate



matter Saxena (1987). The transparency of water body is affected by the factors like



TS, TDS and TSS, resulted in minimum transparency in monsoon. This complies with


(1964); Singhai et. al., (1990); Kaur et. al., (1995); Ekhande ( 2010); and Patil (

II Chemical Parameters


monsoon (7.2 ± 0.04), with slightly increase in winter it was


Seasonal variation in Transparency (cm) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

63


water bodies. It depends on the intensity of sunlight, suspended soil particles, turbid


maximum in summer (90.0 Cm) and

observed in

spended matter such as silt, clay and organic

due to absence of


he extent to which light can penetrate



ody is affected by the factors like



in monsoon. This complies with


nd Patil (2011).


onsoon (7.2 ± 0.04), with slightly increase in winter it was

64

(7.80 ± 0.08). (Table 3.2 , Fig 3.5) pH showed significantly positive correlations with

CA, Mg, and TH at 0.01 level while it showed significant negative correlations with

TSS at 0.05 level. pH showed highly significant seasonal variations (P< 0.0001 F2 21

15.4).

Sharma et.al. (2011) noted that during monsoon season water was turbid; pH

fluctuated between 6.9 to 8.3.The minimum pH was recorded in monsoon, which was

mainly attributed to rain water after a long dry period, and maximum pH was

recorded during summer from Pichhola Lake, Udaipur. Patil et.al. (2011), observed

that pH recorded in summer (8.45 ± 0.097) and minimum in winter (7.48 ± 0.02) in

Lotus lake from Maharashtra.

According to Ujjania and Mistry (2011),the pH was determined by the digital

pH meter and significant variation was observed during the investigation, it was noted

high 7.5 to 7.9 (7.767 ± 0.115) during the immersion period while it was low 6.9 -7.4

(7.150 ± 0.123) and 7.6 – 7.7 (7.710 ± 0.040) during the pre-immersion and post-

immersion period respectively. Devi,et.al.(2013) from fish pond and around

Bhimavaram West Godavari District, (A.P.) the pH of pond water was slightly basic

in nature and the pH of the water samples were in the desired range of 6.5-9.5, the

growth of fish will be good in the range of 7-8 and it is a tolerable range for most

fish.

As per Lokhande (2013), the pH showed varied fluctuations during the study

period with maximum and minimum (7.0 to 8.6) value were noticed at the reservoir,

the maximum was found in April where at its minimum was in August. In the

investigation the pH of the reservoir water was alkaline ranging from 7.0 to 8.6

maximum in summer season and minimum in winter season at Dhanegaon Reservoir,

Osmanabad. The reservoir water was alkaline throughout the period of investigation.

During the study period in the summer season photosynthetic activity was reduced

due to higher temperature which resulted in the accumulation of carbon dioxide and

the subsequent decrease in the pH. According to Verma et. al,(2012), the maximum

pH was recorded during summer season (9.5 ± 0.27) and the minimum was recorded

during winter season (8.7 ±0.11). Alkaline state of pH might be in winter , the amount

of calcium increases during summer season due to rapid oxidation /decomposition of

organic matter (Billore, 1981). Relatively higher proportion of Calcium in the

surrounding rocks and soils might have also contributed to the rich Calcium level in

65

lake water. Calcium is present in water naturally, but the addition of sewage waste

might also be responsible for the increase in amount of calcium. Similar result was

observed in Papnash pond of Karnataka (Angadi et. al., 2005). The decrease may be

due to Calcium being absorbed by living organisms in winter. Kumar et.al (2012), the

pH of water ranged from 7.35 to 7.80. The maximum pH value of 7.80 was recorded

in the month of May, and minimum of 7.35 in February and July, the water body was

found to be slightly alkaline. The alkaline pH of water might be due to presence of

alkalinity minerals in water and slightly higher pH values during non-monsoon could

be recognized to increase photo synthetic assimilation of dissolved inorganic carbon

by planktons (Patil, 2012).

According to Fakayode (2005) the pH of a water body is very important in

determination of water quality since it affects other chemical reactions such as

solubility and metal toxicity. The pH of the water under study area is within the WHO

standards of 6.50-8.50. In the present study, the pH value was found to fluctuate from

7.20 to 7.90 at BMIT, indicating that the waters were neutral to alkaline at various

months. The highest value of pH was recorded during summer season (7.90) and the

lowest was recorded during monsoon season (7.20) (Table3.2). The low value during

monsoon might be due to dilution of rain water. A fall in pH value in monsoon season

was also recorded by Shardendu and Ambasht (1998). Whereas Venkateswarlu (1969)

and Jana (1973) observed high pH values during summer and slightly lower in winter

months. According to Zafar (1966) the pH of water is reliant to relative quantizes of

Calcium carbonate and bicarbonates the water tend to be more alkaline when it

possesses carbonates while it is much alkaline when it possesses larger quantizes of

bicarbonates,CO2 and Calcium. Higher pH value of summer can be due to utilization

of bicarbonate and carbonate buffer system Mehrotra (1988). According to Kaul and

Handoo (1980) and Satpathy et. al. (2007) were the pH of water is higher due to

increased metabolic autotrophic activities. Many reports were given different pH

ranges as ideal for supporting aquatic life. However all these ranges fall around

similar point between 6.7 to 8.5 De (1999) and the pH level of BMIT water was in

within the limit range.

3.3.2.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The present investigation showed highly significant seasonal variations (P<

0.0001, F2 21 54.7). The Maximum value of DO recorded in winter

mg/L) and minimum value in

decreased in monsoon (5.25 ± 0.30 mg/l) (Table 3.2, Fig. 3.

Similar trends were recorded by

Rewari,Haryana. Dissolved oxygen

maximum value (5.34 mg/L) was noted in winter season and minimum value (4.73

mg/L) in summer which

al., (2010) and Rajagopal

correlations (Table 3.3) with

with AT, Cl, CO2, PO4, TDS

Dissolved Oxygen is one of the most important parameters of the water quality

and fundamental requirement of life for plant and animal life in water. Dissolved

oxygen of water is an significant test to study the water quality. Its optimum value for

good quality is able to maintain aquatic life in water and DO values are somewhat

lower than (10 mg/L) value, this indicates water pollution.

water quality and organic production in the water. The

particularly fish depends

investigation, the DO of surface water varied from 7.25± 0.17 mg/

mg/L. at BMIT in winter and summer respectively

6.6

6.8

7

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

8

8.2

Summer

Fig. 3.5 :

pH

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

present investigation showed highly significant seasonal variations (P<

54.7). The Maximum value of DO recorded in winter was

minimum value in summer (4.08 ± 0.12 mg/L), while it was slightly

in monsoon (5.25 ± 0.30 mg/l) (Table 3.2, Fig. 3.6).

recorded by Sahni and Yadav (2012) from Bharawas Pond,

Dissolved oxygen values varied from 4.73 to 5.34 mg/L of which


which are in agreement with the earlier work by Venkatesharaju et

and Rajagopal et.al. (2010). Dissolved Oxygen showed positive significant

) with Trans. TS and WC while, it was negatively correlated

, TDS and WT both at 0.01 level.




ality is able to maintain aquatic life in water and DO values are somewhat

value, this indicates water pollution. DO demonstrating level of

water quality and organic production in the water. The survival of aquatic organisms

s upon level of Dissolved Oxygen in the water. In present

investigation, the DO of surface water varied from 7.25± 0.17 mg/L. to 4.08 ± 0.12

. at BMIT in winter and summer respectively. According to Chaurasia and


Fig. 3.5 : Seasonal variation in pH during January, 2009 to December, 2010

66

present investigation showed highly significant seasonal variations (P<

was (7.25± 0.17

), while it was slightly

from Bharawas Pond,

from 4.73 to 5.34 mg/L of which


Venkatesharaju et.

ed positive significant

while, it was negatively correlated




ality is able to maintain aquatic life in water and DO values are somewhat

demonstrating level of

urvival of aquatic organisms

upon level of Dissolved Oxygen in the water. In present

to 4.08 ± 0.12

According to Chaurasia and

Seasonal variation in pH during January, 2009

Pandey (2007), the quantity of DO in water is directly or indirectly dependent on

water temperature, partial pressure of air etc. The maximum dissolved

winter may be due to higher solubility of

comparatively lower temperatur

circulation and mixing of water and atmospheric

water and vise a versa, the lower values of dissolved

be attributed to the fact that the warm w

mineralization of non living matter which demands more oxygen decreasing oxygen

levels (Kumar et. al.,2005

positive correlation of dissolved

Cover with significant level at 0.0

AT, Cl and CO2 at 0.01

decreased Oxygen holding capacity of water at high temperature

(1978) found that disposal of domestic sewage and other oxygen demanding wastes

reduce the dissolved Oxygen of the receiving water body

during summer in Mysore

et. al. (2007) reported increase in DO in monsoon

high aeration along with photosynthetic activity

The highest dissolved oxygen

most productive with high

aquatic life

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Summer

Fig. 3.6 at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December, 2010

mg/

L

antity of DO in water is directly or indirectly dependent on

water temperature, partial pressure of air etc. The maximum dissolved

winter may be due to higher solubility of Oxygen and high rate of photosynthesis at

comparatively lower temperature while higher level in monsoon may be credited to

circulation and mixing of water and atmospheric Oxygen due to shake

ise a versa, the lower values of dissolved Oxygen during summer m

be attributed to the fact that the warm water holds less oxygen as well as increases the


2005; Kumar and Kapoor, 2006). At the study area

positive correlation of dissolved Oxygen was noted with Transparenc

Cover with significant level at 0.01 level while negative correlation was

1 level. (Table 3.3). DO in summer is decreased

xygen holding capacity of water at high temperature. Rodgi and

that disposal of domestic sewage and other oxygen demanding wastes

xygen of the receiving water body was lost to atmosphere

in Mysore city (Sachidanandamurthy and Yajurvedi ,2006)

ncrease in DO in monsoon was due to low temperature and

high aeration along with photosynthetic activity of Ulhas river estuary, Maharashtra

The highest dissolved oxygen was pointed out at BMIT was a good indicator and

with high water quality parameters and will support diversity of


Fig. 3.6 : Seasonal variation in Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December, 2010

67

antity of DO in water is directly or indirectly dependent on

water temperature, partial pressure of air etc. The maximum dissolved Oxygen in

xygen and high rate of photosynthesis at

e while higher level in monsoon may be credited to

up of surface

xygen during summer might

ater holds less oxygen as well as increases the


At the study area of BMIT

Transparency and Water

was show with

decreased due to

and Nimbergi

that disposal of domestic sewage and other oxygen demanding wastes

lost to atmosphere

2006). Mishra

s due to low temperature and

of Ulhas river estuary, Maharashtra.

out at BMIT was a good indicator and the

water quality parameters and will support diversity of

: Seasonal variation in Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) at Budaki dam during January, 2009 to December, 2010

68

3.3.2.3 Free Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Free CO2 in the present study varied from 2.18 to3.68 mg/L. The lowest mean

value of free carbon dioxide was recorded in winter season (2.18±0.24 mg/L) where

as the highest value (3.68±0.12 mg/L)) in summer (Table3.2). CO2 showed highly

significant seasonal variations (P < 0.0001, F2 2117.1).

Same observation recorded by Ishaq and Khan (2013); Bhadia and Vaghela

(2013) the higher values of free CO2 were observed during summer. These could be

explained on the basis of high summer temperature which accelerated the process of

decay of organic matter and respiratory activities of organisms, resulting in the

addition of large quantities of CO2 to the water of river Yamuna at Kalsi Dehradun.

Gurumayum et. al. (2002) also reported higher values of free CO2 during summer and

monsoon months. The lesser level of free CO2 during winter mainly due to high

photosynthetic activity utilizing free CO2 observed by Hazarika (2013) in Assam.

However, Sahni and Yadav (2012) have reported low values of free CO2 during

post-monsoon (18.26 mg/L) and high in Summer (19.35 mg/L) from Bharawas pond

Rewari, Haryana.

The carbon dioxide is soluble in water and the little amount of carbon dioxide

is present in sample because of the small amount of it being present in the

atmosphere. According to Joshi et. al.(1995) the increase in carbon dioxide level

during summer may be due to decay and decomposition of organic matter. Free

carbon dioxide is the source of carbon that can be assimilated and incorporated into

the living matter of all the aquatic autotrophs. Free CO2 is directly proportional to

bicarbonates and inversely to carbonates. Similar results were reported by (maximum

in summer, 4.23 mg/L and minimum in winter,0.96 mg/L) Ekhande (2010), Manjare

et. al., (2010) recorded 0.0 mg/L to 28.6 mg/L and Zahoor Pir et. al. (2012) observed

(0. mg/L low in July and high 5.52 mg/L in March ) while studying on different

freshwater bodies.

In the BMIT investigation negative correlation of free CO2 is noted with DO,

and WC with significant level at 0.01 level while positive correlation shows with AT,

, Cl, PO4, TDS, TS, and WT at 0.01 level (Table 3.3). Parameters like Mg and pH

were non significantly correlated with CO2.

3.3.2.4 Total Hardness (TH)

In the present study total hardness varied from 123 to 179 mg/

different seasons. Maximum mean of

11.9 CaCO3 mg/L) and minimum in monsoon (123 ± 1.53 CaCO

143 ±3.34 CaCO3 mg/L in winter (Table 3.2).

The similar range of total hardness was

Kalwale et. al.(2012) in Deoli Bhorus dam was found in the range of 110.75 m

120.91 mg/L. Manjare

season (70 mg/L) than the rainy

result of low water levels and the concentration of ions, and the lower rainy season

value could be due to dilution.

higher during summer than rainy season and winter

Talsande, Maharashtra. Kolo and Oladimeji (2004) for Shiroro

(2002) in Rishi Lake. Shimpi et.

from 70 mg/L and 142 mg/

respectively. Whereas maximum total hardness was observed by

Yadav(2012) total hardness value

higher value was found in post

from Bharawas Pond, Rewari.

Calcium and Magnesium in addition to sulphate

reported that high concentration of hardness (150 to 300 mg/

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Summer

Fig. 3.7 :

mg.

/L

Total Hardness (TH)

In the present study total hardness varied from 123 to 179 mg/

different seasons. Maximum mean of total hardness was recorded in summer (179±

and minimum in monsoon (123 ± 1.53 CaCO3 mg/L), while it was

in winter (Table 3.2).

The similar range of total hardness was reported by many workers such as

in Deoli Bhorus dam was found in the range of 110.75 m

et.al.(2010) reported hardness higher during the

than the rainy and winter (70 mg/L) season, this could be as are


could be due to dilution. Hujare (2008) also reported total hardness

summer than rainy season and winter season in the perennial tank

Kolo and Oladimeji (2004) for Shiroro Lake. Kedar and Patil

Shimpi et. al. (2011) recorded the value of hardness fluctuates

142 mg/L. were recorded in the month of October and

Whereas maximum total hardness was observed by

ardness valued ranged from 968.60 to 1203.60 mg/

higher value was found in post-monsoon while the lower value in winter season

Bharawas Pond, Rewari. This might be due to the presence of high content of

agnesium in addition to sulphates and nitrates. Jain et.al (

reported that high concentration of hardness (150 to 300 mg/L) from Kishanpura dam,


Fig. 3.7 : Seasonal variation in CO2 (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

69

In the present study total hardness varied from 123 to 179 mg/L in

was recorded in summer (179±

), while it was

many workers such as

in Deoli Bhorus dam was found in the range of 110.75 mg/L to

hardness higher during the summer

his could be as are


reported total hardness which was

perennial tank of

Kedar and Patil

he value of hardness fluctuates

October and April

Whereas maximum total hardness was observed by Sahni and

from 968.60 to 1203.60 mg/L of which

monsoon while the lower value in winter season

be due to the presence of high content of

Jain et.al (2011)

Kishanpura dam,

Baran Rajasthan. High values may

salts higher values observed in the summer season

can be attributed to the decrease in water volume and increase in the rate of

evaporation at high temperature and due to the rapid oxidation of organic materials

and anthropogenic activities.

responsible for increased hardness

BMIT showed positive significant correlations (

and WT at 0.01 levels while

0.01 level and other parameter likes

correlated. The hardness of water

hard water when compared with permissible

for drinking water.

The World Health Organization (WHO) International Standard for Drinking

Water (1998) classified water with a total hardness of CaCO

soft water, 50 to 150 mg/

mg/L as hard CaCO3. Thus the waters are suitable for domestic use in terms of

hardness. This is because moderately hard water is preferred to soft water for drinking

purposes as hard water is associate

(1990). Ca and Mg are among the general elements essential for human health and

metabolism and should be available in normal drinking water. However, if one or

more of these elements occur in the water above ce

objectionable to consumers and even become hazardous to health.

0

50

100

150

200

250

Summer

Fig. 3.8 : Seasonal variation in Total Hardness (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

mg/

L

igh values may be due to the addition of calcium and magnesium

igher values observed in the summer season were due to increase


temperature and due to the rapid oxidation of organic materials

and anthropogenic activities. The input of domestic and other sewage water might be

increased hardness of fish pond at Hyderabad Zaffar (1964).

BMIT showed positive significant correlations (Table3.3) with AT, Ca, Cl

while, it showed significant negative correlations with

0.01 level and other parameter likes DO, NO3, PO4, SO4, TSS, were non

hardness of water sample of BMIT study area is (179mg/L)

hard water when compared with permissible limit (300 mg/L) of BIS (1991) standards


Water (1998) classified water with a total hardness of CaCO3 less than 50 mg/

soft water, 50 to 150 mg/L as moderately hard water and water hardness above 150

. Thus the waters are suitable for domestic use in terms of


purposes as hard water is associated with low death rate from heart diseases ISO

1990). Ca and Mg are among the general elements essential for human health and


more of these elements occur in the water above certain limits, the water may become

objectionable to consumers and even become hazardous to health.


: Seasonal variation in Total Hardness (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

70

be due to the addition of calcium and magnesium

increase in hardness


temperature and due to the rapid oxidation of organic materials

The input of domestic and other sewage water might be

Zaffar (1964). The

Ca, Cl-, Mg, pH,

significant negative correlations with WC at

were non-significantly

(179mg/L) below the

of BIS (1991) standards


less than 50 mg/L as

as moderately hard water and water hardness above 150

. Thus the waters are suitable for domestic use in terms of


d with low death rate from heart diseases ISO

1990). Ca and Mg are among the general elements essential for human health and


rtain limits, the water may become

71

3.3.2.5 Chlorides (Cl-)

Chloride values in the present study of BMIT were found ranging between

40.3 to 60 mg/L of which maximum value (60 mg/L) was recorded in summer season

and the minimum value (40.3mg/L) in winter season and slightly increased in

monsoon (51.8 mg/L) (Table 3.2, Fig- 3.9).

The result are in agreement with chlorides of Tapi and Aner water river of

North Maharashtra studied by Patel and Lohar (1998). According to Venkatesharaju

et. al. (2010),Chloride values are maximum in summer 63.9mg/L and minimum in

winter 56.2mg/L. Sahni and Yadav (2012), reported that Chloride values were found

ranging between 1107.95 to 1735.24 mg/L of which maximum value was noticed in

summer season and the minimum value in winter season. The higher concentration of

chlorides is considered to be an indicator of higher pollution due to higher organic

waste of animal origin. Sahu and Behera (1995) observed that the higher

concentration of chloride in the summer period may be due to increased temperature,

low level of water and sewage mixing. Rai et. al. (2012) in their investigation, found

the chlorides ranged between 41mg/L to 70 mg/L. Hulyal, and Kaliwal (2011)

Seasonal fluctuations have been occurred in chloride concentration during 2003, the

maximum concentration of chloride was found in monsoon (86 mg/L) and minimum

in winter (36 mg/L), while in 2004 maximum values were found in winter (83.6

mg/L) and minimum in monsoon (42.2 mg/L). Muniyan and Ambedkar (2011) found

chloride level in the range of 47 to 52 mg/L which does not exceed the desirable level

(200mg/L) and permissible limit (600 mg/L) of WHO. Simpi et. al.(2011), the values

of chlorides ranged from 22 mg/L in January to 32.5 mg/L in May.

Chlorides are the good indicator of pollution, the common source of chlorides

in fresh water is sewage disposal and industrial waste. Human being releases a high

quantity of chlorides through urine and faecal matter hence chlorides concentrate is

relatively high in domestic sewage. According to Koshy and Nayar (1999), when it is

above 200 mg/L the water is unsuitable for human consumption. The higher

concentration of chlorides is due to higher organic waste of animal origin. Subbama

and Sharma (1992), Anita et. al. (2013) and Sahu and Behera (1995) observed that the

higher concentration of chlorides in the summer period may be due to increased

temperature and high rate of evaporation, low level of water and sewage mixing.

While lower concentration of chlorides in monsoon was due to dilution of water.

In the present study chloride

DO, Trans and WC at study area whereas positively significantly correlated with AT,

CO2, PO4-3, TDS, TH, TS and WT

has reported a direct correlation between chloride concentration and pollution level in

freshwater ponds of Hyderabad. In present study the chloride values

low, ranging between 40.3 mg/

BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard

from chloride hazard at BMIT hence it

agriculture purposes.

3.3.2.6 Nitrates (NO3

The nitrate content was fluctuated

varied from 0.21 to 0.38 mg/

0.02mg/L) in monsoon while

3.2). Somewhat similar values found to Chisty (2002) and Rani

The major sources of nitrate

activities, from catchment area by rainfall, sewage effluents, agro waste

suspended organic matter.

settle down to the bottom

decomposition. Nitrates were

of human and animal wastes to the lake

(2008). Nitrates represent the highest oxidized form of nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs in

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Summer

Fig. 3.9 : Seasonal variation in Chloride (mg/L) during

mg/

L

In the present study chlorides were negatively significantly correlated with


TS and WT, both at 0.01 level (Table3.3). Munawar (1970)


freshwater ponds of Hyderabad. In present study the chloride values we

low, ranging between 40.3 mg/L to 60.0 mg/L. It is far less than permissible limit of

BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard, 1991) which is 300 mg/L indicating that water is free

from chloride hazard at BMIT hence it can be used for human consumption and

3)

The nitrate content was fluctuated according to the seasons the

varied from 0.21 to 0.38 mg/L. The highest mean value recorded

monsoon while the lowest recorded (0.21± 0.02 mg/L) in

omewhat similar values found to Chisty (2002) and Rani et. al. (2004).

The major sources of nitrates in reservoirs and water bodies are

activities, from catchment area by rainfall, sewage effluents, agro waste

matter. When algae and other suspended microorganisms die and

settle down to the bottom, they carry their Nitrogen and Phosphorus with them during

were also generated from agricultural fertilizers and mixing

of human and animal wastes to the lake Murugavel and Pandian (2000); Cengiz Koc

represent the highest oxidized form of nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs in


: Seasonal variation in Chloride (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

72

correlated with


Munawar (1970)


were relatively

missible limit of

indicating that water is free

used for human consumption and

nitrate values

The highest mean value recorded was (0.38±

in winter (Table

(2004).

and water bodies are human

activities, from catchment area by rainfall, sewage effluents, agro wastes and

lgae and other suspended microorganisms die and

hosphorus with them during

also generated from agricultural fertilizers and mixing

Murugavel and Pandian (2000); Cengiz Koc

represent the highest oxidized form of nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs in

73

freshwaters in various forms such as, dissolved molecular nitrogen, inorganic nitrogen

in the form of ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, organic nitrogen as amino acids, proteins

and various complex organic compounds. Nnaji et. al.(2010) and Manjare et. al.

(2010) observed the similar values of freshwater bodies, while studying on river

Galma, Zaria, Nigeria and Tamdalge tank in Kolhapur district, Maharashtra

respectively. Jakher and Rawat (2003), also recorded the similar observation in a

tropical lake of Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The reverse observation was found by

Ramalingam et. al. (2011), the nitrate content was fluctuated between the stations as

well as the seasons as per him. The nitrate values varied from 0.11 to 0.90 mg/L. Patra

et.al. (2010), recorded in pre monsoon season maximum value of nitrate was

117.4±0.37 μmol/L in Chadheiguha area of Central sector and minimum amount was

found to be 1.55±0.15 μmol/L in Sanakuda area of Southern sector. As per Shib

Abir(2014), the maximum value of nitrates was recorded as 8.1mg/L in the month of

August (Monsoon) and minimum value observed in May (Summer) 2.4mg/L with a

mean value of 5.54. According to Manjare et.al. (2010) the maximum value

(37.5mg/l) was recorded in the month of July (monsoon) and minimum (4.40mg/l) in

the month of November (winter).

All organisms require Nitrogen for the basic process of life to synthesize

protein required for growth and reproduction. The presence of nitrates in the water

samples is suggestive of some bacterial action and bacterial growth. These findings

support the observations of Majumder et. al., (2006). Nitrates in natural waters can

be traced to percolating nitrates from sources such as decaying plant and animal

material, agricultural fertilizers, domestic sewage (Adeyeye and Abulude ,2004). The

nitrate content, more than 100 mg /L impart bitter taste to water and may cause

physiological problem. The high concentration of nitrates in drinking water is toxic

(Umavathi et. al., 2007). Drinking water contains more than 500 mg/L nitrates can

cause methamoglobinemia in infants. (Uba and Aghogo, 2001). Nitrates cause the

overgrowth of algae, other organisms and foul the water system.

Generally water bodies polluted by organic matter indicates higher values of

nitrates but the levels of nitrates in BMIT water were within the range of

permissible limit given by WHO i.e. 45 mg/L for human consumption and agriculture

purposes. Nitrates showed positive significant correlations (Table 3.3) with PO4,- SO4,

TSS, and TS while significant negative correlations with Trans. both at the 0.01 and

0.05 level.

3.3.2.7 Phosphates (PO4

During the study period maximum Phosphate values were recorded in

monsoon (0.64 mg/L) and minimum in winter (0.21 mg/L) (Table3.2) (Fig. 3.11).

Similar observation ware found by many workers like Shinde

and Shinde (2012), the lowe

during winter and highest 0.54 mg/L during monsoon.

Phosphates play significant role in maintenance of the fertility of water body.

During the current investigation the phosphate concentration was repo

(0.64 mg/L) in monsoon season and lower (0.21 mg/

higher in summer. According to

water came from agricultural fields and mixed with the water of the reservoir

results reported by Arvindkumar (1995)

phosphate fluctuated from 0.12mg/

was recorded in the month of August (monsoon) and minimum value in the month of

October (winter). The high values of phosphate

runoff, agriculture run off; washer man activity could have also contributed to the

inorganic phosphate content

phosphate ranged from 287.7

During that period, the lower values were recorded during autumn season and higher

during warmer periods. The high concentration during warm periods c

attributed to decay and subsequent m

00.050.1

0.150.2

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.45

Summer

Fig. 3.10

mg/

L

43-)



Similar observation ware found by many workers like Shinde et. al., (2010); Tidame

the lowest concentration of phosphates 0.45 mg/L was obtained

during winter and highest 0.54 mg/L during monsoon.

play significant role in maintenance of the fertility of water body.

During the current investigation the phosphate concentration was repo

) in monsoon season and lower (0.21 mg/L) in winter season and slightly

According to Tidame and Shinde (2012), might be due to rain

water came from agricultural fields and mixed with the water of the reservoir

results reported by Arvindkumar (1995); Upadhyay and Gupta (2013), the value of

from 0.12mg/L to 12.38 mg/L the maximum value (12.38mg/


winter). The high values of phosphate we mainly due to rain, surface water


inorganic phosphate content. Ahangar et. al. (2013) recorded the concentration of

d from 287.7to512.4 μg/L with an average of 394.1±21.42 μg/L.


during warmer periods. The high concentration during warm periods c

attributed to decay and subsequent mineralization of dead organic matter and surface


Fig. 3.10 : Seasonal variation in Nitrates (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

74



, (2010); Tidame

st concentration of phosphates 0.45 mg/L was obtained

play significant role in maintenance of the fertility of water body.

During the current investigation the phosphate concentration was reported higher

) in winter season and slightly

be due to rain

water came from agricultural fields and mixed with the water of the reservoir, similar

Upadhyay and Gupta (2013), the value of

the maximum value (12.38mg/L)


mainly due to rain, surface water


) recorded the concentration of

to512.4 μg/L with an average of 394.1±21.42 μg/L.


during warmer periods. The high concentration during warm periods could be

ineralization of dead organic matter and surface

75

runoff. While low concentration during summer is attributed to the utilization of

nutrients by autotrophs (Kaul et. al. 1978). Sahni and Yadav (2012) Phosphate is an

important nutrient for the maintenance of the fertility of water body. During the

present investigation the phosphate concentration was reported higher (2.80 mg/L) in

summer season and lower (2.15 mg/L) in winter season. Higher concentration of

phosphates in dry seasons may be due to low level of water and pollution. Kamal et.

al. (2007) observed the similar findings (4.89 mg/L to 11.46 mg/L) in their study on

Mouri River. According to Simpi et.al. (2011), the seasonal variations of Phosphate

values were recorded maximum (5.75mg/L) in monsoon and minimum (0.71mg/L) in

winter season. The high values of phosphate in (monsoon) are mainly due to rain,

surface water runoff, agriculture run off; washer man activity could have also

contributed to the inorganic phosphate content

At BMIT the higher values of phosphates recorded in monsoon are mainly due

to rain, surface water runoff, agriculture run off, and human activity. According to

Harikrishnan and Azis (1989); Murugavel and Pandian (2000) higher values of

phosphates reported in Kodiyar reservoir during monsoons and Holtan et. al.(1988)

recorded high values of phosphates during rainy season might be due to transport

from the surrounding catchment areas. Significant variation at the level of p<0.05 and

p<0.01 were also observed during rainy season except for Nambul river.The low

values of the nutrient during winter season might be probably due to lowering in input

of pollutant in the river system which confirmed the findings of Clarke (1924).

According to Singh et.al (2013) the concentration ranged from 0.013 mgl-1( Iril river

in January, Imphal river in April ) to 0.508 mgl-1 (Nambul river in June). Seasonal

maximum mean value was 0.327 ±0.12 mg/L (Nambul river in rainy season) and

minimum as 0.015 ±0.002 mg/L (Imphal river in summer season). According to

Gaike and Kamble (2013) Phosphate values were nil at beginning of monsoon

whereas post monsoon showed a maximum value of 0.49 mg/L. During the monsoon,

precipitation eroded the land containing fertilizer got mixed to water monsoon.

The lower phosphate values reported during winter season may be correlated

to its locking PO4 by macrophytes and phytoplankton during their bloom decreasing

their level in water (Kant and Raina, 1990). Hutchinson (1957), has concluded that the

quantity of phosphates increases due to sewage contamination in water bodies. The

phosphate was fluctuated between the stations as well as the seasons. The phosphate

values varied from 0.01 to 0

were recorded maximum duri

season. (Ramalingam et.al, 2011)

value was in between 20 to 30 mg/

the natural sources of P

being rocks and organic matter decomposition as well as anthropogenic activities.

In the present study

AT, Cl-, CO2, NO3-, SO

correlated with DO and Transparency

phosphate value fluctuating between 0.21 to 0.64 mg/

However, it crossed the permissible limit of drinking water (0.1 mg/

Public Health Standards (De, 2002) in monsoon.

3.3.2.8 Sulphates (SO

In the present investigation of BMIT water the conc. of sulphates fluctuated.

The minimum value recorded in winter

in monsoon season (7.80

Somewhat similar observation

Nagawanshi (1997); Tiadme and Shinde (2012) in Temple pond Nasik (28.7 to 42.87

mg/L) and Jena et.al.(2013)

mg/L)

According to Grasby et

dissolution of SO4 minerals; oxidation of pyrite and other forms of reduced S;

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Fig. 3.11 : Seasonal variation in Phosphate (mg/L) during

mg/

L

values varied from 0.01 to 0.24 mg/l. and the seasonal variations of phosphate values

recorded maximum during monsoon/pre-monsoon and minimum during summer

(Ramalingam et.al, 2011) The water body was eutrophic, much

in between 20 to 30 mg/L. Welch (1986). According to Girija

Phosphorus in water were from the leaching of phosphate


In the present study phosphates were positively significantly correlated

SO4, TDS, TS, TSS and WT while negatively significantly

correlated with DO and Transparency both at 0.01 levels (Table 3.3).

phosphate value fluctuating between 0.21 to 0.64 mg/L is too much below this level.

However, it crossed the permissible limit of drinking water (0.1 mg/L) as given by US

Public Health Standards (De, 2002) in monsoon.

(SO4-2)


The minimum value recorded in winter (4.25 mg/L).While maximum value

7.80 mg/L) and slightly more in summer (Table.3.2 Fig 3.12).

observation were also reported on Nandrabad pond, Aurangabad by

; Tiadme and Shinde (2012) in Temple pond Nasik (28.7 to 42.87

et.al.(2013) of Kharoon River water quality at Raipur

According to Grasby et. al. (1997),dissolved sulphates can be derived from the

minerals; oxidation of pyrite and other forms of reduced S;


: Seasonal variation in Phosphate (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

76

the seasonal variations of phosphate values

monsoon and minimum during summer

much total PO4-

to Girija et. al. (2007)

re from the leaching of phosphates


positively significantly correlated with

vely significantly

At BMIT the

is too much below this level.

s given by US


value recorded

(Table.3.2 Fig 3.12).

were also reported on Nandrabad pond, Aurangabad by

; Tiadme and Shinde (2012) in Temple pond Nasik (28.7 to 42.87

(0.45 to 0.87

can be derived from the

minerals; oxidation of pyrite and other forms of reduced S;

oxidation of organic sulfides in natural soil processes; and anthropogenic inputs, i.e.

fertilizers . Biological oxidation of reduced sulphur species to sulphate increase in

concentration. Discharge of industrial wastes and domestic sewage in waters tends to

increase its concentration (Trivedi and Goel, 1984).

Presence of Sulphate has less effect on taste of water

chloride. High value of Sulphate

exerts adverse effect on human. In the entire sample tested sulphate was within

permissible limit (150 mg/L)

The highest content of sulphate was recorded during summer, the high

value might be due to low water level and detergent pollution during summer

supported by Agarkar and Garode

due to reduction of sulphite and subsequent in the form of H

Khan (1988) have stated that pollu

Sulphate generally shows

line for sulphate in drinking water is 400 mg/

pollution by domestic wastes, the per

mg/L.As per BIS (1991) standards for drinking water

Maximum sulphate mean values recorded in monsoon (7.80 ± 0.40 mg/

minimum in winter (4.25±

recommended for human consumption and irrigation purposes. Sul

significantly correlated

significantly correlated with

3.3).

0123456789

Summer

Fig.3.12

mg/

L

organic sulfides in natural soil processes; and anthropogenic inputs, i.e.



its concentration (Trivedi and Goel, 1984).As per ISI (1964) the permissible

Presence of Sulphate has less effect on taste of water as compare to presence of

chloride. High value of Sulphates above 500mg/L produces bitter taste to water and

exerts adverse effect on human. In the entire sample tested sulphate was within

(150 mg/L) for general use.


to low water level and detergent pollution during summer

and Garode (2000). Lower concentration during winter may

due to reduction of sulphite and subsequent in the form of H2S gas. Zutshi and

Khan (1988) have stated that polluted waters are always rich in sulphate

shows less effect on taste than chloride and carbonates. The guide

ate in drinking water is 400 mg/L. based on taste. Sulphate

pollution by domestic wastes, the permissible limit for human consumption is 250

) standards for drinking water.

Maximum sulphate mean values recorded in monsoon (7.80 ± 0.40 mg/

winter (4.25±0.46 mg/L) therefore the water of BMIT

for human consumption and irrigation purposes. Sulphate is positively

significantly correlated with NO3-, PO4, TS, and TSS, while it is negatively

with Transparency both at 0.01and 0.05 levels at


Fig.3.12 : Seasonal variation in Sulphate during January, 2009 to December, 2010

77

organic sulfides in natural soil processes; and anthropogenic inputs, i.e.



the permissible

to presence of

produces bitter taste to water and

exerts adverse effect on human. In the entire sample tested sulphate was within the


to low water level and detergent pollution during summer

(2000). Lower concentration during winter may be

S gas. Zutshi and

ted waters are always rich in sulphates. The

less effect on taste than chloride and carbonates. The guide

. based on taste. Sulphates indicate the

missible limit for human consumption is 250

Maximum sulphate mean values recorded in monsoon (7.80 ± 0.40 mg/L) and

BMIT can be

ate is positively

, while it is negatively

BMIT (Table

78

3.3.2.9 Magnesium (Mg)

The maximum mean values of Magnesium were reported in summer (19.5 ±

2.17 mg/L) and minimum in monsoon (6 .81 ± 1.27 mg/L),while it was (14.8 ± 1.54

mg/L) in winter (Table 3.2, Fig. 3.13) with in the limit (75 mg/L) of ICMR (1975).

The ecological significance of major cations or hardness of calcium and

magnesium in the biotic dynamics of aquatic flora and fauna is a well established fact.

The Magnesium is essential for flora for chlorophyll biosynthesis and enzymatic

transformations, particularly for phosphorylation in algae, fungi and bacteria. The

higher concentration of Mg increases total hardness of water in accordance with

Kulkarni et.al.(1983).According to Rajshekhar et.al. (2007), the main source of Ca

and Mg is leaching of rocks and exoskeleton of arthropods as well as shells of

mollusks. In the present study main source of Magnesium may be leaching of rocks

in the catchment area. Therefore the maximum level of hardness during the summer

season may be due to evaporation of water and addition of Calcium and Magnesium

salts and sewage inflow. The similar result reported by Verma (2009), the conc. of

Magnesium varies from 18.53 to 26.74 mg/L and 32.62 to 44.54 mg/L during winter

and summer in river Betwa. Ikhile and Aderogba (2011). Magnesium is more

abundant in the dry season than the wet season. The minimum value of 1.2 mg/L was

recorded in the second week of January and May while the maximum value of 9.6

mg/L was also recorded in January in the basin. The mean value for the dry season

was 3.4 mg/L while for the rainy season was 2.87 mg/L. Chaurasia and Pandey(2007).

The Magnesium concentration was recorded beyond the permissible limit (50 mg/L)of

WHO by Sahni and Yadav (2012), Magnesium contents varied from 190.20 to 239.22

mg/L being maximum (239.22 mg/L) during post monsoon season and minimum

(190.20 mg/L) in winter season. Murhekar (2011) observed that Magnesium is

directly related to hardness, Magnesium content in his investigated water samples was

ranging from 162.00 mg/L to 26.00 mg/L which were found above WHO limit.

The main source of Magnesium is being leaching of rocks in the catchment

area. In BMIT Magnesium is positively significantly correlated with Ca, pH and TH

at 0.01 level while, it is negatively significantly correlated with TSS and WC at 0.05

level and non significantly correlated with DO,NO3,PO4,TS. (Table3.3).

Magnesium is commonly related with Calcium in all types of waters, but their

concentrations remain generally lower than the Calcium. According to Dagaonkar and

Saksena (1992), Magnesium play vital role in chlorophyll growth and acts as a

limiting factor for the development of phytoplankton. The Magnesium was higher in

summer seasons and lower in monsoon season. This may be due to the uptake of

Magnesium by phytoplankton and macrophytes in the formation of their chlorophyll

Magnesium perphyrin- metal complex and

transformations. These results

Monsoon and 34ppm.in winter

3.3.2.10 Calcium(Ca)

The range of variation values at BMIT water

(26.8mg/L) in summer season and lower (9.29 mg/

increased in winter (16.4

According to Viswanath and Murthy (2004), Calcium is an essential

micronutrient in the aquatic environment and its concentration may be variable

according to the influx of the material present in the aquatic system. They also

reported that the high level of

formation. The concentration of Calcium increases during summer season due to rapid

evaporation, oxidation and decomposition of organic matter. The Calcium content

were found within (75 mg/L)

Calcium was low in monsoon perhaps due to dilution and flooding during the rainy

season. The increased Calcium

vegetation and low level of water.

The higher level of Magnesium in s

as Imevbere (1970) has attributed the seasonal pattern of variation to the “effect was

0

5

10

15

20

25

Fig.3.13m

g/L


agnesium by phytoplankton and macrophytes in the formation of their chlorophyll

metal complex and also might have been used in en

These results are in concurrence with Verma et. al. (2012)

winter.

The range of variation values at BMIT water for Calcium w

) in summer season and lower (9.29 mg/L) in monsoon and slightly

mg/L.) (Table 3.2) (Fig. 3.14)

Viswanath and Murthy (2004), Calcium is an essential



reported that the high level of Calcium might be contributed to the geological



(75 mg/L) limit of BIS (1991) in BMIT study area. The level of


Calcium in summer was due to the decomposition of aquatic

vegetation and low level of water.

level of Magnesium in summer observed by several workers such

attributed the seasonal pattern of variation to the “effect was


: Seasonal variation in Magnesium (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

79


agnesium by phytoplankton and macrophytes in the formation of their chlorophyll-

used in enzymatic

(2012), 25 ppm in

Calcium were higher

in monsoon and slightly

Viswanath and Murthy (2004), Calcium is an essential



ht be contributed to the geological



study area. The level of


due to the decomposition of aquatic

ummer observed by several workers such

attributed the seasonal pattern of variation to the “effect was

: Seasonal variation in Magnesium (mg/L) during

80

seen from the concentration of ions due to evaporation during the dry season and

dilution due to flooding during the rainy season.” Sahni and Yadav(2012) found

higher (118.80mg/L) in summer season and lower (75.71 mg/L) in winter season from

Bharawas Pond, Rewari, Haryana., Ravikumar et. al., (2005) reported the maximum

Calcium hardness in the months of April in Ayyanakere tank in Harapanahalli town in

Davangere district of Karnataka. The variation in the dry season was more than the

rainy season. The maximum level of hardness during the summer season may be due

to evaporation of water, addition of Calcium and Magnesium salts and sewage inflow

(Chaurasia and Pandey, 2007). According to Ikhile and Aderogba (2011), Calcium is

more abundant in the dry season than the wet season. The lowest value of 4.0mg/L

was recorded in February and March while the highest value of 40.0 mg/L was

recorded in the last weekend of December. The mean value of Calcium for the dry

season was 9.78 mg/L while that of the rainy season was 9.39 mg/L. Calcium was

found in greater abundance in all natural water as its main source is weathering of

rocks from which its leaches out. Calcium was found in the same quantity and

comparatively higher both in summer and northeast monsoon seasons, while lower in

southwest monsoon (Jemi and Balasing 2012).

Sayed et.al. (2011) reported higher (66.12 ±1.15mg/L) during Summer and

lower value (58.97 ± 3.95mg/L) during Winter season from Wadi El-Rayan Lakes,

western desert, Egypt. Waghmare and Kulkarni (2013) observed range the minimum

value of Calcium in the river was 22.9 mg/L at S1 in the month of October and

Maximum 49.2 mg/L at S2 in the month of May in Lendi River. Garg et. al. (2006) ;

Jain et. al. (2011). The maximum mean range was recorded in summer (26.8 ± 1.91

mg/L).While minimum mean value was recorded in monsoon season (9.29 ± 0.877

mg/L).

The Calcium is positively significantly correlated with Mg ,pH and TH at 0.01

level while it is negatively non significantly correlated with DO, NO3, PO4, SO4, TSS

and WC at BMIT.(Table 3.3).

Calcium is an important element influencing flora of ecosystem, which plays

potential role in metabolism and growth. According to Kataria et. al. (1995) and

Gowd et al (1998), in the natural water extreme Cl- ions is usually found associated

with Na++, K++ and Ca++ which create salty taste when concentration is 100 mg/L.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Summer

Fig 3.14 : Seasonal variation in Calcium (mg/L) during

mg/

L


: Seasonal variation in Calcium (mg/L) during January, 2009 to December, 2010

81

82

Table 3.1 Seasonal variations in physical parameters of Budki M.I.Tank over the

period of two years from January, 2009 to December, 2010 (Mean ± SEM)

Sr.No.

Parameters F value Summer Monsoon Winter

1 AT 0C F 2 21 12.3 31.0±1.32 28.8±0840 24.4±0.565

2 WT 0C F 2 21 10.7 26.5±0.964 24.8±0.590 21.5±0.732

3 Water Cover % F 2 21 9.40 61.5±3.50 79.4±5.13 84.0±2.56

4 Total Solids (TS) mg/L F221 35.4 198±4.51 205±4.36 156±4.40

5Total Dissolved Solids mg/L

F221 23.8 160±2.94 150±4.38 127±3.12

6Total Suspended Solids (TSS) mg/L

F221 39.7 37.9±1.66 54.6±1.89 29.5±2.46

7 Transparency (Trans) Cm. F221 28.2 90.0±1.15 71.1±5.45 111±3.32

Table 3.2 Seasonal variations in Chemical parameters of Budki M.I.Tank over

the period of two years from January, 2009 to December, 2010 (Mean ± SEM).

Sr. No.

Parameters F value


1 Potentia hydrogenii (pH) F221 15.4 7.90±0.138 7.20±0.046 7.80±0.082

2Dissolved Oxygen (DO)mg/L

F221 54.74.08±0.125 5.25±0.306 7.25±0.179

3Free Carbon dioxide (CO2) mg/L

F221 17.13.68±0.129 3.20±0.159 2.18±0.247

4 Total Hardness (TH) mg/L F2 2115.7 179±11.9 123±1.53 143±3.34

5 Calcium (Ca) mg/L F221 22.0 26.8±1.91 9.29±0.877 16.4±2.49

6 Magnesium (Mg) mg/L F221 14.2 19.5±2.17 6.81±1.27 14.8±1.54

7 Chloride (Cl) mg/L F221 13.7 60.0±3.47 51.8±2.74 40.3±1.41

8 Nitrates (NO3) mg /L F221 11.0 0.300±0.025 0.381±0.026 0.214±0.023

9 Phosphate (PO4)mg /L F221 39.5 0.435±0.031 0.645±0.043 0.213±0.026

10 Sulfates (SO4) mg/L F221 20.4 5.23±0.335 7.80±0.406 4.25±0.466

83

Table 3.3

84

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