Period 1 ( BC) mud-brick storage compartments at Mehrgarh (Baluchistan; western Pakistan) Early Neolithic villages had fairly large populations, long-distance trade and may have begun to store of surplus foods Indus Civilization Early Harappan, or Era of Regionalization ( BC) Mature Harappan, or Era of Integration ( BC) Eclipse of Indus, or Era of Localization ( BC) Origins of Indus Civilization Diffusion from Mesopotamia, as urban settlements seemed to appear suddenly without clear local antecedents Local Development: since 1970s definition of proto-urban phase (Kot Diji phase) suggests that planned cities of mature Indus phase not suddenly imposed but developed out of earlier settlements, such as Kot Diji and Rehman Dheri in Indus Valley Kot Diji Proto-urban towns, formative stage of Indus Civilization Rehman Dheri, with grid city plan ca BC Early Harappa (Kot Diji phase), Era of Regionalization densely packed villages and towns, all with extensive irrigation systems, subsistence, like earlier Neolithic, including a variety of domesticated animals (notably cattle) and crops, including barley, and wheat Indus civilization emphasized floodplain agriculture, which lead to sophisticated irrigation systems Settlements along the river susceptible to periods of violent flooding and stone walls were erected as flood barriers, which became the city walls of some settlements. The Hydraulic hypothesis (Wittfogel) Rapid increase in size between BC, ultimately giving rise to the cities of the mature Harappan period from c BC Harappa Mohenjo-Daro Two settlements that define apogee of Indus urbanism in mature Harappan period, c BC Similar urban plans, including planned neighborhoods in a grid pattern, indoor bathrooms connected to sewer system, bathhouses and communal storage facilities, citadels, palaces, temples, etc. Population >35,000, with 100s of smaller farming villages tied to large cities Significant trading centers, showing evidence of large-scale exchange with Mesopotamia and ancient India Typical Harappan cities and towns are fortified, oriented along the cardinal directions, and evidence for specialized craft manufacturing Components of Mature Harappan Sites An acropolis (citadel) on high platform, which may have had administrative function, surrounded by workshops, markets, and living quarters in a lower level Extensive public sewer and drainage systems Craft specialization; complex engineering and maintenance; increase in social stratification and diversity of material culture, including the use of luxury goods Appearance of a system of writing, uniform system of weights and measures, and common systems of urban planning and artifact types About 4000 examples of Harappan writing, primarily found on stone stamp seals, amulets, or fragments of pottery Some symbols represent syllables ( simple signs) and others, entire words ( composite signs), often include single standing animal At the peak of Indus civilization, settlement hierarchy had five major urban centers Dholavira had several large reservoirs and an elaborate system of drains to collect water from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks. 32 secondary settlements, which show similar plans to (5) major urban centers, but significantly smaller (