ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORI N D R A N I L M U T S U D D II N D R A N I L M U T S U D D I

What Is Perception, and What Is Perception, and Why Is It Important?Why Is It Important?

•People’s behavior is People’s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself.reality itself.

•The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important.important.

•People’s behavior is People’s behavior is based on their based on their perception of what perception of what reality is, not on reality is, not on reality itself.reality itself.

•The world as it is The world as it is perceived is the world perceived is the world that is behaviorally that is behaviorally important.important.

What the study of Perception is all What the study of Perception is all about?about?

The study of perception is concerned with identifying the processes through which we interpret and organize sensory information to produce our conscious experience of objects & object relationships.

SensationSensation

• It is our ability to detect stimuli in our immediate environment.

• Sensation is concerned with the initial contact b/w organisms & their physical environment.

• It also focuses on describing the relationship b/w various forms of sensory stimulation & how these inputs are registered by the sensory organs.

• Perception helps an individual to effectively process & interpret the raw sensory inputs into meaningful sensation.

SelectionSelection• It is the process used by a person to eliminate

some of the stimuli that have been sensed & to retain others for further processing.

• Selection depends on:– Physical Characteristics of the stimuli:

• Contrast (difference b/w one stimulus & surrounding stimuli that makes that stimulus more likely to be selected)

• Novelty (when the stimulus we are sensing differs from stimuli we have experienced in the past).

• Intensity• Change• Other Dimensions (frequency, number of senses

stimulated, number of stimuli etc).

– Characteristics of the perceiver

The Sub-processes Of Perception

ExternalEnvironment

Physical

Socio-cultural

BEHAVIOR

CONSEQUENCES

STIMULUS OR SITUATION

Confrontationof specificstimulus

PERSON

Interpretationof stimulus

Registrationof stimulus

Feedbackfor clarification

Behavior(overt orcovert)

Consequence(reinforcement,

punishment)

Factors Factors ThatThat

Influence Influence PerceptionPerception

Factors influencing PerceptionFactors influencing Perception

Situational factors:

• Physical settings• Social settings• Organizational setting

Situational factors:

• Physical settings• Social settings• Organizational setting

Perceiver’s Characteristics:

• Needs• Experiences• Values & Attitudes• Personality

Perceiver’s Characteristics:

• Needs• Experiences• Values & Attitudes• Personality

Characteristics of the perceived:

• Nature• Size• Appearance• Location

Characteristics of the perceived:

• Nature• Size• Appearance• Location

IndividualPerception

Perceptual ProcessPerceptual Process

StimuliExternal & Internal Stimuli

OrganizingStimuli is received through

sensory organs

Selective Attention

External Factors:

NatureLocationSizeContrastMovementRepetitionFamiliarity

Internal Factors:

LearningNeedsAgeInterestParanoid

Ambiguous figuresFigure ground

GroupingConstancy

Interpreting

Perceptual setAttribution

StereotypingHalo-effect

Defense & Projection

Response

Covert:AttitudesMotivationFeeling

Overt:

Behavior

• It is the process by which people group stimuli into recognizable patterns.

• Selection gives way to organization and stimuli selected for attention then appears as a whole.

• Factors influencing “Perceptual Organization”:- Ambiguous Figures

- Figure Background- Grouping- Constancy

Perceptual OrganizationPerceptual Organization

Principle of Similarity in PerceptionPrinciple of Similarity in Perception

• It is exemplified when objects of similar shape, size or color tend to be grouped together

Principle of Proximity in PerceptionPrinciple of Proximity in Perception

• It underlines the tendency to perceive stimuli which are near to one another as belonging together.

Principle of Closure in PerceptionPrinciple of Closure in Perception

• It states that a person has a tendency to perceive a whole when none exists. The perceptual process will close the gaps which are unfilled from the sensory inputs.

Principle of Continuity in PerceptionPrinciple of Continuity in Perception

• It is the tendency to perceive objects as continuing patterns. It is closely related to the principle of closure.

• Closure supplies the missing stimuli; whereas the continuity principle depicts that a person would tend to perceive continuous lines or patterns.

Perceptual ConstancyPerceptual Constancy

• Perceptual Constancy is our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object as remaining constant, despite variations in the stimuli that provide us with conflicting information.

• Perceptual Constancy is of the following types:- Shape Constancy

- Size Constancy- Color Constancy

The Contrast Principle Of Perception

Process of InterpretingProcess of Interpreting

The process of interpretation depends on several factors, namely:

• Perceptual Set• Attribution• Stereotyping• Primacy/Recency Effects• Halo effect• Perceptual context• Perceptual defense• Implicit Personality theory• Projection

The Role That Learning Plays In Perception

Person Perception: Making Person Perception: Making Judgments About OthersJudgments About Others

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.

Consistency: responds in the same way over time.

Perceptual SetPerceptual Set

When previously held beliefs about objects influence an individual’s perceptions of similar objects it is referred to as “Perceptual Set”

AttributionAttribution

It refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the behavior he or she conceives.

StereotypingStereotyping

It is the tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on the basis of a category of people to which that person belongs.

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory• Contributed by Fritz Heider & H.H. Kelly.

• The theory suggests that we observe behavior & then attribute causes to it.

• The process of attribution is based on perceptions of reality and these perceptions may vary widely among individuals.

• The theory also depicts that, the behavior of others can be examined on the basis of its:

- Distinctiveness- Consistency- Consensus

Attribution ProcessAttribution Process

Observation ofBehavior

Observation ofBehavior

Distinctiveness(High or Low)

Distinctiveness(High or Low)

Consistency(High or Low)Consistency

(High or Low)

Consensus(High or Low)Consensus

(High or Low)

Attribution ofcauses

Internal or External

Attribution ofcauses

Internal or External

Rules of AttributionRules of Attribution

Distinctiveness:

Does this person behavein this manner in otherSituations?

Distinctiveness:

Does this person behavein this manner in otherSituations?

Consistency:

Does this person behavein this same manner other times?

Consistency:

Does this person behavein this same manner other times?

Consensus:

Do other persons behavein this same manner?

Consensus:

Do other persons behavein this same manner?

YesLow Distinctiveness

YesLow Distinctiveness

NoHigh Distinctiveness

NoHigh Distinctiveness

YesHigh Consistency

YesHigh Consistency

NoLow Consistency

NoLow Consistency

NoLow Consensus

NoLow Consensus

YesHigh Consensus

YesHigh Consensus

Inte

rnal

Att

rib

uti

on

Exte

rnal

Att

rib

uti

on

Attribution Attribution TheoryTheory

Kelly’s Model Of AttributionExample of Organizational Behavior

Type of Information/Observation

AttributionMade

High consensus

Low consistency

High distinctiveness

External(situational orenvironmental

factors)

Coworkers are also performingpoorly on this task

The subordinate does not dowell on this task during only

one time period

The subordinate does well onother tasks, but not this one

High consistency

Low distinctiveness

Low consensus

Internal(personalfactors)

Coworkers are performingvery well on this task

The subordinate does not dowell on this task at any time

The subordinate doespoorly on other tasks as

well as this one

Biases Affecting perceptionBiases Affecting perception

PERCEPTION

Frame ofReference

Stereotypes

Expectations

Projections

Interests

Selective Exposure

Errors and Biases in Errors and Biases in AttributionsAttributions

Errors and Biases in Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)Attributions (cont’d)

Frequently Used Shortcuts Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Othersin Judging Others

It refers to the disproportionately high weight given to the first information obtained about a stimulus.

Primacy EffectPrimacy Effect

It refers to the disproportionately high weight given to the last information obtained about a stimulus.

.

Recency EffectRecency Effect

Perceptual ContextPerceptual Context

It refers to the context in which an object is placed influences perception. The organizational culture & structure provide the primary context in which workers and managers do their perceiving

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersOthers

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging OthersOthers

Specific Applications in Specific Applications in OrganizationsOrganizations

• Employment Interview– Perceptual biases affect the accuracy of interviewers’

judgments of applicants.

• Performance Expectations– Self-fulfilling prophecy (pygmalion effect): The lower or

higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities.

• Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are subjective perceptions of performance.

• Employee Effort– Assessment of individual effort is a subjective judgment

subject to perceptual distortion and bias.

The Link Between Perceptions and The Link Between Perceptions and Individual Decision MakingIndividual Decision Making

Perceptions of the

decision maker

Perceptions of the

decision maker

Outcomes

Assumptions of the Rational Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making ModelDecision-Making Model

1. Problem clarity

2. Known options

3. Clear preferences

4. Constant preferences

5. No time or cost constraints

6. Maximum payoff

1. Problem clarity

2. Known options

3. Clear preferences

4. Constant preferences

5. No time or cost constraints

6. Maximum payoff

• Here an individual is likely to put up a defense when confronted with conflicting, unacceptable or threatening stimuli.

• It could be in the form of outright denial, modification of the data received, change in perception but refusal to change & change in the perception itself.

Perceptual DefensePerceptual Defense

Implicit Personality TheoryImplicit Personality Theory

While judging & making inferences about others, an individual’s perceptions are influenced by his belief that certain human traits are associated with one another (eg: honesty & hardworking).

Impression Management Strategies

Demotion-Preventative

Strategy

Accounts Apologies

Disassoci-ation

Promotion-EnhancingStrategy

Entitlements Enhancements

Obstacledisclosures

Association

Expectancy EffectExpectancy Effect

It occurs when people perceive stimuli in ways that will confirm their expectations

Pygmalion Effect (Self-fulfilling Pygmalion Effect (Self-fulfilling prophecy)prophecy)

It occurs when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a particular situation.

Managing the Perception processManaging the Perception process

• Have a high level of self-awareness• Seek information from various sources to confirm

or disconfirm personal impressions of a decision situation.

• Be empathetic-that is, be able to see a situation as it is perceived by other people.

• Influence perceptions of other people when they are drawing incorrect or incomplete impressions of events in the work settings.

• Avoid common perceptual distortions that bias our views of people & situations.

• Avoid inappropriate attributions• Diversity management programs• Knowing yourself/oneself (Self-Perceptions).

Managing the Perception processManaging the Perception process

Self-Perceptions: The Johari Self-Perceptions: The Johari WindowWindow

Johari Window is an effective way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what one individual knows about himself/herself & what others know about him/her.

The Johari WindowThe Johari Window

• Developed by Joseph Luft & Harry Ingham (Thus the name Johari Window), this model is useful for analyzing the causes for inter-personal conflict.

• The model is based on two assumptions:- Degree to which the person knows about himself or herself.- Degree to which the person is known to others.

• The basic platform of this model is that personal & professional relationships of people in organizations can be greatly improved (conflict eliminated) through understanding others.

Open Area Blind Area

Hidden Area Unknown Area

Dis

clo

su

re

Known to Others

Known to Self

Not Known to Self

Feedback

Not Known to Others

The Johari WindowThe Johari Window

Social PerceptionSocial Perception

It is the process of combining, integrating, and interpreting information about others to gain an accurate understanding of them.