Personality

Chapter 13

Chapter 13 MenuChapter 13 Menu• Personality• Freud’s view of the divisions of the conscious mind• Freud’s three parts of the personality• Freud’s stages of personality development • Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson’s modifications • Modern psychoanaltyic theory• How behaviorists explain personality • How humanists explain personality• Roger’s view of self• Trait perspective• How trait theorists view personality• Biology and heredity’s role in personality• Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural personality• Using interviews to measure personality• Using projective tests to measure personality• Using behavioral assessments to measure personality• Using personality inventories to measure personality• Personality tests on the Internet

PersonalityPersonality• PersonalityPersonality - the unique and relatively - the unique and relatively

stable ways in which people think, feel, stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave. and behave.

• CharacterCharacter - value judgments of a - value judgments of a person’s moral and ethical behavior.person’s moral and ethical behavior.

• TemperamentTemperament - the enduring - the enduring characteristics with which each person characteristics with which each person is born.is born.

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Four Perspectives in Study of Four Perspectives in Study of PersonalityPersonality

• PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic• Behavioristic Behavioristic (including social cognitive theory)(including social cognitive theory)

• HumanisticHumanistic

• Trait perspectivesTrait perspectives

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Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud• Founder Founder of the psychoanalytic movement in psychology.of the psychoanalytic movement in psychology.

• Europe during the Victorian age.Europe during the Victorian age.• Men were understood to be unable to control their Men were understood to be unable to control their

“animal” desires at times, and a good Victorian husband “animal” desires at times, and a good Victorian husband would father several children with his wife and then turn would father several children with his wife and then turn to a mistress for sexual comfort, leaving his virtuous to a mistress for sexual comfort, leaving his virtuous wife untouched.wife untouched.

• Women, especially those of the upper classes, were not Women, especially those of the upper classes, were not supposed to have sexual urges.supposed to have sexual urges.

• Backdrop for this theory.Backdrop for this theory.

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Divisions of ConsciousnessDivisions of Consciousness

• Preconscious mind Preconscious mind - level of the mind in which - level of the mind in which information is available but not currently information is available but not currently conscious.conscious.

• Conscious mind Conscious mind - level of the mind that is aware - level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions.of immediate surroundings and perceptions.

• Unconscious mind Unconscious mind - level of the mind in which - level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness.voluntarily brought into consciousness.• Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the

tongue.tongue.

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Freud’s Theory: Parts of PersonalityFreud’s Theory: Parts of Personality• Id Id - part of the personality present at birth and completely

unconscious.• LibidoLibido - the instinctual energy that may come into conflict with the

demands of a society’s standards for behavior.• Pleasure principle Pleasure principle - principle by which the id functions; the immediate

satisfaction of needs without regard for the consequences.• EgoEgo - part of the personality that develops out of a need to

deal with reality, mostly conscious, rational, and logical.• Reality principle Reality principle - principle by which the ego functions; the

satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result.

• SuperegoSuperego - part of the personality that acts as a moral center.• Ego ideal Ego ideal - part of the superego that contains the standards for moral

behavior.• Conscience - part of the superego that produces pride or guilt,

depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal.

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Freud’s Theory: Stages of Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Theory: Stages of Personality Development

• Fixation Fixation - disorder in which the person - disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage.associated with that earlier stage.

• Psychosexual stages Psychosexual stages - five stages of - five stages of personality development proposed by personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child.development of the child.

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Freud’s Theory: Stages of Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Theory: Stages of Personality Development

• Oral stage Oral stage - first stage occurring in the - first stage occurring in the first year of life in which the mouth is the first year of life in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict. Id dominated.primary conflict. Id dominated.

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Freud’s Theory: Stages of Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Theory: Stages of Personality Development

• Anal stageAnal stage - second stage occurring from about 1 - second stage occurring from about 1 to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict. Ego develops.conflict. Ego develops.• Anal expulsive personality Anal expulsive personality - a person fixated in the anal - a person fixated in the anal

stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile. stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile. • Anal retentive personalityAnal retentive personality - a person fixated in the anal - a person fixated in the anal

stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn.stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn.

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Freud’s Theory: Stages of Personality Development

• Phallic stage Phallic stage - third stage occurring from about 3 to 6 years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings. Superego develops.

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• Oedipus complex Oedipus complex - situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a - situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent.jealousy of the same-sex parent.

• IdentificationIdentification - defense mechanism in which a person tries to - defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxietybecome like someone else to deal with anxiety.

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Freud’s Theory: Stages of Personality DevelopmentFreud’s Theory: Stages of Personality Development

• LatencyLatency - fourth stage occurring during - fourth stage occurring during the school years, in which the sexual the school years, in which the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways.the child develops in other ways.

• Genital Genital – sexual feelings reawaken with – sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets.appropriate targets.

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Freud’s PsychoanalysisFreud’s Psychoanalysis• Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis - Freud’s term for both the theory - Freud’s term for both the theory

of personality and the therapy based on it.of personality and the therapy based on it.

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Psychoanalysis has a double identity. It is a comprehensive Psychoanalysis has a double identity. It is a comprehensive ttheoryheory about human nature, motivation, behavior, development about human nature, motivation, behavior, development & experience. And it is a & experience. And it is a method of treatment method of treatment for psychological for psychological problems and difficulties in living a successful life.problems and difficulties in living a successful life.

Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians• Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians - followers of Freud who - followers of Freud who

developed their own competing theories of developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis.psychoanalysis.• JungJung developed a theory of a collective developed a theory of a collective

unconscious.unconscious.• Personal unconscious - Jung’s name for the unconscious Personal unconscious - Jung’s name for the unconscious

mind as described by Freud.mind as described by Freud.• Collective unconscious Collective unconscious – Jung’s name for the memories – Jung’s name for the memories

shared by all members of the human species.shared by all members of the human species.• ArchetypesArchetypes - Jung’s collective, universal human - Jung’s collective, universal human

memories.memories.

Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson’s modifications to Freudian theoryJung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson’s modifications to Freudian theory

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Neo-FreudiansNeo-Freudians• AdlerAdler proposed feelings of inferiority as the proposed feelings of inferiority as the

driving force behind personality and driving force behind personality and developed birth order theory.developed birth order theory.

• HorneyHorney developed a theory based on basic developed a theory based on basic anxiety and rejected the concept of penis anxiety and rejected the concept of penis envy.envy.• Basic anxiety Basic anxiety - anxiety created when a child is - anxiety created when a child is

born into the bigger and more powerful world of born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults.older children and adults.

• Neurotic personalities Neurotic personalities – maladaptive ways of – maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships in Horney’s theory.dealing with relationships in Horney’s theory.

• EriksonErikson developed a theory based on developed a theory based on social rather than sexual relationships, social rather than sexual relationships, covering the entire life span.covering the entire life span.

Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erikson’s modifications to Freudian theory

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Modern Psychoanalytic TheoryModern Psychoanalytic Theory• Current research has found support for:Current research has found support for:

• Defense mechanisms Defense mechanisms • Concept of an unconscious mind that can influence Concept of an unconscious mind that can influence

conscious behaviorconscious behavior

• Other concepts cannot be scientifically researched.Other concepts cannot be scientifically researched.

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Behaviorism and PersonalityBehaviorism and Personality• Behaviorists define personality as a set Behaviorists define personality as a set

of learned responses or habits.of learned responses or habits.• Habits - in behaviorism, sets of well-learned Habits - in behaviorism, sets of well-learned

responses that have become automatic.responses that have become automatic.• Social cognitive learning theorists Social cognitive learning theorists – theorists – theorists

who emphasize the importance of both the who emphasize the importance of both the influences of other people’s behavior and of a influences of other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies on learning.person’s own expectancies on learning.

• Social cognitive view Social cognitive view – learning theory that – learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of anticipating, judging, memory, and imitation of models.models.

How behaviorists explain personality

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Behaviorism and PersonalityBehaviorism and Personality• Reciprocal determinism Reciprocal determinism - Bandura’s - Bandura’s

explanation of how the factors of explanation of how the factors of environment, personal characteristics, environment, personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine and behavior can interact to determine future behavior.future behavior.

• Self-efficacySelf-efficacy – individual’s perception of – individual’s perception of how effective a behavior will be in any how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance (particular circumstance (NOTNOT the same the same as self-esteem).as self-esteem).

How behaviorists explain personalityHow behaviorists explain personality

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LO How behaviorists explain personalityHow behaviorists explain personality

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Humanistic Theories of PersonalityHumanistic Theories of Personality

• Humanistic perspective Humanistic perspective - - thethe “third force” in “third force” in psychologypsychology that focuses on those aspects that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely of personality that make people uniquely human, such as human, such as subjective feelings subjective feelings and and freedom of choicefreedom of choice..

• Developed as a reaction against the Developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature of behaviorism.deterministic nature of behaviorism.

How humanists explain personalityHow humanists explain personality

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Roger’s Theory of PersonalityRoger’s Theory of Personality• Self-actualizing tendency Self-actualizing tendency – the striving to fulfill one’s – the striving to fulfill one’s

innate capacities and capabilities.innate capacities and capabilities.• Self-conceptSelf-concept - the image of oneself that develops from - the image of oneself that develops from

interactions with important, significant people in one’s interactions with important, significant people in one’s life.life.

• SelfSelf - archetype that works with the ego to manage - archetype that works with the ego to manage other archetypes and balance the personality.other archetypes and balance the personality.

• Real self Real self - one’s perception of - one’s perception of actualactual characteristics, characteristics, traits, and abilities.traits, and abilities.

• Ideal self Ideal self - one’s perception of - one’s perception of whom one should bewhom one should be or or would like to be.would like to be.

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Archetype: Archetype: the original pattern or model from which all things of the same kind are the original pattern or model from which all things of the same kind are copied or on which they are based; a model or first form; prototypecopied or on which they are based; a model or first form; prototype.

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Roger’s Theory of PersonalityRoger’s Theory of Personality• Positive regard Positive regard – warmth, affection, love, and – warmth, affection, love, and

respect that come from significant others in respect that come from significant others in one’s life.one’s life.

• Unconditional positive regard Unconditional positive regard - positive - positive regard that is given without conditions or regard that is given without conditions or strings attached.strings attached.

• Conditional positive regard- Conditional positive regard- positive regard positive regard that is given only when the person is doing that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish.what the providers of positive regard wish.

• Fully functioning person Fully functioning person – a person who is in – a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings.innermost urges and feelings.

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Trait Theories of PersonalityTrait Theories of Personality• Trait theories Trait theories - theories that endeavor to - theories that endeavor to

describe the characteristics that make up describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict human personality in an effort to predict future behavior.future behavior.• TraitTrait - a consistent, enduring way of thinking, - a consistent, enduring way of thinking,

feeling, or behaving.feeling, or behaving.• AllportAllport first developed a list of about 200 traits first developed a list of about 200 traits

and believed that these traits were part of the and believed that these traits were part of the nervous system.nervous system.

• Cattell Cattell reduced the number of traits to reduced the number of traits to between 16 and 23 with a computer method between 16 and 23 with a computer method called factor analysis.called factor analysis.

Trait perspective

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Trait perspective

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Trait Theories of PersoTrait Theories of Personality• Surface traits Surface traits - aspects of personality - aspects of personality

that can easily be seen by other people that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person.in the outward actions of a person.

• Source traits - the more basic traits that Source traits - the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality.core of personality.• ExampleExample: Introversion - dimension of : Introversion - dimension of

personality in which people tend to personality in which people tend to withdraw from excessive stimulation.withdraw from excessive stimulation.

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The Big Five TheoryThe Big Five Theory• Five-factor model (Big Five) Five-factor model (Big Five) - model of - model of

personality traits that describes five personality traits that describes five basic trait dimensions.basic trait dimensions.• OpennessOpenness - one of the five factors; - one of the five factors;

willingness to try new things and be open willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences.to new experiences.

• ConscientiousnessConscientiousness - the care a person - the care a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others; dependability.others; dependability.

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The Big Five TheoryThe Big Five Theory• ExtraversionExtraversion - dimension of personality referring to - dimension of personality referring to

one’s need to be with other people.one’s need to be with other people.• ExtravertsExtraverts - people who are outgoing and sociable. - people who are outgoing and sociable.• IIntrovertsntroverts - people who prefer solitude and dislike being the - people who prefer solitude and dislike being the

center of attention.center of attention.

• AgreeablenessAgreeableness - the emotional style of a person that - the emotional style of a person that may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to may range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant.grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant.

• NeuroticismNeuroticism - degree of emotional instability or - degree of emotional instability or stability.stability.

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Trait Theories TodayTrait Theories Today• Cross-cultural research has found support for Cross-cultural research has found support for

the five-factor model of personality traits in a the five-factor model of personality traits in a number of different cultures.number of different cultures.• Future research will explore the degree to which Future research will explore the degree to which

child-rearing practices and heredity may influence child-rearing practices and heredity may influence the five personality factors.the five personality factors.

• Trait–situation interaction Trait–situation interaction - the assumption - the assumption that the particular circumstances of any given that the particular circumstances of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed.is expressed.

How trait theorists view personality

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Biology and PersonalityBiology and Personality• Behavior genetics Behavior genetics - a field of study of - a field of study of

the relationship between heredity and the relationship between heredity and personality.personality.• Twin and adoption studies have found Twin and adoption studies have found

support for a genetic influence on many support for a genetic influence on many personality traits.personality traits.

Biology and heredity’s role in personality

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James Arthur Springer and JamesEdward Lewis, otherwise known as the“Jim” twins. Although separatedshortly after birth and reunited at age39, they exhibited many similarities inpersonality and personal habits.

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Cultural Personality• Four basic dimensions of personality

along which cultures may vary:1. individualism/collectivism

2. power distance

3. masculinity/femininity

4. uncertainty avoidance

Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural personality

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Measuring Personality: Interviews

• IInterviewnterview - method of personality - method of personality assessment in which the professional assessment in which the professional asks questions of the client and allows asks questions of the client and allows the client to answer, either in a the client to answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion.structured or unstructured fashion.

• Halo effect Halo effect – tendency of an interviewer – tendency of an interviewer to allow positive characteristics of a to allow positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of client to influence the assessments of the client’s behavior and statementsthe client’s behavior and statements.

Using interviews to measure personalityUsing interviews to measure personality

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Measuring Personality: Projective Tests• Projection - defense mechanism involving placing, or

“projecting,” one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts actually belonged to those others and not to oneself.

• Projective tests – personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind.

• Rorschach inkblot test - projective test that uses 10 inkblots as the ambiguous stimuli.

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - projective test that uses 20 pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli.

• Subjective - concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular person’s perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experiences. This is a problem with projective tests.

Using projective tests to measure personality

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Using projective tests to measure personalityUsing projective tests to measure personality

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Measuring Personality: Behavioral MeasuresMeasuring Personality: Behavioral Measures

• Direct observation Direct observation – assessment in which the – assessment in which the professional observes the client engaged in professional observes the client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or natural setting.clinical or natural setting.

• Rating scale Rating scale - assessment in which a - assessment in which a numerical value is assigned to specific numerical value is assigned to specific behavior that is listed in the scale.behavior that is listed in the scale.

• Frequency count Frequency count – assessment in which the – assessment in which the frequency of a particular behavior is counted.frequency of a particular behavior is counted.

Using behavioral assessments to measure personalityUsing behavioral assessments to measure personality

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Measuring Personality: Personality Inventory

• Personality inventory - paper and pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test.• NEO-PI - based on the five-factor model• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - based on

Jung’s theory of personality types.• MMPI-2 - designed to detect abnormal

personality.

Using personality inventories to measure personality

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Personality Tests and Internet• There are numerous personality tests

available on the Internet.

• Not all equal in quality, reliability, or validity.

• Lack of professional interpretation of the results of such tests.

Personality tests on the Internet

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The EndThe End