Personality and Sport Performance

September 3, 2002

Definitions

• “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him/her unique” (Hollander, 1971)

• Collection of traits; consistent

• Construct of personality (Hollander, 1971; Martens, 1975)

Structure of personality

• Psychological core

• Typical responses

• Role-related behaviors

• All are influenced by the social environment – Role-related behaviors most influenced by

environment

Psychological Core

• Indicative of what the person is “really” like

• Basic attitudes, values, etc.

• Centerpiece of personality

• Most difficult to change

• We would want to understand this to make any further assumptions about a person

Typical Responses

• Usual manner in which we respond to different environmental situations

• Frustration, anxiety, humor, etc.

• We use a person’s typical responses to determine their psychological core

• May be based on one-time response

Role-Related Behavior

• Most superficial aspect of personalities

• Engage in these behaviors to fit the environment we perceive

• As our perceptions change, our superficial behaviors change

• Not a good indicator of a person’s psychological core

Problems with Personality Structure

• What is influence of underlying personality?

• If a person can act so differently based on situation, how much influence does personality really have?

Theories of Personality

• Hippocratic/physiological

• Psychodynamic

• Social Learning

• Trait Theories

• Interactionist

Hippocrates/Physiological

• Hippocrates (400 B.C.)– personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black

bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm)

• Phrenology– Bumps on skull

• Physiognomy– What animal does the face most closely

resemble?

Psychodynamic

• Freud was the most renowned psychodynamic theorist

• Free association

• Personality explained through three components– Id– Ego– Superego

Components of Personality

• Id– Irrational; operates from “pleasure principle”– Usually sexual or aggressive instincts

• Ego– Logical, reality-oriented

• Superego– Conscience, internalized moral standards

Defense Mechanisms for Ego

• If too much conflict exists between the three parts of the personality, ego may have to “defend itself”

• Repression

• Rationalization

• Projection

• Displacement

Social Learning

• Human behavior is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation

• Behave as we learned how

• Effect of personality traits should be minimal

• Based on stimulus-response theory

• Stimulus-->organism-->response

Social Learning

• Two primary mechanisms through which individuals learn socially:– Modeling– Social reinforcement

Modeling• Bandura’s social learning theory (1963)

• Imitative behavior/vicarious learning

• Vicarious learning requires:

– An observer

– Actor who serves as the model for the behavior

– Modeling cues (components of model’s behavior)

• Bobo Doll Study (1965)

• Examples in sport (LLWS, etc.)

Social Reinforcement

• Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated

• Verbal/nonverbal communication may affect response

• Positive reinforcement (give a positive)

• Negative reinforcement (remove a negative)

• Punishment (apply a negative)

Trait Theories

• How do people with varying degrees of traits tend to behave?

• Traits = relatively stable characteristics exhibited over time & across situation

• Typically generalizable & used to predict behavior in a variety of situations

• Convergence indicates expression of a trait (shyness, anxiety, etc.)

Trait Theories

• States = Feelings and thoughts related to a particular time and/or situation

• Anxious before competition• Trait theories widely researched, but generally

criticized• Mischel (1968) argued people do not behave as

predictably as trait theorists suggest--situations influence

• Traits do play some role (and predispose for states)

Interactionist Theory

• Person and environment both interact to create human behavior

• Personality is exerted in some places and not in others (e.g., hockey player)

• Behavior expectancies are significant, but stresses individual differences (how much does an individual value a reward)

• Recognizes potential influence of personality & situation

Assessing Personality

• Three major techniques for assessment

• Sometimes linked with specific theories:– Rating scales– Unstructured projective tests– Questionnaires

Rating Scales

• Use of a judge to observe individual in some situation

• Checklist or scale (maximum objectivity)

• Interview or observation of performance

• If performed properly (well-trained & systematic), can be reliable & valid

Unstructured Projective Procedures

• Used to identify traits (or motives)

• Allow subjects to reveal inner feelings & motives

• Closely associated with psychoanalytic

• Rorschach Test (1954), Thematic Apperception Test (1947), Sentence Completion Test (1954)

Structured Questionnaires

• Pencil-and-paper, T/F, Likert-type scales

• Some designed for abnormal, some normal• MMPI (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria,

masc.-fem., lying)

• Cattell 16 PF (introversion-extroversion, anxiety, tough-mindedness, and independence)

• Athletic Motivation Inventory (leadership, aggression, trust, coachability, etc.)

Use in Sport

• Rating scales & projective procedures not used frequently in sport/exercise

• Questionnaires (16 PF) used more often to help athletes identify strengths & weaknesses

• Used to develop intervention strategies & identify athlete belief system regarding their personalities

Credulous Vs. Skeptical

• Two schools of thought

• Credulous– Personality can be used to predict athletic

success

• Skeptical– Value of personality is minimal