©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality. ©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality The Elements of Personality The Biological Contribution The Learning

©2002 Prentice Hall

Theories of Personality


Theories of Personality

The Elements of Personality The Biological Contribution The Learning Contribution The Cultural Contribution The Psychodynamic Contribution The Humanist Contribution


The Elements of Personality


Five Central Factors in Personality

Extroversion versus IntroversionNeuroticismAgreeablenessConscientiousnessOpenness to Experience


The Biological Contribution

Heredity and Temperament

Heredity and Traits

Evaluating Genetic Theories


Heredity and Temperament

Temperaments: Physiological dispositions to respond to the environment in certain ways; they are present in infancy and are assumed to be innate.

Genes: The functional units of heredity; they are composed of DNA and specify the structure of proteins.


Heredity and Traits

Heritability: A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group.

Behavioral genetics: An interdisciplinary field of study concerned with the genetic basis of behavior and personality.


Twins

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into separate embryos

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop when two separate eggs are fertilized by different sperm; they are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings.


Twin Studies

Studying identical twins separated near birth is one behavior genetic method

Gerald and Mark (right) met at age 31 after being separated at birth. Both

– Are volunteer firefighters– Like to hunt, eat Chinese

food, and watch John Wayne movies

– Drink the same brand of beer, with their hands held the same way (pinky curled)


Evaluating Genetic Theories

Reasons for Caution– Not all traits are equally heritable or

unaffected by shared environment.– Some studies may underestimate the impact

of the environment.– Even traits that are highly heritable are not

rigidly fixed.Genetic predisposition does not imply

inevitability


The Learning Contribution

The Behavioral School

The Social-Cognitive Learning School

Evaluating Learning Theories


The Behavioral School

Behaviorism: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.

Operant Conditioning: The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences.

Reinforcer: A stimulus or event that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows.


The Social-Cognitive Learning School

A theory that emphasizes how behavior is learned and maintained through the interaction between individuals and their environment, an interaction strongly influenced by such cognitive processes as observations, expectations, perceptions, and motivating beliefs.


Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations lead to behavior that makes prediction come true

Expecting to fail leads to behavior that guarantees failure


The Cultural Contribution

Culture and Personality

Evaluating Cultural Theories


Culture and Personality

Culture: A program of shared rules that govern the behavior of members of a community or society, and a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes shared by most members of that community


Individualism or Community?

Individualist Culture: The self is regarded as autonomous, and individual goals and wishes are prized above duty and relations with others.

Collectivist Culture: The self is regarded as embedded in relationships, and harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes.


Cultures and Time

Monochronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized sequentially; schedules and deadlines are valued over people.

Polychronic Culture: Cultures in which time is organized horizontally; people tend to do several things at once and value relationships over schedules.


The Psychodynamic Contribution

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Two Other Psychodynamic Approaches

Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories


Psychodynamic Theories

Emphasis on unconscious intrapsychic dynamics

Belief in the importance of early childhood Belief that development occurs in fixed stages Focus on fantasies and symbolic meanings of

events Reliance on subjective rather than objective

methods


The Structure of Personality

Id: Operates according to the pleasure principle

– Primitive and unconscious part of personality

Ego: Operates according to the reality principle

– Mediates between id and superego

Superego: Moral ideals and conscience


Defense Mechanisms

Repression: Threatening idea is blocked from consciousness Projection: Unacceptable feelings are attributed to someone

else Displacement: Directing emotions toward objects or people

that aren’t the real target Reaction Formation: A feeling that produces anxiety is

transformed into its opposite. Regression: A person reverts to a previous phase of

psychological development. Denial: A person refuses to admit that something is

unpleasant.


Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Oral AnalPhallicLatency periodGenital


Two Other Psychodynamic Approaches

Jungian Theory: A psychodynamic theory that includes the concepts of the collective unconscious (the universal memories of the species) and archetypes (universal symbolic images in myths, art, and dreams).

Object Relations Theory: A psychodynamic approach that emphasizes the importance of the infant’s first two years of life and the baby’s formative relationships, especially with the mother.


Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories violate the principle of falsifiability

Psychodynamic theories are criticized for drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients.

Psychodynamic theories are criticized for basing theories upon the retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients.


The Humanist Contribution

The Inner Experience

Evaluating Humanist Theories


Humanist Psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential rather than the scientific understanding and assessment of behavior.

Documents

©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality. ©2002 Prentice Hall Theories of Personality The Elements of Personality The Biological Contribution The Learning