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Transition from Student to Physical Therapist Changes in Perceptions of Professional Role and Relationship Between Perceptions and Job Satisfaction ROBERTA M. SCHWERTNER, DOROTHY P1NKSTON, PATRICIA O'SULLIVAN, and BETTY DENTON

A longitudinal study of 15 entry-level postbaccalaureate degree graduates was conducted to determine whether their perceptions of the professional role of the physical therapist and of self in that role changed after employment had begun and whether a relationship exists between these perceptions and job satisfaction. Data were collected by mail using a semantic differential test for measuring role perceptions and a questionnaire that included items related to job satisfaction and to demographic data. The return rate was 93%. At the time of data collection, the graduates had been employed for 12 to 18 months. The data on role perceptions were compared with data previously reported by Fincher Corb et al4 that had been collected on these same subjects when they entered the physical therapy education program and when they completed the program. Kendall's coefficient of concordance revealed significant differences (p < .05) in three concepts relating to the professional role of the physical therapist and in one concept relating to self in that role. In each instance, the role perception score was lower after 12 to 18 months of employment. Job satisfaction scores were relatively high among the subjects. Spearman correlation coefficients calculated between job satisfaction and role perception scores revealed a positive and direct relationship between three role concepts and job satisfaction. Results of this study provide information about the professional socialization process in physical therapy. Key Words: Education, Physical therapy, Self concept, Students.

Professional socialization is the process of "induction into a professional role, within the context of a socializing agent."1 This process consists of three basic components. The first component is the socializing environment, which includes the concrete physical environment in addition to symbolic influ-ences such as culture and social structure. The values, atti-tudes, expectations, and perspectives the individual brings into this process comprise the second component. The third component is the outcome of the socialization experience. If the events in the socialization process are intense and mean-ingful enough, changes may occur in the individual's attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions.1 What one perceives is both directly and indirectly influenced by the environment and the length of time exposed to the event.2

A longitudinal study of the socialization process of physical therapy students at The University of Alabama at Birming-ham (UAB) was begun by fellow investigators in 1981. Fecteau3 and Fincher Corb et al4 studied student perceptions of the professional role of the physical therapist and of self in that role at various stages in the professional education pro-gram. In these studies, the only significant change that oc-curred in the perceptions the students held of the professional role of the physical therapist or of self in that role was in the concept of "me as clinical researcher."4 Fincher Corb et al reported that the students demonstrated less favorable percep-tions relating to this concept between entrance into the pro-gram and completion of their second year. They attributed this change to the heavy emphasis placed on the research process at this point in the curriculum and further suggested that the overall lack of change that occurred was attributable to the fairly favorable and stable perceptions held by students on entering and continuing the educational program.4

Kramer5 and others6,7 reported that professional role per-ceptions may change or shift when the student begins em-ployment. Conflict between role perceptions, expectations, and realities experienced in the work environment may result in job dissatisfaction.8-10 The purposes of this study were 1) to describe the changes that occurred in the subjects' percep-tions of the professional role of the physical therapist and of self in that role after employment and 2) to determine whether a relationship exists between these role perceptions and job satisfaction. This information can be useful for determining whether students' initial perceptions are consistent with those

Ms. Schwertner is Center Coordinator for Clinical Education, Rotary Reha-bilitation Center, Mobile, AL 36617. She was a student in the postprofessional Master of Science program in physical therapy, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, when this study was completed. Address all correspondence to 122 Booth Circle, Ocean Springs, MS 39564 (USA).

Dr. Pinkston is Professor, Division of Physical Therapy, School of Commu-nity and Allied Health, University Station, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294.

Dr. O'Sullivan is Associate Professor, Center for Nursing Research, The University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Ms. Denton is Assistant Professor, Division of Physical Therapy, School of Community and Allied Health, The University of Alabama at Birmingham.

The results of this study were presented in poster format at the Sixty-Second Annual Conference of the American Physical Therapy Association, Chicago, IL, June 8-12, 1986.

This article was submitted August 21, 1985; was with the authors for revision 32 weeks; and was accepted August 5, 1986. Potential Conflict of Interest: 4.

Volume 67 / Number 5, May 1987 695 by guest on January 30, 2013http://ptjournal.apta.org/Downloaded from

developed with experience in the field,4 for developing future academic and clinical components of the physical therapy curricula, and for counseling students for job placement. Two research hypotheses were proposed. 1. The perception of the professional role of the physical

therapist and of self in that role would change significantly across three time periods: initial entry into the professional education program, graduation from the program, and after 12 to 18 months of employment.

2. A positive and direct relationship would exist between the level of job satisfaction and the subjects' perception of the professional role of the physical therapist and of self in that role.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Professional socialization generally has been considered to occur during the professional education process.6 Some au-thors argue, however, that professional socialization continues after graduation. Olmstead and Paget compared the profes-sional socialization process of medical students to the social-ization process of the childhood and adult stages of life.6 These authors viewed medical school as an extension of childhood socialization in that it "typically provides the stu-dent with a core of attitudes, values, and norms which have as their content what medical professors believe doctors 'should' and 'should not' do and think in a variety of situa-tions."6

In addition, this process occurs in an environment that forces the medical student into a learner role that is charac-terized by a student-teacher relationship rather than by a peer relationship. In essence, the student must first learn the role of a student in which one is expected to function for four years. The student gradually must learn the professional role through the demands of internship, residency, and practice. These authors concluded that because the socializing struc-tures of the classroom and medical practice setting are quite different, "views on professional socialization should be ex-panded to include more than medical school."6

Kramer, in a study of June 1965 graduates from three California State College nursing programs, reported that role perceptions and role models changed significantly during the first six months of employment after graduation.5 The find-ings from that study suggested that nurses became more bureaucratically oriented the longer they were employed and that this shift was associated with a shift away from a profes-sionally centered model to a work-centered model. Kramer believed that discrepancies may exist between the nursing roles learned by the student and those encountered in the work environment.5 Mathews-Gentry reported similar find-ings based on feedback from recent physical therapy gradu-ates.11 This phenomenon is termed "reality shock" and has been defined as the phenomenon that occurs when a conflict exists between the values and expectations developed during the professional education process and the realities encoun-tered in the work environment.11

Others also have reported this phenomenon in physical therapy.9,10 Gwyer, in a study of 1972 graduates, found that 33% reported a definite conflict between "personal views of the ideal role of a physical therapist and the roles they found themselves in as therapists," and two thirds of the respondents expressed the frustration of being too prepared for their prac-tice.9 Yarbrough completed an ethnographic study of physical

therapists in a suburban community hospital and reported that the therapists felt they were not allowed to practice as independently as they had been prepared to function. She stated that "young staff were disillusioned and frustrated in their attempts to adapt to the constraints placed on their work."10 This role conflict may result in job dissatisfaction8-9 and a high turnover rate.10

Job satisfaction may be defined as the feelings one has toward work.12 These feelings are related to perceived expec-tations and values.8,12 An individual's perceptions on entering a job, therefore, are important contributors to job satisfac-tion.8,9 Other factors that have been related to high levels of job satisfaction include: opportunities for autonomy, upward mobility,9,13 promotion,9,13,14 new learning experiences,8 pos-itive self-esteem,13 important work that gives a feeling of accomplishment,14 a variety of work experiences, a supportive staff, and available resources.8

Some authors have reported differences in value systems related to job responsibilities. Weaver and Holmes, in a study of 631 hospital employees, reported that those at the top of the job hierarchy valued important work that gives a feeling of accomplishment.14 Those in the middle of the job hierarchy were most concerned with the opportunities for promotion, and those at the lower end valued a high income.14

Although many researchers have investigated the sociali-zation process in professional education and levels of job satisfaction among health care professionals, few have inves-tigated the influence of work experience on professional so-cialization or the relationship between the perception of professional roles and the level of job satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to investigate these factors among physical therapists.

METHOD

Subjects This study was a continuation of a study conducted by

Fincher Corb et al4 and included the same 15 students as subjects. The overall study of professional role perceptions received approval from the UAB's Institutional Review Board for Human Use. The subjects consisted of the 15 graduates of the 1983 postbaccalaureate degree entry-level program for physical therapy at UAB. All members of the graduating class of 1983 volunteered to participate in the study, although eventually only 14 subjects provided the requisite data.

Procedure

For the purposes of this study, three tests were used. Test I was administered on entry into the professional program, and Test II was conducted one day before graduation. These tests correspond with Tests I and V, respectively, as reported by Fincher Corb et al.4 We conducted Test III 19 months after graduation. Because of different beginning employment dates, the range for length of employment was from 12 to 18 months.

Two measurement tools were used for data collection: a semantic differential test15 and the short form of the Minne-sota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ).16 The semantic differ-ential test developed by Fecteau3 was used for assessing role perceptions and perceptions of self in the role of the physical therapist. The format and characteristics of the test have been reported in detail by Fincher Corb et al.4

The short form of the MSQ was used to measure the overall level of job satisfaction. Permission to use the form was

696 PHYSICAL THERAPY


EDUCATION

TABLE 1 Summary of Demographic Data (N = 14)

Variable

Sex Male Female

Age(yr) 25-29 >29

State practiced in In state (Alabama) Out of state

Population8 of town practiced in 10,000-14,999 25,000-49,999 50,000-99,999 >99,999

Number of practice settings since graduation

1 2

Employment status Full-time salaried

Gross annual income $21,000-$24,999 $25,000-$49,999

Professional organization member Yes No

n

3 11

12 2

6 8

1 1 1

10

7 7

14

11 3

6 8

%

21 79

86 14

43 57

8 8 8

76

50 50

100

79 21

43 57

TABLE 2 Length of Employment in Months (N = 14)

s Median Range

In Present Job

11.21 6.00

14.50 14.00

Since Graduation

17.00 0.88

17.00 2.00

TABLE 3 Type of Facility in Which Employed (N = 14)

Type

Hospital Private practice Rehabilitation center Hospital and extended care

n

8 2 3 1

% 57 14 21

7

granted by the Department of Vocational Psychology Re-search, University of Minnesota. The short form of the MSQ consists of 20 items representing the 20 principal scales of the long form of the MSQ. These items are intended to measure job reinforcers and satisfaction with these reinforcers. A gen-eral job satisfaction score can be obtained by summing across all 20 items. This measurement tool has been demonstrated to be valid and reliable with a median reliability coefficient of .90 for general satisfaction. An additional benefit of the short form of the MSQ is that the questionnaire may be completed in 5 to 10 minutes.16

The measurement tools along with a cover letter and de-mographic data sheet were mailed to each subject. A tele-phone call was made to nonrespondents three weeks later,

and a second mailing was conducted as necessary. Fourteen responses were received for a return rate of 93%. One of the 14 responses was unusable for data analysis of role perceptions because of missing Test II data. That respondent's question-naires were usable, however, for other data analysis.

Data Analysis

Analysis for the first hypothesis was performed for each of the five concepts constituting the role of the physical therapist and for the four concepts of self in that role. The data collected at Test III from the semantic differential test were compared to the data recorded in Tests I and II. A Kendall's coefficient of concordance Wwas calculated for each concept across the three tests. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences-X (SPSS-X) was used for analysis.17 Testing for significant dif-ference was set at the .05 level. A post hoc analysis18 was performed for each concept where a significant difference was shown.

For the second hypothesis, Spearman correlation coeffi-cients were calculated between the general job satisfaction score, the perception score for each of the concepts, and the demographic data. The coefficients were tested to determine whether the relationship was significant and direct. The level of significance was set at the .05 level. The SPSS-X computer package17 was used for analysis.

RESULTS

Analysis of the demographic data revealed that the majority of the subjects were women (n = 11). Most were between the ages of 25 and 29 years, practiced in cities with a population greater than 99,999, received an annual salary between $21,000 and $24,999, and had practiced an average of 17 months since graduation (Tabs. 1, 2). All were full-time salaried employees, approximately half of whom were em-ployed in Alabama and half in other states (Tab. 1). Seventy-one percent of the respondents reported that they were em-ployed as staff physical therapists (n = 10), and 29% were employed as directors of physical therapy (n = 3) or as a supervisor (n = 1). The majority practiced in a hospital setting, and the others practiced in rehabilitation centers and private practices (Tab. 3). The group was distributed equally between employment in one or two practice settings since graduation (Tab. 1). The subjects reported spending most of their time in direct patient care; some time in administration-manage-ment, supervision-coordination, teaching, and consulting; and little, if any, time in research or screening-prevention activities (Tab. 4). Almost half of the subjects reported mem-bership in a professional organization (Tab. 1).

Kendall's coefficient of concordance performed on the concepts of the professional role of the physical therapist and of self in that role demonstrated significant differences in the following concepts: "physical therapist as clinical researcher," "physical therapist as clinical instructor," "physical therapist as professional organization member," and "me as clinical researcher." A post hoc analysis revealed that the significant differences occurred primarily between Tests I and III (Tabs. 5, 6). For the "physical therapist as clinical researcher" con-cept, we found significant differences between Tests II and III and between Tests I and III (Tab. 5). The significant difference in the "physical therapist as professional organization mem-ber" concept was found between Tests II and III (Tab. 5). The

a One score missing.


current role perceptions were less favorable for each of these concepts across the three test times.

The mean general job satisfaction score for the group was 77.79 (s = 9.97, range = 33.00). Spearman correlation coef-ficients demonstrated a positive and direct relationship be-tween job satisfaction and the concepts of "me as clinical instructor," "physical therapist as physical therapy depart-

TABLE 4 Distribution of Time Spent in Activities in the Role of the Physical Therapist (N = 14)

Activity

Direct patient care Administration-

management Supervision-

coordination Teaching Consulting Research Screening-prevention

0%

n

5

2 4 9

13 11

%

36

14 29 64 93 79

1 % -25%

n %

7 50

12 86 10 71 5 36 1 7 3 21

26%-50%

n 1

2

% 7

14

5 1 % -75%

n % 6 43

76%-100%

n %

7 50

ment head," and "physical therapist as professional organi-zation member" (Tab. 7).

DISCUSSION

Demographic Data The demographic data in this study closely resemble the

data presented in the American Physical Therapy Associa-tion's 1982 Active Member Profile.19 These data also are similar to the demographic data of a sample of 1983 active members of the APTA reported in a study by Morrow.20

These similarities suggest that the subjects who participated in this study are characteristic of active members of the APTA.

Role Perceptions

The results of this study demonstrated that role perceptions change after the first 12 to 18 months of employment. These data support the theory that the professional socialization process continues after the formal education period6 and are consistent with other reports of changing role perceptions in the work environment.5,7,21 Only one concept relating to self in the professional role of the physical therapist changed. All other changes occurred in the concepts relating to the subject's

TABLE 5 Summary of Scores of Perceptions of the Role of the Physical Therapist (N = 13) (Possible Range of Scores: 16-112)

Concepts

Phvsical therapist as staff physical therapist rank

Median Range

s Physical therapist as physical therapy depart-

ment head rank

Median Range

s Physical therapist as clinical researchera

rank Median Range

s Physical therapist as clinical instructora

rank Median Range

s Physical therapist as professional organization

membera rank

Median Range

s

I Beginning

of Program

2.19 97.50 26.00 97.38

7.97

2.08 99.00 38.00 97.88 9.25

2.31b 94.00 34.00 92.94

8.47

2.38b 100.00 22.00 98.38

6.51

2.19 92.00 35.00 90.38 9.19

Tests

II Completion of Program

1.92 94.00 23.00 94.14 7.40

2.42 100.00 29.00 97.86

8.92

2.31b 95.50 34.00 92.71 9.89

2.15 97.00 34.00 96.71 10.16

2.46b 93.00 31.00 91.36 10.08

III During

Employment

1.88 94.00 26.00 94.21

8.37

1.50 99.00 26.00 94.86

8.56

1.38b 90.50 29.00 88.43 7.93

1.46b 95.00 24.00 93.71

7.60

1.35b 86.00 32.00 81.86 11.04

a Kendall's coefficient of concordance W significant at the .05 level. b Significant (p < .05) pair-wise differences from post hoc analysis.



EDUCATION

TABLE 6 Summary of Scores of Graduates' Perceptions of Themselves in the Role of the Physical Therapist (N = 13) (Possible Range of Scores: 16-112)

Concepts

Me as staff physical therapist rank

Median Range

s Me as physical therapy

department head rank

Median Range

s Me as clinical

researchera

rank Median Range

s Me as clinical instructor

rank Median Range

s

I Beginning

of Program

2.38 98.00 32.00 97.56

8.35

2.38 103.00 32.00

101.73 7.62

2.69b

93.50 32.00 92.88

8.75

2.50 99.00 18.00 98.50

5.50

Tests

II Completion of Program

1.96 94.00 31.00 90.57

9.56

1.92 96.00 33.00 93.93

9.89

2.00 91.00 39.00 88.29 10.25

1.81 96.00 31.00 93.21 10.21

III During

Employment

1.65 91.00 35.00 90.86

8.74

1.69 96.50 29.00 93.21

9.63

1.31b

85.00 53.00 80.00 16.01

1.69 92.50 30.00 91.86

8.38

TABLE 7 Concepts Correlated with Satisfaction (N = 14)

Concepts

Me as clinical instructor Physical therapist as physical ther-

apy department head Physical therapist as professional

organization member

Spearman Correlation Coefficient

.49

.56

.66

Probabilitya

.04

.02

.01

perceptions of the professional role of the physical therapist. Changes in professional role concepts but not in self-concepts suggest either that these subjects hold favorable perceptions of themselves in the professional role, even though their perceptions of the role have changed, or that the changes in the perceptions of the professional role have not been great enough to have influenced changes in the perceptions of self in that role.

Three of the five concepts related to the professional role of the physical therapist demonstrated significant differences. Changes in role perceptions after becoming employed may be explained by Kramer5 and Eli and Shuval22 who reported that educational programs promote professional goals and ideals that are inconsistent with those encountered in the work

environment. That graduates are less professionally oriented and more work oriented after becoming employed5,21 also could help to explain this change. Moreover, attitudes toward the professional role may be a function of the roles occupied and tasks performed on the job.7,21,22 The two concepts relat-ing to the professional role that remained constant were "physical therapist as physical therapy department head" and "physical therapist as staff physical therapist." Ten of the subjects who were staff physical therapists and 3 who were physical therapy department heads spent little time in teach-ing, no time in research, and were not professional organiza-tion members. The reinforcement on the job in the roles of staff physical therapist and department head in addition to the lack of reinforcement in the roles of clinical researcher, clinical instructor, and professional organization member may contribute to the changes in perceptions found in this study.

Tables 5 and 6 reveal that a gradual decline in perception scores occurred for six of the nine concepts across the three tests. The decline in scores was most marked in each test for the concepts "physical therapist as clinical instructor," "me as clinical researcher," and "me as clinical instructor." The continued decline in perception scores relating to self in the professional role may be supportive of the hypothesis that changes in the perceptions of the professional role have not been great enough to have influenced changes in the percep-tions of self in that role.

The more favorable perceptions held by the respondents on entry into the physical therapy education program could have been the result of what has been termed "anticipatory socialization."23,24 Anticipatory socialization has been re-ported among medical students and nurses.23,24 The process is considered a form of self-socialization and occurs in an effort to prepare oneself for a professional career.23 The de-cline in favorable perceptions may be the result of earlier incorrect assumptions or information23 or could be related to inconsistencies between what was expected and what was encountered.5 No evidence exists indicating that the percep-tions of the professional role or of self in that role have stabilized for these subjects.

Another important finding, also reported by Fincher Corb et al,4 was that the only concept that changed significantly during the formal education program, "me as clinical re-searcher," is continuing to decline. Morrow reported that nondelegate active members of the APTA held mildly to moderately favorable attitudes toward research in physical therapy.20 If the attitudes of these subjects are consistent with those of other clinicians, the APTA's striving for further research and continued professionalization in physical ther-apy could be impeded unless strategies are developed to promote more positive attitudes.20

Job Satisfaction

Significant changes occurring in the concepts relating to the professional role of the physical therapist but not to self in that role could be indicative of professional role ambiguity. Brief et al24 and Speedling et al25 reported that role ambiguity can lead to job insecurities and dissatisfaction. The subjects in this study, however, generally appeared to be satisfied with their jobs (mean job satisfaction score = 77.79). Job satisfac-tion in the presence of role ambiguity may be explained by researchers who report that role perceptions and their per-ceived importance are separate entities contributing to job

a Kendall's coefficient of concordance W significant at the .05 level. b Significant (p < .05) pair-wise differences from post hoc analysis.

ap

satisfaction.8,26 Although some researchers have studied the influence of value systems on job satisfaction,14,27 the scope has been limited. Further research is recommended to deter-mine the perceived importance of each professional role and the relationship between the value placed on each role and job satisfaction among physical therapists.

General job satisfaction scores were similar between this group of physical therapists and engineers, the only profes-sional group for which normative data for the short form of the MSQ are available for comparisons.16 Both groups dem-onstrated higher satisfaction scores than technically trained workers.16 Atwood and Wolf28 and Broski and Cook13 also reported higher levels of job satisfaction among physical ther-apists when compared with technically trained workers and with other health care professionals.

A positive and direct relationship was found between job satisfaction scores and each of the concepts of "me as clinical instructor," "physical therapist as physical therapy depart-ment head," and "physical therapist as professional organi-zation member." Characteristics that have been shown by others to be related to job satisfaction include autonomy,9,13 important work,14 and higher levels of work.13,27 Although these characteristics were not analyzed specifically in this study, individual perception scores, job satisfaction scores, and demographic data revealed that three of the five highest job satisfaction scores were obtained by two respondents who were physical therapy department heads and one who was a supervisor and professional organization member. Two of the three individuals with the highest job satisfaction scores also demonstrated the highest perception scores for the concepts "me as clinical instructor," "physical therapist as physical therapy department head," and "physical therapist as profes-sional organization member." These observations could in-dicate that the subjects who scored highest on these three concepts experience more autonomy, tend to be profession-ally oriented, and participate in higher level job activities than the other subjects.

Other demographic variables such as age, sex, and salary were not related to job satisfaction among the subjects in this study. Because of the restrictive range in age, sex, and salary, a relationship between these variables and job satisfaction would be difficult to demonstrate. Other investigators have reported that age, sex, and salary do contribute to job satis-faction.12,28 Further research is recommended to identify professional job characteristics that contribute to job satisfac-tion among physical therapists.

STUDY IMPLICATIONS

Outcomes of this study have implications for physical ther-apy education and initial employment of graduates. The

implications are similar to findings and suggestions reported by Gwyer9 and Yarbrough.10

1. Physical therapy faculties should make an effort to deter-mine the extent of consistency between the professional goals emphasized in their education programs and those demonstrated in the work environment.

2. Educators should teach students strategies for coping with discrepancies and effective mechanisms for facilitating change.

3. Clinical experiences should be expanded to allow students more time to function in the "real" work environment and to practice coping and changing strategies.

4. Graduates should be guided into initial employment situ-ations that offer professional stimulation and facilitate positive role perceptions.

5. Methods for promoting favorable role perceptions in the clinical setting should be developed.

Future research in the area of professional socialization would provide a more complete picture of the socialization process of physical therapists than was obtained in this study if data are collected over longer periods of time and if more sensitive measurement tools are used. The following recom-mendations are made to help strengthen future research de-signs: 1. Samples of subjects should include representatives from

several different educational institutions. 2. Personal and environmental influences on the socialization

process should be analyzed. 3. Data collection should be conducted just before the edu-

cational program and continue through several years of employment.

4. Recorded interviews should be used in addition to other methods for collection and analysis of data. Insight into individuals' feelings and perceptions may be gained through facial expressions and fluctuations in voice tones.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this longitudinal study demonstrate that the role perceptions of 15 physical therapy graduates continued to change after graduation and support the theory of contia-ued professional socialization. The data also suggest that the members of this group of physical therapists generally are satisfied with their jobs even in the presence of changing role perceptions. Finally, the results of this study demonstrate that role perceptions may contribute to job satisfaction. This in-formation can be useful in developing physical therapy cur-ricula and in guiding students into their initial employment.

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1987; 67:695-701.PHYS THER. O'Sullivan and Betty DentonRoberta M Schwertner, Dorothy Pinkston, PatriciaSatisfactionRelationship Between Perceptions and JobChanges in Perceptions of Professional Role and Transition from Student to Physical Therapist :

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