A Conceptual Framework for the Study of Dance Teaching

Judith A. Gray

In order to understand and improve the dance teaching-learning process it is first necessary to design a conceptual framework which will contain and sequence the rele- vant elements. The framework presented here meets certain key criteria and provides the infrastructure for an instructional theory for dance. It is patterned on the Presage- Process-Product model, yet is sufficiently comprehensive to be applied to a variety of dance teaching settings. So long as the dance teaching role is critical to the evolu- tion and preservation of dance in society, research based on this framework is needed to generate practical and theoretical pedagogical guidelines.

Dance ethnologists, art historians, and Typically one person was assigned the anthropologists have long recognized that role of conveying the dance movements, the practice and performance of dance usually without embellishments or innova- movements is as old as history itself. tions. For the most part, dances evolved Paleolithic cave drawings near Palermo in over time and changed subtly rather than Sicily depict human figures performing what dramatically, subsequently requiring appears to be ritualistic dance. The mere fact "facilitators" or "coaches" (as opposed to that the dance appears ritualistic implies that choreographers) for their transmittal. These it must have been taught and learned. Dance, teachers were known as shamans, witch doc- together with oratory, music, tool-making tors, dancing masters, or other such titles and carving, can be considered one of the that denoted respect and indicated their rank earliest formal teaching disciplines. Ever or specialization. since men and women discovered that Traditionally, dance teachers have taught human movement possessed powerful ex- as they themselves were taught. Role model- pressive and evocative qualities, they have ing was and still is a dominant part in the sought to refine, retain; and transmit cer- training of dance teachers. Yet the role tain skills and patterns most frequently in the form of dance rituals or performances.

The development of this framework was made possible in part by a grant from the Spencer Foun- dation to the School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

About the Author

modeling method is becoming less prevalent and less effective today due to the rapid spread of dance styles, dance studios, dance classes, video-dance, and dance perfor- mance opportunities. Consequently, the de- mand for trained dance teachers is growing. Millions of Americans are attending dance classes-ballet, jazz, modern, aerobics, ballroom, Middle Eastern, tap, and most

judith A, G~~~ is with the D~~~~~~~~~ of recently, break dancing. Dance teacher Theatre and Dance at California Polytechnic State training is available in most states and University, San Luis Obispo. several offer dance teacher certification.

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The dancing masters of today, whether they are in the schools, colleges, private studios, company studios, or community facilities, are essentially determining the evolution of dance in our culture and in our lives. The teaching role therefore is critical to the growth, sustenance, and preservation of dance in society. It warrants close ex- amination and, as will be argued, is suffi- ciently rich in concepts to comprise a salient and scholarly field of study. In order to ex- amine dance teaching it is first necessary to structure and envelop the conceptual con- tent. This can best be achieved by design- ing a representative conceptual framework for the study of dance teaching. If carefully and adequately designed, this framework can be very useful to researchers. An ideal framework, according to Harnischfeger and Wiley (1976), "will serve as the substan- tive theoretical and methodological data- analytic basis [which] will necessarily reflect the complexity of the teaching-learning situation and therefore involve multi-fold and complex dimensions relevant to the cur- riculum, to teacher behavior, and to student behavior and performance" (p. 13).

A number of holistic teaching frameworks exist, notably Carroll (1963), Dunkin and Biddle (1974), Walberg (1980), and Glaser (1976). Unlike these and similar models of educational performance, the framework that will be presented here takes into account the human and physical teaching environ- ment, the political/administrative climate, and the outcomes for the institution, the teacher, and society. It represents the first conceptual framework designed explicitly for the empirical study of dance teaching.

Identification of the Framework

Teaching research in dance has been restricted to isolated studies of teacher behavior (Lord, 1981-82; Lunt, 1974) and limited investigations of student attitudes and achievement (Halstead, 1980; Jeffries, 1979; Oshuns, 1977; Oswalt, 1976). All the

studies have been undertaken in the absence of a comprehensive teaching research framework and an established instructional theory of dance. The variables that these studies investigated, however, can be iden- tified and located with the prescribed framework. They can be viewed as part of a larger, disciplinary context. The conclu- sions thus are more meaningful and more likely to lead to further research. The framework, then, provides needed direction and motivation for the study of dance teaching. Research has additionally been hindered by the absence of criteria and tools for measuring outcomes, particularly student performance. Finally, the teaching process itself has failed to attract or encourage ade- quate observational techniques.

The purpose of this paper is to address these issues by means of the exposition and elaboration of a conceptual framework designed expressly for the understanding and improvement of dance teaching. This framework, as will be shown, provides the infrastructure for a sound, comprehensive and coherent instructional theory for dance teaching.

Definition of Terms

Before proceeding, it seems necessary to clarify the key terms of this presentation. For the purpose of this framework, dance teaching will be defined as the dynamic, in- teractive process of transmitting the skills and knowledges of dance. Further, it is the total or aggregate influence, appropriate or inappropriate, that a dance teacher imposes on students in an instructional (rather than a choreographic or rehearsal) activity situation.

Theframework in this context is a broad- based multidimensional infrastructure, con- taining all possible elements and concepts related to the phenomena of dance teaching and illustrating the approximate relationships between them. Within the framework, the elements and concepts are sorted into:

STUDY OF DANCE TEACHING 155

presage variables-those events which oc- curred in the past or evolved over time; pro- cess variables-those actions and phe- nomena which impinge directly and con- temporaneously on the teaching situation; and product variables-the resulting outcomes.

A theory of dance teaching logically evolves from the framework as follows:

The development of this framework as a first step is important in that it gives both substance and direction to the process of formulating and testing hypotheses. When hypotheses are ac- cepted the data from such research provide the basis for the formulation of a theory. When principles of human behavior can be derived from theory, then theory gives direction to ac- tion. (Amidon & Hough, 1967, p. 2)

In order to test a hypothesis, one must construct a model. A model consists of selected closely related variables that have been systematically organized to show causal or predictive relationships. A model is neither true nor false-it is a proposition.

Criteria for the Framework

Six criteria were selected as being critical for the framework to generate theoretical substantiation of a scientific nature. They are comprehensiveness, representativeness, integration, focus, extrapolation, and interpretation.

Comprehensiveness

The content included in the framework should be as broad and as germane as possi- ble. The continuum of concepts should cover prior events and experiences, present pro- cesses, and future or predictive products. In this regard the sheer comprehensiveness will ensure an evolving framework and an in- herent flexibility. A theory of dance teaching would result from the acceptance or rejec- tion of specific elements, that is, events, ex-

periences, processes, and products, within the aggregation of the framework.

Representativeness

In order to be meaningful, the elements of the framework must truly represent the phenomenon. Common to all teaching disciplines are elements such as student in- telligence, teacher's gender, and dimensions of teaching environment; other elements such as prior dance training and kinesthetic awareness will be specific to dance teaching. A theory of dance would evolve from valid- ating representative variables and testing the relationship between them.

Integration

A framework must be integrated on several levels. First, the elements should be arranged sequentially so that a logical reasoning is apparent. Second, there should be a sense of temporal flow. Events should follow or precede each other based upon the time they occur. For example, teacher train- ing typically follows dance training, both of which in dance precedelpreempt the process of actually teaching a class of students. Third, the concepts and their operational definitions should be integrated so that theoretical constructs can emerge. An in- tegrated framework lends itself to strong theoretical inferences and subsequent credibility.

Focus

In this framework the teacher's role and presence in the setting are focal to the analysis of the dance teaching-learning pro- cess. It should be clear in any psychological framework where the focus is planted and in which direction(s) the paths of relation- ship radiate. In any theory of dance teaching, the teacher's activities and ex- periences are central to the larger understan- ding of the pedagogical process. The effects

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of all other aspects of the framework are mediated through the teacher. A theory of dance teaching will necessarily reflect this centrality.

Extrapolation

In order to be useful for empirical in- vestigation, the elements in the framework must be so defined and so arranged that they can readily be extrapolated to form predic- tive and casual models. The framework, in other words, is a loosely structured set of propositions for which data must be sought.

Interpretation

Once data has been gathered and analy- zed it must be converted into meaningful results. The results must be interpreted in terms of practical or theoretical significance. Interpretation thus comprises a criterion that serves as the theoretical linkage between the framework and either further research or practical applicability

Uses of the Framework

As an orderly representation of the in- fluences and implications of dance teaching, this framework provides a foothold and also becomes a springboard for dance resear- chers and practitioners. Prospective uses are as follows:

1. To provide a multidimensional basis for a theoretical perspective of the dance teaching-learning process;

2. To encourage empirical research projects in'the neonatal field of dance teaching investigation;

3. To create a tangible foundation for dance teacher training practices and programs based on tested hypotheses;

4. To develop dance teacher effectiveness criteria and more effective teaching strat- egies.

5. To encourage innovative and experimen- tal teaching projects once a tested theory of dance teaching emerges.

6. To refine dance teaching observation skills and instruments and to employ computer technology where possible.

7. To bring an awareness of the current state of dance teaching researach to the practitioners in the dance education field.

Classroom and studio teachers need not be excluded from using this framework. They may apply the results of dance teaching research to their own situations or they may utilize the structural flow of the framework as they plan and implement dance curricula and instructional formats.

Description of the Framework

The framework presented here is essen- tially a presage-process-product one similar to those designed by Mitzel(1960), Dunkin and Biddle (1974), and Harnischfeger and Wiley (1976). Central to the framework is the teaching process itself which occurs in the studio setting and which in turn is broken down into verbal behaviors, nonverbal behaviors, mobility/location behaviors, and orientation. The teacher's behaviors are recognized as highly influential and critical to teacher, student, school, and society out- comes. This is not to say that student background and behaviors are not equally considered. Rather, the framework focus is directed at the teaching process.

Figure 1 illustrates the presage-process product sequence. The backgrounds of the teacher and students comprise the presage component; the events, properties, climate, and curriculum together comprise the pro- cess component, and the outcomes for teacher, students, school, and society com- prise the product.

The presage component is divided further into determinants, experiences, and proper- ties as illustrated in Figure 2. Determinants are those variables or elements which are

STUDY OF DANCE TEACHING

Figure 1. A conceptual framework for the study of dance teaching.

7

Age Sex Race Socio-econ Status I

I Teacher Background

I I Race Socio-econ Status Degree Requirements

I Student Background

Early Dance Contact I I + Dance Training

(D Perfomance Experience 0 Teaching Training 0 .- .. Teaching Experience 0 n Role Models w College Education

Related Arts

nowl ledge Technique Skills Attitudes Self-concept Motivation Intelligence Creativity Peer Influence Personality

Dance Training Music Training Gymnastic Training Creative Movement Exposure to Dance Forms Parent Support

1

Knowledge Technique Level Attitudes Self-concept Motivation Personality Traits Intelligence Creativity Perseverance Peer Influence

Figure 2. Conceptual categorization of variables for the study of dance teaching.

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irrevocably determined prior to any kind of teacher preparation or dance training.

Teachers, l i e other persons, will have been treated differently if they were born a man or woman, if they are black or white, if they liv- ed in a lower-class or upper-class home, if they came from a large city or a small town, if they lived in an ethnic ghetto, if they were an only chid or the last child in a big family. (Dunkin & Biddle, 1974, p. 39)

The experiences of teachers and students are those which are related to dance- contact, training, performance, and educa- tion. Thus they include training in dance, music, and related arts, early exposure to dance such as through concerts, lessons, television, and both teaching and perfor- mance experiences.

Neither determinants nor experiences ful- ly account for the teacher's behaviors once he or she is involved in the act of teaching. The third component, properties, consists of measurable personality characteristics and traits such as self-concept, creativity, and motivation. In addition, the teacher of dance

Environment

Area Class Size Class Composition Time Factors Obstructions Resources Opportunity to Learn Level

Curriculum 5+ Warm-up

Aesthetics 5 Creativity .- + Elements

Apprec~ation 0 Self-Awareness

Socialization L Culturaiization Level of Difficulty

brings to class a knowledge of dance and a level of dance technique skill, which are also considered properties. The students, too, display a similar variety of presage proper- ties and these are also listed in Figure 2. Dunkin and Biddle (1974) note that teacher properties are studied more than observable teacher determinants such as age or gender, and they speculate the instmments for assessing such properties have a mystique of their own (p. 41) despite evidence of the major influence of demographic variables on job performance in other contexts.

Within the physical, social, and pedagogical arena of the dance teaching en- vironment are a number of process concepts and elements. Figure 3 illustrates the four major influences that form this component. The "environment" itself compromises such physical elements as size, resources, and accompaniment. When assesing the dance teaching environment, the researcher must consider class size and composition, amount of time allotted, and opportunities for students to learn. The "curriculum" plays a critical role in the teaching process and can be evaluated either in terms of ob-

Political-Administrative Climate I

Student Behaviors

Teacher Salary Disruptions Discipline Policies Sexual Harrassment Policies Status of Course

Teacher Behaviors

Figure 3. Conceptual categorization of

I J 4

Verbal Nonverbal Location Orientation

rariabtes for the study of dance teaching.

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I Teacher Outcomes 1 I Student Outcomes I

Technique Mastery Creativity Attrition-Adherence Attitude Job Placement Performing Opportunities Transfer of Skills Retention of Skills Participation Continuation of Learning Satisfaction Social Adjustment Skill Performance

Job satisfaction Evaluation Growth Accessibility Commitment Pacing Self-Fulfillment Merit Selection-Retention Recognition Marketability

Societal Outcomes - I school Outcomes 1 .(

School Status Teacher Turnover Budget

Citizenship Arts Appreciation Audience Development Socialization Physical Well-Being

Figure 4. Conceptual categorization of I rariables for the study of dance teaching.

jectives or lesson structure. An environment also comes with a "climate" that is per- vaded by political/administrative policies and concerns, for example discipline policies, acceptable noise level, and fre- quency of noninstructional interruptions. Finally, the "teacher and student behaviors"

nition, and marketability. "Student out- comes" are based on achievement, attitudes, and skill transference, and include such items as skill mastery, participation, creativity, and satisfaction. Repercussions (positive and negative) for the school, as well as for the community and larger soci- ety, are important outcomes to include. Some elements worth considering within

together comprise the essence of the process component. Typically the student behaviors are more constrained and less exhibitory these categories are attrition, image, loy- than those of the dance teacher. Never- theless, in this framework all behaviors are

alty, support, and funding. A major strength of this framework is its

subgrouped (chiefly for recording and amenability to prior research findings. In analysis reasons) into verbal, nonverbal, location, and orientation (Gray, 1983b).

Findings from two studies (Gray, 1983a; Lord, 1981-82) have shed light on the in-

other words, as well as giving directions and ideas for future research in dance teaching, the framework can accept and plot previous investigations and their results. This mapp-

fluence of some of these process variables. ing supports a systemized theory of dance Lord found that dance teachers verbalized 54% of the time, while Gray, after compar- ing location measures of dance teachers,

teaching. The research studies of Halstead (1980),

Oshuns (1977), Jeffries (1979), and Minton found that ballet teachers are more mobile (1981) illustrate this mechanism. For exam- than modem dance teachers and that older teachers circulate through the teaching space more consistently than younger teachers.

ple, Halstead compared student and teacher attitudes (presage properties) after her sub- jects experienced a course of creative dance

The product component (see Figure 4) (process curriculum); she found a positive consists of four outcome groupings. "Teacher outcomes" include such concepts as job satisfaction, self-fulfillment, recog-

change (product outcome). Oshuns found that a creative dance experience increased the self-concept (presage property) of her

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7th-grade subjects, while Jeffries determined of cells traversed when the floor is mat- that dance skill performance (product out- rixed into even-sized cells. It will be come) was enhanced by using preinstruc- hypothesized that the teacher's location tional strategies (process environment). behaviors are influenced by background fac- Minton established that postural alignment tors such as age or gender (determinants), (product outcome) was improved with the years of dance teaching (experience), and use of certain verbal cues (process teacher self-concept or motivation (properties). behavior). Therefore, it is a logical, natural As a final step, before collecting and step from the framework's arrangement of analyzing actual data, a model showing the variables to the extrapolation of specific variables and their tentative relationships variables for investigation. should be constructed. Causal models are

currently the largest single most-used metho-

~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ of the F~~~~~~~. dology for educational research. They are characterized by data analysis techniques

How the initial formulation of a such as path analysis, correlational tests for hypothesis can be derived from the concep- spurious relationships, estimation pro- tual framework will now be shown. Begin- cedures for complex models with reciprocal ning with an inset of the framework (see linkages, and treatment of unmeasured Figure 5), it is possible to reduce the variables (Blalock, 1964; Simon, 1957). presage-process-product paradigm to those Asher (1983) argues that a causal model, one elements that directly concern the outcome that not only specifies the relationship bet- variable-in this case dance teacher ac- ween dependent and independent variables cessibility or teacher proximity to students. but also includes the relationships between A high level of accessibility represents an prior variables, has greater promise of in- effective teaching strategy in a dance class. creasing our understanding of the educa- Accessibility will be operationally defined tional phenomenon (p. 9). in terms of location patterns and In other words, rather than simply preferences, for example the total number hypothesizing that older and more ex-

Teacher Background Teacher Outcomes

Teacher Behaviors

u Figure 5. Inset from framework.

STUDY OF DANCE TEACHING

Figure 6. A causal model for the

perienced teachers will prove more accessi- ble to their students, a more causally rele- vant question could be framed: How is it that increased age and experience might translate into better accessibility? That is, what are the ways in which age and experience ac- tually produce greater accessibility?

Figure 6 shows a diagram of a causal model indicating how teacher background factors might affect accessibility to students. This is a tenuous model at best since its specifications are based on sparse theory. Nevertheless, Asher (1983) maintains that "causal thinking and the construction of ar- row diagrams may still make a significant contribution to theory building and hypothesis generation" (p. 81). For the study of dance teaching and in order to have confidence in the data analysis results, there are three obstacles to overcome in model building: (a) the path model must be well specified, (b) the key concepts must be clear- ly and satisfactorily operationalized, and (c) the underlying theories must be developed and ultimately established. Asher (1983) summarizes by stating that "the results of one's causal analysis are only as valid as the initial decisions made in building the model and operationalizing the variables" @. 81).

study of dance teacher accessibility.

However, causal modeling appears a most appropriate methodology for the study of dance teaching using the presage-process- product paradigm approach.

Multiple Indicators

A discussion of conceptual frameworks and causal models of this magnitude and complexity would not be complete or fairly treated without mention of multiple in- dicators. The unknowns in dance teaching research far outweigh the number of em- pirical findings and estimation becomes fruitless. This implies the need to collect data in such a way that most of the variables are measured by more than one indicator. The multiple indicator approach directs the researcher to find other indicators that are not necessarily equivalent. For instance, the variable "accessibility" can be measured by videotaping the whole class, by carefully designed questionnaires issued to students, by interviews with teacher, students, or observer, and by systematic observation of teacher mobility. The result would be a multiple indicator measurement error model. Implications for comparability across settings become critical and obvious.

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Blalock (1982) provides a detailed discus- sion of this approach and is recommended for further reading.

Conclusion

The understanding and improvement of dance teaching can only be achieved through auspices and guidance of an overall con- ceptual framework circumscribing the phe- nomenon. So long as the dance teaching role is tantamount to the development and pre- servation of dance in society, research to improve the process and the product must be rigorously undertaken. It is hoped that the framework presented here will provide the structure and incentive for relevant research in the dance education field.

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