Phrases and Clauses

Adjective, Adverb, Prepositional Phrases. Embedding.

Coordination and Apposition.

Introduction to Clauses

Adjective phrases (AdjPs)and adverb phrases (AdvPs)

both AdjPs and AdvPs may consist of merely one element or may be expanded into longer phrases through pre- or post-modifying elements [The hungry cat NP] [was feeling VP] [aggressive

AdjP] [The hungry cat NP] [snarled VP] [aggressively AdvP]

Pre- and post-modificationin AdjPs and AdvPs

head words in AdjPs and AdvPs are most typically pre-modified by a single adverb (intensifier) [The new shoes NP] [felt VP] [incredibly

uncomfortable AdjP] [The hungry cat NP] [snarled VP] [really

aggressively AdvP] occasionally, a head adjective or a head adverb

may be post-modified by the adverbs enough or indeed [He NP] [felt VP] [brave enough AdjP]

Prepositional phrases (PPs)

PPs differ from NPs, VPs, AdjPs, and AdvPs since the head preposition cannot stand alone, i.e. it must be accompanied by another element (prepositional complement)

the prepositional complement most typically is a NP[John NP] [was searching VP] [in [the cupboard NP] PP]

Pre- and post-modification in PPs

in theory, as well as for NPs, there is no limit to the complexity of PPs around London under a stone for my closest friend to the best friend ever

PPs are able to post-modify head nouns, head adjectives, and occasionally head adverbs

e.g. [Clive NP] [gave VP] [Kate NP] [a large bouquet [of [roses NP] PP] NP]

Embedding

embedding: the occurrence of one linguistic unit (e.g. a phrase) within another linguistic unit (e.g. a phrase) [a [rather nice AdjP] invitation NP]

[an amusing story [about [her friend [with [measles NP] PP] NP] PP] NP]

Embedding

Russian doll effect:

One phrase is embedded in another one. The concept of embedding allows us to see the potential for repeated patterns in syntactic structure. (recursion)

[an amusing story [about [her friend [with [measles NP] PP] NP] PP] NP]

Coordination coordination: the ways in which phrases may be linked

within a clause or sentence

coordination: the joining together of two linguistic units (e.g. NPs, VPs, AdjPs, AdvPs, and PPs) on an equal footing through and, but, or or

[[salmon fillets NP] and [steamed potatoes NP] NP] [Helen NP] [was VP] [[tired AdjP] but [happy AdjP] AdjP]

Apposition apposition: one way in which NPs co-occur apposition: one way of achieving economy

[Jo NP] [asked VP] [her friend’s sister NP] [an English teacher NP] [for some help PP]

No need to say Jo asked her friend’s sister for some help and Jo’s friend’s sister is an English teacher

Example

The remains of a giant meat-eating sea monster that patrolled the oceans during the reign of the dinosaurs have been unearthed on an island in the remote Arctic archipelago of Svalbard.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/mar/16/jurassic-sea-monster-pliosaur-fossil

Example

[The remains [of [a giant meat-eating sea monster NP] PP] NP] [that patrolled the oceans during the reign of the dinosaurs (that Clause)] [have been unearthed VP] [on [an island NP] PP] [in [the remote Arctic archipelago [of [Svalbard. NP] PP] NP] PP]

[(that =) a giant meat-eating sea monster NP] [patrolled VP] [the oceans NP] [during [the reign [of [the dinosaurs NP] PP] NP] PP]

Phrases and Clauses

A phrase is formed of words, a clause is formed of phrases.

the central element of a clause is the verb element included in the verb phrase (VP)

the typical English clause includes a subject (S), a verb (V), and an object (O)

English, as well as the 75 % of world languages, has an SVO structure

The typical SVO English clause the verb (V) is usually finite (marked by tense),

the voice is active, and the structure is declarative

the verb exerts a semantic and grammatical influence over other clause elements

Jane has borrowed three books

obligatory elements

Jane has borrowed three books

At present, this clause only contains obligatory elements

If we remove any of the phrases from the clause, it would be syntactically incomplete.

But we can ADD itemsJane has borrowed three booksToday from the library

The five clause elements

there are 5 clause elements: subject (S) verb (V) object (O) complement (C) adverbial (A)

Clauses typically contain a VERB and a SUBJECT + any items needed to complete the meaning of the verb

Form and function

The black labrador has bitten Mr Allington

Phrase structure (= FORM)

The black labrador NP

has bitten VP

Mr Allington NP

FUNCTION

Subject Verb Object

> Here subject and object share the same form, but each has a different function within the clause.

Subject (S) the subject typically occurs before the verb

element in subject position the subject dictates person and number

features of the verb (V) (=concord) Helen has been tidying her CD collection These friends are looking for a new house It is going to rain very shortly There will be a storm tonight

Subject (S)

the subject is very likely to be a noun phrase (NP) Jenny wants a pair of sneakers

occasionally it or there occur in subject position and are labeled dummy subjects

e.g. It requires several skills sometimes clauses may occur in subject

position (6.12)

Verb (V) the verb element must be a verb

phrase (VP) the lexical verb in VPs dictates what

obligatory elements will follow the verb (or predicator) in order to make the clause grammatical

Paul fell*Paul broke

The second example is incomplete

Some terminology:

verb complementation: the range of obligatory elements that must follow a certain verb

predicate: the verb plus any verb complementation

Subject predicatePaul broke his ankle

predicate = what we want to say about the subject

Object (O) the object typically occurs after the verb

element

only some verbs require an object > we call them transitive verbs

the object provides completeness to a transitive verb

The object is most typically a noun phrase

Verbs and their objects

> intransitive verbs: verbs which do not require an object Paul fell

> transitive or monotransitive verbs: verbs which require an object Paul loves Mary

> ditransitive verbs: verbs which take two objects Paul gave Mary a rose

> both monotransitive and ditransitive Paul bought a car Paul bought Mary a car

Ditransitive verbs

The first object can be moved to the end of the clause

the noun phrase is converted into a prepositional phrase with to or for

Paul bought Mary a car Paul bough a car for Mary

Mary is the indirect object Oi and

a car is the direct object Od

Homework

Read Ballard’s book, pages 111-124 (5.4 - 6.5)

Find a real sentence online (on newspaper websites etc.), break it down into phrases and post it on the blog