Basic Film Dosimetry - AAPM: The American … Film Dosimetry Indra J. Das University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Chee-Wai Cheng Arizona Oncology Center, Tucson, AZ Sujatha Pai

1

Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

Basic Film DosimetryIndra J. DasIndra J. Das

University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

CheeChee--WaiWai ChengChengArizona Oncology Center, Tucson, AZArizona Oncology Center, Tucson, AZ

SujathaSujatha PaiPaiState University of New York, State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY


Basic Film Basic Film DosimetryDosimetry

WhatWhat is a film?is a film?

WhyWhy to use film ?to use film ?

HowHow to use film?to use film?

WhereWhere to use film?to use film?


Historical PerspectiveHistorical Perspective18261826 Joseph Joseph NiepceNiepce First PhotographFirst Photograph

18361836 J. M.J. M. DaguerreDaguerre Concept of developerConcept of developer

18891889 Eastman KodakEastman Kodak Cellulose nitrate base for emulsionCellulose nitrate base for emulsion

18901890 Hurter &Hurter &DriffieldDriffield Defined the term optical densityDefined the term optical density

18951895 RoentgenRoentgen First RadiographFirst Radiograph

18961896 Carl Carl SchlussnerSchlussner First glass plate for radiographyFirst glass plate for radiography

19131913 KodakKodak Film on Cellulose nitrate baseFilm on Cellulose nitrate base

19181918 KodakKodak Double emulsion filmDouble emulsion film

19331933 DupontDupont XX--ray film with blue baseray film with blue base

19421942 PakoPako Automatic film processorAutomatic film processor

19601960 DupontDupont Polyester base introducedPolyester base introduced

19651965 KodakKodak Rapid film processingRapid film processing

19721972 KodakKodak XTL and XV film for therapyXTL and XV film for therapy

19831983 FujiFuji Computed radiography systemComputed radiography system

19941994 3M3M Dry process laser imagingDry process laser imaging


Film Film DosimetryDosimetry��Silver halides Silver halides

��Radiographic filmRadiographic film��Available in various sizesAvailable in various sizes��Radiation range (Radiation range (mGymGy--GyGy))��Wet chemical processingWet chemical processing��Strong energy dependenceStrong energy dependence��DensitometerDensitometer-- anyany

��Self DevelopingSelf Developing��RadiochromicRadiochromic, , Gafchromic Gafchromic filmfilm

��Relatively smaller film (10x10 cmRelatively smaller film (10x10 cm22))��Radiation range (Radiation range (GyGy--100Gy)100Gy)��No processingNo processing��Little energy dependenceLittle energy dependence��DensitometerDensitometer-- Specialized (light sensitive)Specialized (light sensitive)


Radiochromic Film

NiroomandNiroomand--Rad Rad et al, et al, Radiochromic Radiochromic film film dosimetry: Recommendations of AAPM dosimetry: Recommendations of AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee Task group Radiation Therapy Committee Task group 55, Med. Phys. 25(11), 209355, Med. Phys. 25(11), 2093--2115, 19982115, 1998


Radiographic FilmRadiographic Film�� Base (Cellulose nitrate or Polyester) (typically 200 Base (Cellulose nitrate or Polyester) (typically 200 µµm)m)

�� Emulsion (10Emulsion (10--20 20 µµm; 2m; 2--5 mg/cm5 mg/cm33))

�� Gelatin (derivative from bone)Gelatin (derivative from bone)

�� grain (size: 0.1grain (size: 0.1 �� --3 3 µµm diameter)m diameter)�� AgBrAgBr (cubic crystal with lattice distance of 28 nm(cubic crystal with lattice distance of 28 nm

�� AgIAgI

�� KIKI

�� There are 10There are 1099--10101212 grains/cmgrains/cm22 in xin x--ray filmsray films

�� CoatingCoating

�� Very sensitive which may determine X & Y Very sensitive which may determine X & Y direction uniformitydirection uniformity

BaseBaseEmulsionEmulsion

2


Photographic ProcessPhotographic Process

��Silver halides (Silver halides (AgBrAgBr,, AgClAgCl,, AgIAgI) ) are sensitive to radiation.are sensitive to radiation.

��Radiation event (latent image) Radiation event (latent image) can be magnified by a billion fold can be magnified by a billion fold (10(1099 ) with developer.) with developer.


Emulsion of Film/RadiographEmulsion of Film/RadiographThe heart of film is emulsion which contains grains The heart of film is emulsion which contains grains

(crystals of silver halides) in gelatin(crystals of silver halides) in gelatin

Gelatin is suitable due toGelatin is suitable due to

�� it keeps grains well dispersedit keeps grains well dispersed

�� it prevents clumping and it prevents clumping and sedimentation of grains sedimentation of grains

�� it protects the unexposed grains it protects the unexposed grains from reduction by a developerfrom reduction by a developer

�� it allows easy processing of it allows easy processing of exposed grainsexposed grains

�� it is neutral to the grains in it is neutral to the grains in terms of fogging, loss of terms of fogging, loss of sensitivitysensitivity

Electron micrograph of grain in gelatinElectron micrograph of grain in gelatin


Film ProcessingFilm Processing��Developing Developing [([(MetolMetol; methyl; methyl--pp--aminophenol sulphateaminophenol sulphate oror

PhenidonePhenidone; 1phenol 3pyrazolidone)]; 1phenol 3pyrazolidone)]

�� Converts all AgConverts all Ag++ atoms to Ag. The latent atoms to Ag. The latent image Ag image Ag ++ are developed much more are developed much more rapidly.rapidly.

��Stop BathStop Bath

�� dilute acetic acid stops all reaction and dilute acetic acid stops all reaction and further developmentfurther development

��Fixer, Hypo Fixer, Hypo (Sodium(Sodium ThiosulphateThiosulphate))

�� it dissolves all undeveloped grains.it dissolves all undeveloped grains.

��WashingWashing

��DryingDryingDas/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

Latent imageLatent image��The change which causes the grains to be The change which causes the grains to be

rendered developable on exposure is rendered developable on exposure is considered to be the formation of latent image. considered to be the formation of latent image.

��It is composed of an aggregate of a few silver It is composed of an aggregate of a few silver atoms (4atoms (4--10).10).

��On average 1000 Ag atoms are formed per xOn average 1000 Ag atoms are formed per x--ray quantum absorbed in a grain. ray quantum absorbed in a grain.

��Gurney & Mott provided a clear picture of Gurney & Mott provided a clear picture of latent imagelatent image

Ref.Ref. HerzHerz, 1969, 1969


GrainGrain

SilverSilver

SpeckSpeck

XX--rayray


Hurter &Hurter & DriffieldDriffield (1890)(1890)Optical Density (OD)Optical Density (OD)

OD= logOD= log1010(Io/I)(Io/I)

OD=logOD=log1010 (T) where T is transmittance(T) where T is transmittance

T=T=eeanan

a= average area/grain; n is number of exposed grains/cma= average area/grain; n is number of exposed grains/cm22; ; N is number of grains/cmN is number of grains/cm22

OD = log (T) = an logOD = log (T) = an log1010e = 0.4343 ane = 0.4343 an

n/N = an/N = aΦ ; Φ ; where where Φ

Φ electron fluenceelectron fluence

OD = 0.4343 aOD = 0.4343 a22NNΦΦ

OD is proportional to OD is proportional to Φ

Φ and hence dose and and hence dose and square of grain areasquare of grain area..

3


Characteristic curveCharacteristic curveH&D CurveH&D Curve

Gradient, gamma, slope = Gradient, gamma, slope = (D(D22--DD11)/Log(E)/Log(E22/E/E11))

Speed (sensitivity)= Speed (sensitivity)= 1/Roentgens for OD equal to unity1/Roentgens for OD equal to unity

Latitude (Contrast): Latitude (Contrast): range of log exposure to give range of log exposure to give an acceptable density rangean acceptable density range

Log (exposure)Log (exposure)

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Op t

ical

Den

sity

basebase

slopeslope

shouldershoulder


5.55.500 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.5 2.02.0 2.52.5 3.03.0 3.53.5 4.04.0 4.54.5 5.05.000

0.50.5

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0

3.53.5

4.04.0

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Log Relative ExposureLog Relative Exposure

Haus Haus et al 1997et al 1997

Characteristic curves of various filmCharacteristic curves of various film

DxDx

RxRx


Characteristics of Commercially Available Radiographic FilmsCharacteristics of Commercially Available Radiographic Films

FilmFilm Optimum DoseOptimum Dose GammaGamma LatitudeLatitudeCEA TVSCEA TVS 6060 4.44.4 0.350.35

CEA TLFCEA TLF 1919 3.63.6 0.40.4

AgfaAgfa Ortho STG2Ortho STG2 4.74.7 3.63.6 0.40.4

Agfa Agfa HTAHTA 3.53.5 2.72.7 0.30.3

Agfa Agfa RP1RP1 1.51.5 2.62.6 0.50.5

AgfaAgfa MR3MR3 4.24.2 2.12.1 0.60.6

Du PontDu Pont CronexCronex 4.04.0 2.62.6 0.50.5

Du Pont UVDu Pont UV 1.51.5 1.91.9 0.50.5

Fuji MIMAFuji MIMA 6.36.3 2.82.8 0.50.5

Fuji HRGFuji HRG 6.26.2 2.82.8 0.50.5

Kodak XVKodak XV 5050 2.92.9 0.60.6

Kodak TL 44 2.02.0 0.50.5

Kodak XLKodak XL 1.71.7 2.02.0 0.60.6

Kodak Kodak MinRMinR 12.312.3 1.81.8 0.40.4

Kodak TMATGKodak TMATG 2.52.5 2.52.5 0.40.4

Kodak OrthoKodak Ortho 4.54.5 2.32.3 0.40.4

Konica MGHKonica MGH 5.05.0 2.72.7 0.40.4

Roberts, BJR, 69, 70Roberts, BJR, 69, 70--71, 199671, 1996 Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

TabularTabular

CubicCubic

3D3D

Eastman Kodak Company, 2001Eastman Kodak Company, 2001


Kodak, XV CEA, TVS

Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996


Kodak MinKodak Min--RR Kodak ECLKodak ECL

Unusual silver halide grain morphologiesUnusual silver halide grain morphologiesHausHaus, 2001, 2001

4


Developed grain showing filamentary silver


00 1.01.0 2.02.0 3.03.0 4.04.0 5.05.0

Optical DensityOptical Density

00

1.01.0

2.02.0

3.03.0

4.04.0

5.05.0

6.06.0

7.07.0

Con

trast

Con

trast

RangeRange

Optimum Optical DensityOptimum Optical Density


8484 8686 9090 9292 9494 9696 9898 100100 1021028888

0.40.4

0.60.6

0.80.8

1.01.0

1.21.2

1.41.4

1.61.6

Developer Temperature (degree F)Developer Temperature (degree F)

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Opt

ical

Den

sity

DupontDupontKodak MRMKodak MRMFujiFujiKodak MR5Kodak MR5

Temperature Dependence of Various FilmsTemperature Dependence of Various Films


Bogucki Bogucki et al, Med.Phys., 24, 581, 1997et al, Med.Phys., 24, 581, 1997

Cha

nge

in O

D p

er D

egre

e Pr

oces

sor T

empe

ratu

reC

hang

e in

OD

per

Deg

ree

Proc

esso

r Tem

pera

ture

(( δδO

DO

D// δδ

TT ))

9191 9292 9393 9494 9595 9696 9797 9898 9999

0.00.0

.02.02

.04.04

.06.06

.08.08

.10.10

Processor Temperature (degree F)Processor Temperature (degree F)

Kodak FilmsKodak Films

Min R MMin R M

Ektascan Ektascan HNHN

TT--Mat G/RAMat G/RA

Ektascan Ektascan IRIR

OD=KOD=K00T +KT +K11TT22


00 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.5 2.02.0 2.52.5 3.03.0 3.53.5 4.04.0

0.00.0

.02.02

.04.04

.06.06

.08.08

.10.10

Optical DensityOptical Density

Cha

nge

in O

D p

er D

egre

e Pr

oces

sor T

empe

ratu

reC

hang

e in

OD

per

Deg

ree

Proc

esso

r Tem

pera

ture

(( δδO

DO

D// δδ

TT ))

Kodak FilmsKodak Films

Min R MMin R M

Ektascan Ektascan HNHN

TT--Mat G/RAMat G/RA

Ektascan Ektascan IRIR

Bogucki Bogucki et al, Med.Phys., 24, 581, 1997et al, Med.Phys., 24, 581, 1997


91 F91 F33 C33 C

95 F95 F35 C35 C

99 F99 F37 C37 C

103 F103 F39 C39 C

0.160.16

0.180.18

0.200.20

0.220.22

2.82.8

3.03.0

3.23.2

3.43.4

3.63.6

--2020

00

2020

4040

BaseBase

++

FogFog

ContrastContrastAverageAverageGradientGradient

SpeedSpeed% change% change

TemperatureTemperature

Standard Processing CycleStandard Processing Cycle

5


Various types of plots for film responseVarious types of plots for film responseO

ptic

alO

ptic

alD

ensi

tyD

ensi

ty

Log (exposure)Log (exposure)

(a)(a)

Opt

ical

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Den

sity

Exposure, DoseExposure, Dose

(c)(c)

Log

(Op t

ical

Log

(Op t

ical

Den

sity

)D

ensi

ty)

Log (exposure, dose)Log (exposure, dose)

(b)(b)

OpticalOptical DensityDensity

Expo

sure

, Do s

eEx

posu

re, D

o se

(d)(d)

DXDXTxTx

H&

DH

&D

Con

trast

Con

trast

Sens

itom

etric

Sens

itom

etric

Cal

ibra

tion

Cal

ibra

tion


D = DoseD = DoseDr = Dose rateDr = Dose rateE = EnergyE = EnergyT = type of radiation (xT = type of radiation (x--rays, electrons etc)rays, electrons etc)d = depth of measurementd = depth of measurementFS= Field SizeFS= Field SizeΘΘ = Orientation: parallel or perpendicular= Orientation: parallel or perpendicular

Optical Density = OD(D, Dr, E, T, d, FS, Optical Density = OD(D, Dr, E, T, d, FS, ΘΘ))


Film Film Dosimetry Dosimetry in therapyin therapy

��1954,1954, GrankeGranke et al; tissue dose studies with 2 MV xet al; tissue dose studies with 2 MV x--raysrays

��1969,1969, DutreixDutreix et al; highlights of the problems in et al; highlights of the problems in film dosimetryfilm dosimetry

��1981, Williamson et al; Provided solution to the film 1981, Williamson et al; Provided solution to the film dosimetry problemsdosimetry problems

��1996, Cheng & Das; CEA film, better film for 1996, Cheng & Das; CEA film, better film for dosimetrydosimetry

��1997, Burch et al & 1997, Burch et al & YeoYeo et al; lateral scatter filteringet al; lateral scatter filtering


Optimum propertiesOptimum properties

�� Linear with dose (dose dependence)Linear with dose (dose dependence)

�� Linear with dose rate (dose rate Linear with dose rate (dose rate independence)independence)

�� Radiation type (independent of photon and Radiation type (independent of photon and electron)electron)

�� Energy independentEnergy independent�� Uniformity in x & y (coating artifact)Uniformity in x & y (coating artifact)�� Processing conditionProcessing condition

�� FadingFading�� Delayed processingDelayed processing�� Atmospheric condition, temperature, humidityAtmospheric condition, temperature, humidity


Exposure, RExposure, R

Opt

ical

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Den

sity

1010--22 1010--11 101000 101011 101022 101033 101044 10105500

11

22

33

44

55

66

0.033R/sec0.033R/sec

1.31R/sec1.31R/sec

62R/sec62R/sec

1100R/sec1100R/sec

Dose Rate DependenceDose Rate Dependence

Ehrlich, J.Opt.Soc.Am. 46,801, 1956Ehrlich, J.Opt.Soc.Am. 46,801, 1956Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

00 1010 2020 3030 4040 5050 6060 7070 8080Dose (cGy)Dose (cGy)

00

0.50.5

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

28 28 keVkeV 44 44 keVkeV

79 79 keVkeV

97 97 keVkeV

142 142 keVkeV

1.711.71 MeVMeV

Muench Muench et al, Med. Phys. 18, 769, 1991et al, Med. Phys. 18, 769, 1991

Kodak XV FilmKodak XV Film

Energy Dependence of Radiographic FilmEnergy Dependence of Radiographic Film

6


1010 100100 10001000

0.10.1

1.01.0

1010

100100

unfilteredunfiltered

filteredfiltered

Photon Energy, (Photon Energy, (keVkeV))

Rel

ativ

e re

spon

seR

elat

ive

resp

onse

RR.H. .H. HerzHerz, The photographic action, 1969, The photographic action, 1969

Energy response balancing with filter Energy response balancing with filter used in personnel monitoringused in personnel monitoring


00 2020 4040 6060 8080 100100

Dose (cGy)Dose (cGy)

0.00.0

1.01.0

2.02.0

3.03.0

4.04.0

5.05.0

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Energy Dependence of CEA TVS filmEnergy Dependence of CEA TVS film

CsCs--137137CoCo--60604 MV4 MV6 MV6 MV10 MV10 MV18 MV18 MV

Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996

Gamma raysGamma rays XX--raysrays

ODODγγ = 0.054 Dose= 0.054 Dose

ODODxx = 0.047 Dose= 0.047 Dose


0055 1010

5050

100100

Depth (cm)Depth (cm)

Dos

e (%

)D

ose

(%)

Air gapAir gap FilmFilm

00

0.250.25

0.500.500.75 mm0.75 mm

Effect of film air gap on depth doseEffect of film air gap on depth dose

Dutreix Dutreix et al, Ann NY et al, Ann NY Acad SciAcad Sci, 161, 33, 1969, 161, 33, 1969Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002


0055 1010

5050

100100


Dos

e (%

)D

ose

(%)

00

22

5 mm5 mm

Effect of film misalignment on depth doseEffect of film misalignment on depth dose

Dutreix Dutreix et al, Ann NY et al, Ann NY Acad SciAcad Sci, 161, 33, 1969, 161, 33, 1969


Dutreix Dutreix et al, Ann NY et al, Ann NY Acad SciAcad Sci, 161, 33, 1969, 161, 33, 1969

Effect of film under alignment on depth doseEffect of film under alignment on depth dose

55 1010



00

5050

100100

Dos

e (%

)D

ose

(%)

0 mm0 mm

447 mm7 mm


Methods to eliminate problems with FilmMethods to eliminate problems with Film

��To eliminate air trapped inside jacket, vacuum To eliminate air trapped inside jacket, vacuum packing could be used (CEA film).packing could be used (CEA film).

��To keep identical position and pressure, RMI To keep identical position and pressure, RMI sells film cassettes for dosimetry.sells film cassettes for dosimetry.

��Use film in water as suggested by van Use film in water as suggested by van BattumBattumet al, et al, RadiotherRadiother..OncolOncol. 34, 152, 1995. 34, 152, 1995

��Special phantom; Special phantom; BovaBova, Med. Dos. 15, 83, 1990, Med. Dos. 15, 83, 1990

7


CEA Films (TLF, TVS)CEA Films (TLF, TVS)

00 2020 4040 6060 8080 100100


Opt

ical

Den

sity

Opt

ical

Den

sity

00

11

22

33

44Kodak TLKodak TL

120120

CEA TLFCEA TLFCEA TVSCEA TVS

Kodak XVKodak XV

Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996Cheng & Das, Med. Phys. 23, 1225, 1996Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

OD Vs DoseOD Vs Dose

PDDPDD = [= [a+b(OD) +c(OD)a+b(OD) +c(OD)22]]dd // [a+b(OD) +c(OD)[a+b(OD) +c(OD)22]]maxmax

OAR=OAR=[[a+b(OD) +c(OD)a+b(OD) +c(OD)22]]x x // [a+b(OD) +c(OD)[a+b(OD) +c(OD)22]]caxcax

D = m(OD) thenD = m(OD) then

DD22/D/D11 = OD= OD22/OD/OD11

For limited range and linear filmFor limited range and linear film

Dose = a+b(OD) +c(OD)2


OD depth and field size dependentOD depth and field size dependent

OD(D, d) = ODOD(D, d) = ODss[1[1--1010--αα(d)D(d)D]]

αα(d) = (d) = αα(d(dmm)[1+)[1+ββ(d(d--ddmm)])]

ββ = 0.0182= 0.0182 CoCo--6060

ββ = 0.0150= 0.0150 4 MV4 MV

ββ = 0.0062= 0.0062 10 MV10 MV

Williamson et al , Med. Phys. 8, 94, 1981Williamson et al , Med. Phys. 8, 94, 1981



0.80.8

0.90.9

1.01.0

1.11.1

1.21.2

1.31.3

1.41.4

00 55 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030

Film

Den

sity

Film

Den

sity


Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002Williamson et al , Med. Phys. 8, 94, 1981Williamson et al , Med. Phys. 8, 94, 1981

3030

4040

5050

6060

7070

8080

9090100100

110110120120

FilmFilmIon ChamberIon Chamber


3030

4040

5050

6060

7070

9595100100

9090

8080 FilmFilmIon ChamberIon Chamber


8


Sensitivity of film to scatterSensitivity of film to scatter��Depth and field size dependence of ODDepth and field size dependence of OD

��Van Van Battum Battum et al, film in wateret al, film in water

��Burch et al, lead filterBurch et al, lead filter

��Yeo Yeo et al , Lead filteret al , Lead filter

��Skyes Skyes et al, against filter methodet al, against filter method

��“although scatter filtering method appears to have “although scatter filtering method appears to have the desired effect it seems intuitively wrong to the desired effect it seems intuitively wrong to introduce a high Z filter in order to make an introduce a high Z filter in order to make an inadequate dosimeter, film, behave as if it is water inadequate dosimeter, film, behave as if it is water equivalent”equivalent”

��Suchowerska Suchowerska et al MC simulation to prove scatter as et al MC simulation to prove scatter as a problema problem


00 55 1010 1515 2020 2525

9494

9696

9898

100100

102102

104104

106106

108108

4x44x410x1010x10

20x2020x20

30x3030x30


Opt

ical

Den

sity

(Nor

mal

ized

)O

ptic

al D

ensi

ty (N

orm

aliz

ed)

Van Van Battum Battum et al , et al , Radiother OncolRadiother Oncol, 34, 152, 1995, 34, 152, 1995

Effect of depth and field size on ODEffect of depth and field size on OD


00 22 44 66 20201818161614141212101088


Rel

ativ

e D

ose

(%)

Rel

ativ

e D

ose

(%)

00

2020

4040

6060

8080

100100

4x44x410x1010x10

20x2020x20

Van Van Battum Battum et al , et al , Radiother OncolRadiother Oncol, 34, 152, 1995, 34, 152, 1995

FilmFilmIon ChamberIon Chamber


2

34

5

6

23 4

56

Scattered photon, hν’

Primary Photon, hν

Scattered electrons

Compton Scattering

11


Yeo Yeo et al Med. Phys. 24, 1943, 1997et al Med. Phys. 24, 1943, 1997Burch et al, Med. Phys. 24, 775, 1997Burch et al, Med. Phys. 24, 775, 1997

FilmFilm Lead filterLead filter

PhotonPhoton

Parallel film OrientationParallel film Orientation

Movable positionMovable position

X, X, 6, 12, 19 mm6, 12, 19 mmt= 0.15, 0.30,t= 0.15, 0.30,.0.46, 0.76 mm.0.46, 0.76 mm

Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002JuJu et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351--355, 2002355, 2002

9


JuJu et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351--355, 2002355, 2002


1.21.2

1.01.0

0.80.8

0.60.6

0.40.4

0.20.2

--1010 --55 00 55 1010Distance from central axis (cm)Distance from central axis (cm)

Rel

ativ

e do

se (r

atio

)R

elat

ive

dose

(rat

io)

Film no filterFilm no filterFilm with filterFilm with filterIon ChamberIon Chamber

Ju Ju et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351et al, Med. Phys., 29, 351--355, 2002355, 2002


00 22 44 66 88

Energy (Energy (MeVMeV))

0.00.0

2.02.0

4.04.0

6.06.0

8.08.0

10.010.0

Rel

ativ

e Fl

uenc

e (%

)R

elat

ive

Flue

nce

(%)

MC simulation of photon spectrum at various depthsMC simulation of photon spectrum at various depths

30 cm30 cm

10 cm10 cm

1.5 cm1.5 cm

Suchowerska Suchowerska et al, Phys. Med. Biol. 44, 1755, 1999et al, Phys. Med. Biol. 44, 1755, 1999Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

00 55 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 404000

2020

4040

6060

8080

100100

120120

140140

160160

180180

200200

Dos

e (

Do s

e ( c

Gy

cGy ))


X=0 mmX=0 mm

Ion chamberIon chamber

X=6 mmX=6 mm

X=12 mmX=12 mm

4 MV, 25x25 cm4 MV, 25x25 cm22

0.76 mm 0.76 mm PbPb

Burch et al, Med. Phys., 24, 775, 1997Burch et al, Med. Phys., 24, 775, 1997


No No PbPb

Ion ChamberIon Chamber

Film+.46 mm Film+.46 mm PbPb

Depth (cm)Depth (cm)00 55 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 4040

00

2020

4040

6060

8080

100100

120120

4 MV, 25x25 cm4 MV, 25x25 cm22

No No PbPb

Film+.46 mm Film+.46 mm PbPb

Ion ChamberIon Chamber

Burch et al, Med. Phys., 24, 775, 1997Burch et al, Med. Phys., 24, 775, 1997

00 55 1010 1515 2020 2525 3030 3535 404000

2020

4040

6060

8080

100100

120120

Dos

e (

Dos

e ( c

Gy

cGy ))


4 MV, 6x6 cm4 MV, 6x6 cm22

Effect of Effect of Pb Pb filter on depth dosefilter on depth dose

Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002Danciu Danciu et al, Med. Phys. 28, 972, 2001et al, Med. Phys. 28, 972, 2001

2.02.000 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.5

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

0.00.0

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0C0C0--6060KodakKodak

Dose (Dose (GyGy))

0.5g/cm0.5g/cm33

4 g/cm4 g/cm33

9 g/cm9 g/cm33

DepthDepth

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Dose (Dose (GyGy))00 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.5

0.00.0

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.06 MV6 MVKodakKodak

0.5g/cm0.5g/cm33

4 g/cm4 g/cm33

9 g/cm9 g/cm33

DepthDepth

2.02.0

00 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.50.00.0

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5


0.5g/cm0.5g/cm33

4 g/cm4 g/cm33

9 g/cm9 g/cm33

DepthDepth

2.02.000 0.50.5 1.01.0 1.51.50.00.0

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5


0.5g/cm0.5g/cm33

4 g/cm4 g/cm33

9 g/cm9 g/cm33

DepthDepth

2.02.0

Dose (Dose (GyGy)) Dose (Dose (GyGy))

Sensitometric Sensitometric curves for 15x15 cmcurves for 15x15 cm22 fieldfieldwith perpendicular film exposurewith perpendicular film exposure

10


Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Depth (cm)Depth (cm)1414 161600 22 44 66 88 1010 1212

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0

3.53.5CoCo--6060

AgfaAgfa

KodakKodak

ParallelParallelPerpendicularPerpendicular

1414 161600 22 44 66 88 1010 1212

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

1.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0

3.53.515 MV15 MVAgfaAgfa

KodakKodak



1414 161600 22 44 66 88 1010 12121.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0

3.53.56 MV6 MVAgfaAgfa

KodakKodak



Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

Net

Opt

ical

Den

sity

1414 161600 22 44 66 88 1010 12121.01.0

1.51.5

2.02.0

2.52.5

3.03.0

3.53.545 MV45 MV

KodakKodak



Danciu Danciu et al, Med. Phys. 28, 972, 2001et al, Med. Phys. 28, 972, 2001Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

Net Optical Density0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Dos

e (c

Gy)

6x6, 5 cm depth6x6, 5 cm depth25x25, 5 cm depth25x25, 5 cm depth6x6, 15 cm depth6x6, 15 cm depth25x25, 15 cm depth25x25, 15 cm depth

Sykes et al, Med.Phys., 26, 329, 1999Sykes et al, Med.Phys., 26, 329, 1999


eewweewweeww

PP PP

eewweeww

eeff

filmfilm# # eeww<< #<< # eef f

ODODperpendicular perpendicular << ODODparallelparallel

PerpendicularPerpendicular ParallelParallel

PhotonsPhotons

electronselectrons

((eeww))nn ((eeww))nn+(+(eeff))mm


Gantry AngleGantry Angle

8080 8282 8484 8686 8888 9090

No r

mal

ized

Res

pons

eN

o rm

aliz

ed R

espo

nse

.96.96

.98.98

1.001.00

1.021.02

1.041.04

1.061.06

1.081.08

1.101.10

1.121.12

Kodak XV FilmKodak XV Film

SpectralSpectral

Spectral + air gapSpectral + air gap

Suchowerska Suchowerska et al. et al. PhyPhy. Med. Biol. 46, 1391, 2001. Med. Biol. 46, 1391, 2001

Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002 Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

How Should we trust?

11


403530252015100.82

0.84

0.86

0.88

0.90

0.92

0.94

0.96

0.98

1.00

1.02

1.04

1.06

V-1

V-3V-2

CEA-1

V-4

CEA-2

V-5

Variation of cone factor, St, using film

Cone Diameter (mm)

Con

e Fa

ctor

(St)

Das et al, J. Das et al, J. RadiosurgRadiosurg. 3, 177, 2000. 3, 177, 2000Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

0 50 100 1500.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

0 50 100 1500.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Opt

ical

den

sity

Kodak

B C D E Wellhöfer


CEA

Bos et al, Med. Phy. 29 (in press) 2002

Film Scanner Light source Wavelength/color

Konica KFDR-S diode-laser 780 nmMultidata 9721 diode-laser redVidar VXR-12 standard fluorescent light whiteWellhöfer WD 102 infrared diode 950 nmX-rite Model 301 tungsten halogen bulb bluish white

Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002Bos Bos et al, Med. et al, Med. PhyPhy. 29 (in press) 2002. 29 (in press) 2002

0 20 40 60 80 1000

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Dose (cGy)

TTA TAA PPA PAA

Opt

ical

den

sity

0 20 40 60 80 1000

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

TAA PAA AAA

Opt

ical

den

sity

0 20 40 60 80 1000

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5Dose (cGy)

C

B

A

Kodak

TTT TTA PPP PPA AAA

Opt

ical

den

sity

Dose (cGy)

Effect Comparison OD difference at 50cGy

Kodak CEA

Batchcomposition

TAA vs.AAA

14% 9%

PAA vs.AAA

20% 2%

Irradiationconditions

TTA vs.TAA

2% 5%

PPA vs.PAA

2% 5%

Filmprocessing

TTT vs.TTA

11% 31%

PPP vs. PPA 38% 16%Combinedeffect

TTT vs.AAA

20% 32%

PPP vs. AAA 13% 13%

Interinstitutional Interinstitutional Variation in ODVariation in OD


Advantage of film dosimetryAdvantage of film dosimetry

��Unrivaled spatial distribution of dose or energy Unrivaled spatial distribution of dose or energy imparted.imparted.

��Repeated reading of same film: permanent recordRepeated reading of same film: permanent record

��22--D distribution with single exposureD distribution with single exposure

��Small detector sizeSmall detector size

��Wide availability: Kodak,Wide availability: Kodak, AgfaAgfa, Fuji, Dupont, CEA , Fuji, Dupont, CEA

��Large area dosimetry: Especially for electron beamLarge area dosimetry: Especially for electron beam

��Linearity of dose (over a short dose range, OD can Linearity of dose (over a short dose range, OD can be treated linear with dose for most films)be treated linear with dose for most films)

��Dose rate independenceDose rate independence


Film dosimetry Film dosimetry -- ConcernsConcerns��The main problem in using radiographic The main problem in using radiographic

film is the dependence of optical density film is the dependence of optical density (OD) on: (OD) on: �� Strong energy dependence (high sensitivity to Strong energy dependence (high sensitivity to

low energy photons due to photoelectric low energy photons due to photoelectric interactions in grainsinteractions in grains)); ;

�� Film plane orientation with respect to the Film plane orientation with respect to the beam direction; beam direction;

�� Emulsion differences amongst films of Emulsion differences amongst films of different batches, films of the same batch or different batches, films of the same batch or even in the same film; even in the same film;

�� Densitometer/Digitizer artifacts.Densitometer/Digitizer artifacts.


��OD depends on:OD depends on:�� Chemical processing Chemical processing

�� developer chemistry and temperaturedeveloper chemistry and temperature�� Processing timeProcessing time�� drying conditionsdrying conditions

��Sensitivity to environmentSensitivity to environment�� High temperature & humidity creating fadingHigh temperature & humidity creating fading�� Storage stabilityStorage stability

�� 0.050.05--0.1 OD in (60.1 OD in (6--60mR) among various films60mR) among various films (ref(refSoleimanSoleiman et al Med.et al Med. PhyPhy. 22, 1691, 1995). 22, 1691, 1995)

��Microbiological growth in gelatinMicrobiological growth in gelatin��SolarizationSolarization: At extremely higher doses, OD : At extremely higher doses, OD

decreasesdecreases

Film dosimetry Film dosimetry -- ConcernsConcerns

12


TG69 TG69 -- RADIOGRAPHIC FILM FOR RADIOGRAPHIC FILM FOR MEGAVOLTAGE BEAM DOSIMETRYMEGAVOLTAGE BEAM DOSIMETRY

��Film Dosimetry for commissioning and Film Dosimetry for commissioning and verifying special procedures in radiotherapy.verifying special procedures in radiotherapy.�� Enhanced Dynamic Wedge (EDW) Enhanced Dynamic Wedge (EDW)

�� Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS) Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS)

�� Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT) Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy (IMRT)


Disadvantage of film dosimetryDisadvantage of film dosimetry�� Chemical processing (except Gafchromic films)Chemical processing (except Gafchromic films)

�� OD depends on:OD depends on:�� developer temperaturedeveloper temperature�� drying conditionsdrying conditions

�� Strong energy dependence (high sensitivity to low Strong energy dependence (high sensitivity to low energy photons due to photoelectric interactions in energy photons due to photoelectric interactions in grainsgrains))

�� Sensitivity to environmentsSensitivity to environments�� high temperature and humidity crating fadinghigh temperature and humidity crating fading

�� Storage stabilityStorage stability

�� 0.050.05--0.1 OD in (60.1 OD in (6--60mR) among various 60mR) among various films films (ref (ref Soleiman Soleiman et al Med. et al Med. PhyPhy. 22, 1691, 1995). 22, 1691, 1995)

�� Microbiological growth in gelatinMicrobiological growth in gelatin

�� SolarizationSolarization: at extremely higher doses, OD decreases: at extremely higher doses, OD decreases

�� Absolute dosimetry is difficultAbsolute dosimetry is difficult


Advantage of film dosimetryAdvantage of film dosimetry��Unrivaled spatial distribution of dose or energy Unrivaled spatial distribution of dose or energy

imparted.imparted.

��Repeated reading of same film: permanent Repeated reading of same film: permanent recordrecord

��Wide availability: Kodak,Wide availability: Kodak, AgfaAgfa, Fuji, Dupont, , Fuji, Dupont, CEA etc.CEA etc.

��Large area dosimetry: Especially for electron Large area dosimetry: Especially for electron beambeam

��Linearity of dose (over a short dose range, OD Linearity of dose (over a short dose range, OD can be treated linear with dose for most films)can be treated linear with dose for most films)

��Dose rate independenceDose rate independence


TG69 TG69 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM DOSIMETRYRADIOGRAPHIC FILM DOSIMETRY

Task group members:Task group members:S. Pai S. Pai --ChairChair

L. Reinstein L. Reinstein –– CoCo--ChairChairJ. WilliamsonJ. Williamson

J. PaltaJ. PaltaK. Lam K. Lam

T. LosassoT. LosassoE. GreinE. Grein

I. DasI. DasJ. DempseyJ. Dempsey

A. OlchA. Olch


TG69TG69�� Film Dosimetry Film Dosimetry -- IssuesIssues

�� Film selectionFilm selection�� Film orientationFilm orientation�� Phantom choicePhantom choice�� Film handlingFilm handling�� Beam quality issuesBeam quality issues�� Film Processor Film Processor �� Film Digitizer characteristicsFilm Digitizer characteristics

The primary mission of the task group is to The primary mission of the task group is to develop guidelines to allow optimal external develop guidelines to allow optimal external beam dose measurements.beam dose measurements.


Self developing, turns dark blue soon after irradiationSelf developing, turns dark blue soon after irradiationNear tissue equivalent, > 0.1MeV energy independentNear tissue equivalent, > 0.1MeV energy independent� OD increases gradually with time (logt)

� Dependency on temperature during and post irradiation

� Dependency on densitometer wavelength and temperature

� Sensitivity may vary somewhat across film

� Affected by compression, water/humidity, high temperature

� Slightly reduced sensitivity at < 0.1MeV

� OD increases in UV and fluorescent light

RadiochromicRadiochromic filmfilmNiroomandNiroomand--Rad et al, Rad et al, Radiochromic Radiochromic film dosimetry: Task group 55, film dosimetry: Task group 55, Med. Phys. 25(11), 2093Med. Phys. 25(11), 2093--2115, 19982115, 1998

13


ProcessorsProcessors�� Using the newer automatic processorsUsing the newer automatic processors

�� Developer temperature Developer temperature

�� Processing time Processing time

�� Chemistry activity of the processorChemistry activity of the processor

held extremely stable to improve the reproducibility and the held extremely stable to improve the reproducibility and the stability of the film density. stability of the film density.

�� Development of recommendation for the processor Development of recommendation for the processor acceptance tests and QA.acceptance tests and QA.

�� Determination of correction factors for temperature and Determination of correction factors for temperature and chemical variations of the processors in general:chemical variations of the processors in general:

�� By processing the nonBy processing the non--exposed films (known density exposed films (known density films) intermixed with the experiment films and films) intermixed with the experiment films and calibration films.calibration films.


DensitometersDensitometers/ Digitizers/ Digitizers��Visual type densitometer (Dobson, Griffith & Visual type densitometer (Dobson, Griffith &

Harrison, 1926)Harrison, 1926)��Photoelectric typePhotoelectric type

�� light densitometer (wide spectrum)light densitometer (wide spectrum)�� Standard:Standard: McBethMcBeth,, XriteXrite, Nuclear Associate etc, Nuclear Associate etc

�� Light source coupled with CCD digitizerLight source coupled with CCD digitizer�� Fluorescent light source Fluorescent light source –– Vidar Vidar VXRVXR--16 Digitizer16 Digitizer�� LED light source LED light source -- Howtek MultiRADHowtek MultiRAD 460 Digitizer460 Digitizer

�� Laser densitometer (single wavelength)Laser densitometer (single wavelength)�� LumysisLumysis scanning systemscanning system


Film

Incident light

Transmitted light

Diffuse

Specular

Double diffuse


��Scanning film Digitizer Artifacts:Scanning film Digitizer Artifacts:

�� Drift in OD; warmDrift in OD; warm--up effect of fluorescent lamp up effect of fluorescent lamp �� Use first 20Use first 20--30 minutes as warm30 minutes as warm--up timeup time

�� Scanner spatial distortionScanner spatial distortion�� Validated in both dimensions using known test patternsValidated in both dimensions using known test patterns

�� Interference artifacts Interference artifacts -- at the interface of film at the interface of film and the glass plate/film support.and the glass plate/film support. ((Multiple Multiple reflection due to changes in the index of reflection due to changes in the index of refraction)refraction)�� Use of diffused glass or antireflective coated glassUse of diffused glass or antireflective coated glass

ReinsteinReinstein et. al., Dempsey et.al.et. al., Dempsey et.al.

DigitizersDigitizers


-

Digitizer ArtifactsDigitizer Artifacts

GluckmanGluckman, et.al., et.al. Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

��Scanning film Digitizer Artifacts:Scanning film Digitizer Artifacts:�� Internal light scatter at OD discontinuities Internal light scatter at OD discontinuities

introducing OD nonintroducing OD non--linearity linearity �� Reduced by applying DFFT (Dempsey et.al)Reduced by applying DFFT (Dempsey et.al)

�� Light source/Detector response & linearity Light source/Detector response & linearity �� Signal to Noise ratioSignal to Noise ratio

�� Temporal Noise (electronic noise) Temporal Noise (electronic noise) �� Optimal OD of Optimal OD of << (??)(??)�� Lowering digitizing speed & using optimal resolutionLowering digitizing speed & using optimal resolution�� Reduced through the averaging of multiple scansReduced through the averaging of multiple scans

�� Spatial Noise (interference artifacts)Spatial Noise (interference artifacts)�� Application of Linear signal processing techniquesApplication of Linear signal processing techniques

Dempsey et.al.,Dempsey et.al., MerssemanMersseman et.al., andet.al., and MeederMeeder et.al.et.al.

DigitizersDigitizers

14


DigitizersDigitizers��Scanning film Digitizer Characteristics:Scanning film Digitizer Characteristics:

�� Fast high resolution 2D scannersFast high resolution 2D scanners�� Transmission optical densitometry Transmission optical densitometry �� Reflection densitometry Reflection densitometry –– limited OD range limited OD range

�� Spatial resolutionSpatial resolution�� Pixel dimension 0.34 Pixel dimension 0.34 –– 0.042mm (720.042mm (72--600 dpi) 600 dpi)

�� Dynamic rangeDynamic range�� 0 to upper limit of 2.5 to 4.0 OD0 to upper limit of 2.5 to 4.0 OD

�� Scanner output Scanner output �� OD measurement (OD measurement (>> 12 bit ADC)12 bit ADC)�� Transmission measurement and then converted to OD Transmission measurement and then converted to OD

((>>14 bit ADC)14 bit ADC)

Dempsey et.al. Dempsey et.al. Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

��Optimal OD Optimal OD DigitizersDigitizers

ReinsteinReinstein et. al.et. al.



Enhanced Dynamic WedgeEnhanced Dynamic Wedge��CommissioningCommissioning

�� EDW profiles are obtained in a single exposure EDW profiles are obtained in a single exposure using a multiple film loaded phantomusing a multiple film loaded phantom

��Concern: Energy Dependency of filmConcern: Energy Dependency of film�� Affects the measured wedge angle in EDW Affects the measured wedge angle in EDW

profiles for large field size and large depths.profiles for large field size and large depths.

Elder, et.al, Klein, et.al.Elder, et.al, Klein, et.al. Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002


Stereotactic RadiosurgeryStereotactic Radiosurgery��Energy DependencyEnergy Dependency

�� Overall error of 1%Overall error of 1%-- by using midby using mid--way calibration for F.S.way calibration for F.S.uptoupto 10x10 cm10x10 cm22 and depths of 2and depths of 2--10cm.10cm.

��Output FactorOutput Factor�� Small field output depends upon the spatial resolution.Small field output depends upon the spatial resolution.

��Penumbra DelineationPenumbra Delineation�� Detector size; TG 42 specificationDetector size; TG 42 specification-- detector dimension of detector dimension of

2mm or less is recommended.2mm or less is recommended.

��Concern: Optical ScatterConcern: Optical Scatter�� Light transmission artifacts of the scanner contaminating Light transmission artifacts of the scanner contaminating

the signal (penumbra broadening)the signal (penumbra broadening)

Dempsey, et.al.,Tsai, et.al.Dempsey, et.al.,Tsai, et.al.



Intensity Modulated Radiation TreatmentIntensity Modulated Radiation Treatment��Film dosimetry Film dosimetry -- Best dosimeter to dateBest dosimeter to date�� Spatial resolutionSpatial resolution

�� Detector size; detector dimension of 2mm or less is Detector size; detector dimension of 2mm or less is recommended.recommended.

��Concerns: Energy DependencyConcerns: Energy Dependency�� Varying component of primary to scatter ratio within the Varying component of primary to scatter ratio within the

field poses a big problem .field poses a big problem .

��Concerns: Spatial Distortion and Optical ScatterConcerns: Spatial Distortion and Optical Scatter�� Scanner distortion which are most apparent in high dose Scanner distortion which are most apparent in high dose

gradient regions gradient regions –– throughout IMRT fieldthroughout IMRT field�� Optical scatter distorting the transmitted signalOptical scatter distorting the transmitted signal

ChuiChui, et. al. Low, et.al., et. al. Low, et.al. Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

Kodak’s New Kodak’s New Extended Dose Range Extended Dose Range (EDR2) Film(EDR2) Film

Each grain is Each grain is 10 times 10 times smallersmaller than XV grains,than XV grains,

Uniform cubic grains Uniform cubic grains ofof AgBrAgBr rather than rather than nonnon--uniform potato uniform potato shaped grains for XV.shaped grains for XV.

EDR2

XV2

Dose cGyCourtesy: Courtesy: OlchOlch, A., A.

EDR2 vs. XV2EDR2 vs. XV2

15


��No MU reduction is required for EDR2 film No MU reduction is required for EDR2 film IMRT QA.IMRT QA.

�� AvoidsAvoids LinacLinac delivery problems with small delivery problems with small number of MU per segmentnumber of MU per segment

�� Avoids round off errors for systems that can not Avoids round off errors for systems that can not deliver nondeliver non--integer MUinteger MU

�� IMRT QA can be performed on the IDENTICAL IMRT QA can be performed on the IDENTICAL plan that is used to treat the patient.plan that is used to treat the patient.

��EDR2 film is less sensitive to processor EDR2 film is less sensitive to processor variations than XV2 film.variations than XV2 film.

Courtesy: Courtesy: OlchOlch, A., A.

KODAK’S NEW EDR2 FILMKODAK’S NEW EDR2 FILM



TG Chapters:TG Chapters:�� Introduction and Background Introduction and Background -------------------------- S. PaiS. Pai

�� Characteristics ofCharacteristics of AgHAgH films films -------------------------- I. DasI. Das

�� Film types and Processors Film types and Processors -------------------------- K. LamK. Lam

�� Detection Equipment Detection Equipment

�� Point Point Densitometers Densitometers -------------------------- A. Olch/L. E. ReinsteinA. Olch/L. E. Reinstein

�� 2D scanners 2D scanners -------------------------- J. Dempsey/J. WilliamsonJ. Dempsey/J. Williamson

�� Phantom considerations Phantom considerations andand -------------------------- E. GreinE. Grein

Film Calibration ProtocolFilm Calibration Protocol

�� Special ApplicationsSpecial Applications

�� QA of photon/Electron beams QA of photon/Electron beams -------------------------- J. J. PaltaPalta

�� IMRT/EDW/SRS IMRT/EDW/SRS -------------------------- T. LossasoT. Lossaso


ReferencesReferences[1] Attix, F.H. Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. New York: John

Wiley & Sons; 1986. [2] Avadhani, J.S., Pradhan, A.S., Sankar, A. and Viswanathan, P.S. Dosimetric aspects of physical

and dynamic wedge of Clinac 2100C linear accelerator [see comments]. Strahlenther. Onkol. 173: 524-8, 1997.

[3] Aydarous, A.S., Darley, P.J. and Charles, M.W. A wide dynamic range, high-spatial-resolution scanning system for radiochromic dye films. Phys. Med. Biol. 46: 1379-1389, 2001.

[4] Bartlett, D.T. and Creasey, F.L. Latent image fading in nuclear emulsions. Phys. Med. Biol. 22: 1187-1188, 1977.

[5] Beavis, A.W., Weston, S.J. and Whitton, V.J. Implementation of the Varian EDW into a commercial RTP system. Phys. Med. Biol. 41: 1691-704, 1996.

[6] Becker, K. Solid State Dosimetry. Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press; 1973. [7] Bogucki, T.M., Murphy, W.R., Baker, C.W., Piazza, S.S. and Haus, A.G. Processor quality

control in laser imaging systems. Med. Phys. 24: 581-584, 1997. [8] Bos, L., Danciu, C., Cheng, C.W., et al. Inter-institutional variations of sensitometric curves of

radiographic dosimetric films. Med. Phys. 29: (in press), 2002. [9] Burch, S.E., Kearfott, K.J., Trueblood, J.H., et al. A new approach to film dosimetry for high

energy photon beams: Lateral scattering filtering. Med. Phys. 24: 775-783, 1997. [10] Butson, M.J., Cheung, T. and Yu, P.K. Spatial resolution of a stacked radiochromic film

dosimeter. Radiother. Oncol. 61: N27-31, 2001.


--ReferencesReferences[11] Butson, M.J., Cheung, T., Yu, P.K. and Metcalfe, P.E. Assessment of large single-

fraction, low-energy X-ray dose with radiochromic film. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 46: 1071-1075, 2000.

[12] Butson, M.J., Cheung, T. and Yu, P.K.N. Radiochromic film dosimetry in water phantoms. Phys. Med. Biol. 46: N27-N31, 2001.

[13] Butson, M.J., Mathur, J.N. and Metcalfe, P.E. Radiochromic film as a radiotherapy surface-dose detector. Phys. Med. Biol. 41: 1073-1078, 1996.

[14] Butson, M.J., Yu, P.K., Cheung, T., et al. Dosimetry of blood irradiation withradiochromic film. Transfusion Medicine 9: 205-208, 1999.

[15] Butson, M.J., Yu, P.K. and Metcalfe, P.E. Effects of read-out light sources and ambient light on radiochromic film. Phys. Med. Biol. 43: 2407-2412, 1998.

[16] Butson, M.J., Yu, P.K. and Metcalfe, P.E. Measurement of off-axis and peripheral skin dose using radiochromic film. Phys. Med. Biol. 43: 2647-2650, 1998.

[17] Cadman, P. Use of CEA TVS film for measuring high energy photon beam dose distributions. Med. Phys. 25: 1435-1437, 1998.

[18] Cheng, C.W. and Das, I.J. Dosimetry of high energy photon and electron beams with CEA films. Med. Phys. 23: 1225-1231, 1996.

[19] Cheung, T., Butson, M. and Yu, P. Multilayer gafchromic film detectors for breast skin dose determination in vivo. Phys. Med. Biol. 47: N31-N37, 2002.

[20] Cheung, T., Butson, M.J. and Yu, P.K. Use of multiple layers of Gafchromic film to increase sensitivity. Phys. Med. Biol. 46: N235-N240, 2001.


--ReferencesReferences[21] Cook, L.T., Insana, M.F., McFadden, M.A., Hall, T.J. and Cox, G.G. Comparison of the low-

contrast detectability of a screen-film system and third generation computed radiography. Med. Phys. 21(5): 691-695, 1994.

[22] Danciu, C., Proimos, B.S., Rosenwald, J.C. and Mijnheer, B.J. Variation of sensitometric curves of radiographic films in high energy photon beams. Med. Phys. 28: 966-974, 2001.

[23] Dempsey, J.F., Low, D.A., Kirov, A.S. and Williamson, J.F. Quantitative optical densitometry with scanning-laser film digitizers. Med. Phys. 26: 1721-1731, 1999.

[24] Dempsey, J.F., Low, D.A., Mutic, S., et al. Validation of a precision radiochromic film dosimetry system for quantitative two-dimensional imaging of acute exposure dose distributions. Medical Physics 27: 2462-2475, 2000.

[25] Dixon, R.L. and Ekstrand, K. A film dosimetry system for use in computed tomography. Radiology 127: 255-258, 1978.

[26] Dobson, G.M.B., Griffith, I.O. and Harrison, D.N. Photographic Photometry. Oxford: The Clarendon Press; 1926.

[27] Duggan, D.M., Coffey, C.W., 2nd, Lobdell, J.L. and Schell, M.C. Radiochromic film dosimetry of a high dose rate beta source for intravascular brachytherapy. Med. Phys. 26: 2461-2464, 1999.

[28] Dutreix, J. and Dutreix, A. Film dosimetry of high-energy electrons. Ann. N Y Acad. Sci 161: 33-43, 1969.

[29] Ehrlich, M. Characteristic curves for X-ray exposures at various dose rates. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 46: 801-, 1956.

[30] el-Khatib, E., Antolak, J. and Scrimger, J. Evaluation of film and thermoluminescent dosimetry

of high-energy electron beams in heterogeneous phantoms. Med. Phys. 19: 317-323, 1992. Das/Cheng/Das/Cheng/PaiPai/AAPM//2002/AAPM//2002

--ReferencesReferences[31] Evans, M.D. and Schreiner, L.J. A simple technique for film dosimetry. Radiother.

Oncol. 23: 265-267, 1992. [32] Foulkes, K., Ostwald, P. and Kron, T. A clinical comparison of different film systems for

radiotherapy portal imaging. Med. Dosim. 26: 281-284, 2001. [33] Francescon, P., Cora, S., Cavedon, C., et al. Use of a new type of radiochromic film, a

new parallel-plate micro-chamber, MOSFETs, and TLC 800 microcubes in the dosimetry of small beams. Med. Phys. 25: 503-511, 1998.

[34] Granke, R.C., Wright, K.A., Evans, W.W., Nelson, J.E. and Trump, J.G. The film method of tissue dose studies. Am. J. Roentgenol. 72: 302-307, 1954.

[35] Gurney, R.W. and Mott, N.F. The theory of photolysis of silver bromide and the photographic latent image. Proc. Roy. Soc. A164: 151, 1938.

[36] Hale, J.I., Kerr, A.T. and Shragge, P.C. Calibration of film for accurate megavoltage photon dosimetry. Med. Dosim. 19: 43-46, 1994.

[37] Haus, A.G. Advances in Film Processing Systems Technology and Quality Control in Medical Imaging. Madison, Wi: Medical Physics Publishing; 2001.

[38] Haus, A.G., Dickerson, R.E., Huff, K.E., et al. Evaluation of a cassette-screen-film combination for radiation therapy portal localization imaging with improved contrast.Med. Phys. 24: 1605-8, 1997.

[39] Haus, A.G., Dickerson, R.E., Huff, K.E., et al. Evaluation of cassette-screen-film combination for radiation therapy portal localization imaging with improved contrast.Med. Phys. 24: 1605-1613, 1997.

[40] Herz, R.H. The Photographic Action of Ionizing Radiations. New York: Wiley-Interscience; 1969.

16


--ReferencesReferences[41] Ju, S.G., Ahn, Y.C., Huh, S.J. and Yeo, I.J. Film dosimetry for Intensity modulated radiation

therapy: dosimetric evaluation. Med. Phys. 29: 351-355, 2002. [42] Kellermann, P.O., Ertl, A. and Gornik, E. A new method of readout in radiochromic film

dosimetry. Phys. Med. Biol. 43: 2251-2263, 1998. [43] Klein, E.E., Low, D.A., Meigooni, A.S. and Purdy, J.A. Dosimetry and clinical

implementation of dynamic wedge. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 31: 583-92, 1995. [44] Langmack, K.A. and Goss, V. Characterization of new portal film systems for radiotherapy

verification. Br. J. Radiol. 72: 479-484, 1999. [45] Li, Z., Wen, D., Chen, D., et al. A study of dosimetric characteristics of GAF DM-1260

Radiochromic films. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 57: 103-113, 2000. [46] Ma, L., Li, X.A. and Yu, C.X. An efficient method of measuring the 4 mm helmet output

factor for the Gamma knife. Phys. Med. Biol. 45: 729-733, 2000. [47] Mayer, R., Williams, A., Frankel, T., et al. Two-dimensional film dosimetry application in

heterogeneous materials exposed to megavoltage photon beams. Med. Phys. 24: 455-460, 1997.

[48] McLaughlin, W.L., Soares, C.G., Sayeg, J.A., et al. The use of a radiochromic detector for the determination of stereotactic radiosurgery dose characteristics. Med. Phys. 21: 379-388, 1994.

[49] McLaughlin, W.L., Yun-Dong, C., Soares, C.G., et al. Sensitometry of the response of a newradiochromic film dosimeter to gamma radiation and electron beams. Nucl. Instr. Meth. Phys.Res. A302: 165-176, 1991.

[50] Meigooni, A.S., Sanders, M.F., Ibbott, G.S. and Szeglin, S.R. Dosimetric characteristics of an improved radiochromic film. Med. Phys. 23: 1883-1888, 1996.


--ReferencesReferences[51] Meigooni, A.S., Zhu, Y., Williamson, J.F., et al. Design and dosimetric characteristics of a high

dose rate remotely afterloaded endocavitary applicator system. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 34: 1153-1163, 1996.

[52] Menon, G. and Sloboda, R. Measurement of relative output for 90Sr ophthalmic applicators usingradiochromic film. Med. Dosim. 25: 171-177, 2000.

[53] Muench, P.J., Meigooni, A.S., Nath, R. and McLaughlin, W.L. Photon energy dependence of the sensitivity of radiochromic film and comparison with silver halide and LiF TLDs used for brachytherapy dosimetry. Med. Phys. 18: 767-775, 1991.

[54] Ningnoi, T. and Ehlermann, D.A.E. Effects of temperature and humidity during irradiation on the response of radiochromic film dosimeters. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 43: 569-572, 1994.

[55] Niroomand-Rad, A. Comment on "Dosimetric characteristics of an improved radiochromic film" [Med. Phys. 23, 1883-1888 (1996)] and on "Qualitative evaluation of radiochromic film response for two-dimensional dosimetry" [Med. Phys. 24, 223-231 (1997)]. Med. Phys. 24: 1317, 1997.

[56] Niroomand-Rad, A., Blackwell, C.R., Coursey, B.M., et al. Radiographic film dosimetry: Recommendations of AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee Task Group 55. Med. Phys. 25: 2093-2115, 1998.

[57] Niroomand-Rad, A., Gillin, M.T., Kline, R.W. and Grimm, D.F. Film dosimetry of small electron beams for routine radiotherapy planning. Med. Phys. 13: 416-21, 1986.

[58] Olch, A. Dosimetric performance of an enhanced dose range radiographic fFilm for intensity modulated radiation therapy quality assurance. Med. Phys. 29: (in press), 2002.

[59] Pai, S., Reinstein, L.E., Gluckman, G., Xu, Z. and Weiss, T. The use of improved radiochromicfilm for in vivo quality assurance of high dose rate brachytherapy. Med. Phys. 25: 1217-21., 1998.

[60] Piermattei, A., Miceli, R., Azario, L., et al. Radiochromic film dosimetry of a low energy proton beam. Med. Phys. 27: 1655-1660, 2000.


--ReferencesReferences[61] Ramani, R., Lightstone, A.W., Mason, D.L. and O'Brien, P.F. The use of radiochromic film in

treatment verification of dynamic stereotactic radiosurgery. Med. Phys. 21: 389-392, 1994. [62] Ramani, R., Lightstone, A.W., Mason, D.L.D. and O'Brien, P.F. The use of radiochromic film in

treatment verification of dynamic stereotactic radiosurgery. Med. Phys. 21: 389-392, 1994. [63] Reinstein, L.E. and Gluckman, G.R. Comparison of dose response of radiochromic film measured

with He-Ne laser, broadband, and filtered light densitometers. Med. Phys. 24: 1531-1533, 1997. [64] Reinstein, L.E., Gluckman, G.R. and Amols, H.I. Predicting optical densitometer response as a

function of light source characteristics for radiochromic film dosimetry. Med. Phys. 24: 1935-1942, 1997.

[65] Reinstein, L.E., Gluckman, G.R. and Meek, A.G. A rapid colour stabilization technique forradiochromic film dosimetry. Phys. Med. Biol. 43: 2703-2708, 1998.

[66] Roback, D.M., Johnson, J.M., Khan, F.M., Engeler, G.P. and McGuire, W.A. The use of tertiary collimation for spinal irradiation with extended SSD electron fields. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 37: 1187-1192, 1997.

[67] Robar, J.L. and Clark, B.G. The use of radiographic film for linear accelerator stereotactic radiosurgical dosimetry. Med. Phys. 26: 2144-2150, 1999.

[68] Roberts, R. Portal imaging with film-cassette combinations: what film should we use? Br. J.Radiol. 69: 70-71, 1996.

[69] Schumer, W., Fernando, W., Carolan, M., et al. Verification of brachytherapy dosimetry withradiochromic film. Med. Dosim. 24: 197-203, 1999.

[70] Spielberger, B., Scholz, M., Krämer, M. and Kraft, G. Experimental investigations of the response of films to heavy-ion irradiation. Phys. Med. Biol. 46: 2889-2897, 2001.


--ReferencesReferences[71] Stevens, M., Turner, J., Hugtenburg, R. and Butler, R. High-resolution dosimetry using

radiochromic film and a document scanner. Phys. Med. Biol. 41: 2357-2365, 1996. [72] Suchowerska, N., Hoban, P., Butson, M., Davison, A. and Metcalfe, P. Directional dependence in

film dosimetry: radiographic and radiochromic film. Phys. Med. Biol. 46: 1391-1397, 2001. [73] Suchowerska, N., Hoban, P., Davison, A. and Metcalfe, P. Perturbation of radiotherapy beams by

radiographic film: measurements and Monte Carlo simulations. Phys. Med. Biol. 44: 1755-1765, 1999.

[74] van Battum, L.J. and Heijmen, B.J. Film dosimetry in water in a 23 MV therapeutic photon beam.Radiother. Oncol. 34: 152-159, 1995.

[75] van Battum, L.J. and Huizenga, H. Film dosimetry of clinical electron beams. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 18: 69-76, 1990.

[76] van Bree, N.A., Idzes, M.H., Huizenga, H. and Mijnheer, B.J. Film dosimetry for radiotherapy treatment planning verification of a 6 MV tangential breast irradiation. Radiother. Oncol. 31: 251-255, 1994.

[77] Vatnitsky, S.M. Radiochromic film dosimetry for clinical proton beams. Appl Radiat Isot 48: 643-651, 1997.

[78] Vatnitsky, S.M., Miller, D.W., Moyers, M.F., et al. Dosimetry techniques for narrow proton beam radiosurgery. Phys. Med. Biol. 44: 2789-2801, 1999.

[79] Vatnitsky, S.M., Schulte, R.W., Galindo, R., Meinass, H.J. and Miller, D.W. Radiochromic film dosimetry for verification of dose distributions delivered with proton-beam radiosurgery. Phys.Med. Biol. 42: 1887-1898, 1997.

[80] Williamson, J.F., Khan, F.M. and Sharma, S.C. Film dosimetry of megavoltage photon beams: a practical method of isodensity-to-isodose curve conversion. Medical Physics 8: 94-98, 1981.


--ReferencesReferences

[81] Wu, A. and Krasin, F. Film dosimetry analyses on the effect of gold shielding for iodine-125 eye plaque therapy for choroidal melanoma. Med. Phys. 17: 843-846, 1990.

[82] Yasuda, T., Beatty, J., Biggs, P.J. and Gall, K. Two-dimensional dose distribution of a miniature x-ray device for stereotactic radiosurgery. Med. Phys. 25: 1212-1216, 1998.

[83] Yeo, I.J., Wang, C.K. and Burch, S.E. A filtration method for improving film dosimetry in photon radiation therapy. Med. Phys. 24: 1943-1953, 1997.

[84] Yeo, I.J., Wang, C.K. and Burch, S.E. A new approach to film dosimetry for high-energy photon beams using organic plastic scintillators. Phys. Med. Biol. 44: 3055-3069, 1999.

[85] Zhu, R., Jursinic, P., Grimm, D., et al. Evaluation of Kodak EDR2 film for dose verification of intensity modulated radiation therapy delivered by a static multileaf collimator. Med. Phys. 29: (in press), 2002.

[86] Zhu, Y., Kirov, A.S., Mishra, V., Meigooni, A.S. and Williamson, J.F. Quantitative evaluation of radiochromic film response for two-dimensional dosimetry. Med. Phys. 24: 223-231, 1997

Documents

Basic Film Dosimetry - AAPM: The American … Film Dosimetry Indra J. Das University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Chee-Wai Cheng Arizona Oncology Center, Tucson, AZ Sujatha Pai