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CHAPTER II

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, Conceptual framework and a review of important studies carried

out under rural water supply are presented. For analytical convenience the available

literature is grouped into two sections such as economic aspects and environmental

aspects of rural water supply as follows.

2.1 Concepts

Stand post

The source taps referred to the supply of water to households through the pipe

after suitable treatment, if required, by corporation, municipality, Panchayats or other

local authorities or any private or public housing estate or water treatment agency

(NSSO, 54th

round 1998).

Household

A household is a taken to mean group of persons related by blood marriages or

adoption living under the same roof and sharing common kitchen continuously for not

less than one year at the time of interview (NSSO 54th

round 1998).

Drinking water or potable water

Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that it can be

consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed

countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking

water standards, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used

in food preparation.

Habitation

A „Habitation‟ is a locality within a village where a cluster of families resides.

The total population should be 100 or more for consideration for coverage under the rural

water supply norms laid down by the Department. It is generally assumed that around

20 families reside in a habitation. Average number of persons in a family is taken as 5.

In case of hilly areas, a may have a population, which is less than 100.

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Village

A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with

the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand, though often located in

rural areas.

Safe source

A source is said to be safe if it is free from physical, chemical bacteriological and

biological contamination and conforms to the drinking water quality standards

prescribed. The recommended standards acceptable and cause for rejection for drinking

water in India by WHO and BIS.

Coverage status

Not Covered

In the census village means there is not even a single safe for drinking water in

the village as per existing norms and guidelines of the Mission. The drinking water

source/point does not exist within 1.6 km of the habitation in the plains or 100 meter

elevation in hilly areas. (The source/point may either be public or private in nature);

Habitations having a source affected with quality problems such as excess salinity, iron,

fluoride, arsenic or other toxic elements or biologically contaminated; Habitations where

the quantum of availability of safe water from any source is not enough to meet drinking

and cooking needs (i.e. below 10 lpcd)

Partially Covered

Supply of drinking water is less than 40 litres per capita per day as per the

existing norms and guidelines of the Mission. Habitations which have a safe drinking

water source/point (either public/private) within 1.6 km in plains and 100 meters in hilly

areas but the capacity of the system range between 10 lpcd to 40 lpcd, should be

categorized as Partially Covered (PC).

Fully Covered

The entire population in all the habitations including the main habitation is

provided with drinking water as per the existing norms and guidelines of the Mission.


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Level of Water Supply

The level of water supply means the actual quantity of the drinking water in litre

per capita per day (LPCD) provided to the population.

Principal and Supplementary source

If a household obtained drinking water from the same source throughout the last

365 days, then that source was treated as the principal source and there was no concept of

supplementary source. If a household, during the last 365 days, obtained drinking water

from more than one source, then the one most commonly used was treated as the

principal source and the next one (in terms of frequency of use) was treated as the

supplementary source. Thus, if a household used source A for 5 months of the year,

source B for 4 months, and source C for 3 months, then A and B was treated as the

principal and the supplementary source, respectively (NSSO 54th

round 1998).

Different sources

The different sources – principal as well as supplementary of drinking water were:

(i) tap, (ii) tube-well, (iii) well, (iv) tank, pond (reserved for drinking), (v) other tank,

pond, (vi) river, canal, lake, (vii) spring, (viii) tanker and (ix) other sources. The source

taps referred to the supply of water to households through the pipe after suitable

treatment, if required, by corporation, municipality, Panchayats or other local authorities,

or any private or public housing estate or water treatment agency. Water pumped up and

supplied without any treatment, or transported by pipe, untreated, from the river or well,

was not regarded as tap water. Such water was regarded as coming from the river or well, etc.

The source tanker included all vehicles used by local authorities, charitable bodies, etc.,

for supplying water to an area. The remaining sources are self-explanatory (NSSO

54th

round 1998).

Scheduled Caste / Scheduled Tribe (SC/ST)

SC/ST also known as the Dalit and the scheduled tribes (STS) are two groupings

of historically disadvantaged people that are given express recognition in the constitution

of India.


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Other Backward Caste (OBC)

OBC list presented by the commission is dynamic ad will change from time to

time depending on social, educational and economic factors.

Backward Caste (BC)

BC people is a collective term, used by the Government of India for castes which

are economically and socially disadvantaged.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

Water is the essential resource for life. It is also a scarce resource both in quantity

and quality, and when available it is often of poor quality depending on location. Lack of

potable water and basic sanitation services remains one of the world‟s most urgent health

issues. It is estimated that 1.1 billion people in developing countries do not have access to

safe drinking water and 2.6 billion people lack access to basic sanitation (UNDP, 2006;

SIDA, 2004; UNICEF and WHO, 2005). In a broader sense, water resource management

as a concept may outline a framework for numerous water related decisions. Given the

fact that socio-economic development processes relate to the water resource, owing to

interact with water and human activities. It is imperative to conceptualize the problem in

hand with respect to economic, environmental and institutional aspects.

2.2.1 Economic Aspects

Recognizing the importance of water, the United Nations Water Conference says

that a convenient supply of water is an essential ingredient of a healthy, productive life.

Water, that is not safe for human consumption, can spread disease, and reduce the

production time and energy of the water carrier. Coupled with malnutrition, the waterborne

disease; take a dreadful toll in developing countries. For example in one Middle Eastern

Country half of the children born alive die before reaching the age of five as a result of the

combined effects of disease and malnutrition. In contrast, only two percentages of the

children born in the UK die before reaching their fifth birthday. The conference asserts that it

is invariably the poor who suffer the most from the absence of safe water.

Nature and the concept of water are changing rapidly over the years, from been

treated as a public good with an economic good. United Nations (1997), the Global Water


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Conference concluded Earth Summit in Rio-de-Janerio (Agenda 21, chapter 18) endorsed

the idea of treating water as an economic good concept of water necessitates fundamental

alterations in the planning, designing, pricing and other policy framework, which

requires, pricing policies to extract the scarcity rent from users, and the involvement of

the community in the decision making process at all levels.

The Dublin statement (1992) puts the concept of water as an economic good on

the global agenda. It states that “water has an economic value in all its competing uses

and should be recognized as an economic good”. Rogers, Bhatia and Huber (1998) bring out

some modifications on Agenda 21 and the Dublin principles. This paper addresses the

concept of water as an economic good and explains in practical terms economic tools that can

be used to affect the environmentally, socially and economically efficient use of water.

Roath (1987) has developed a merit-good concept of water. The book states, „safe

drinking water is sometimes taken as a merit good in the sense that people who receive

supplies of safe water benefit from it to a greater extent than they themselves believe‟.

Santhakumar (1998) has identified two sources of inefficiency in the provision of merit-

good water. First is due to the fact that the State autonomously decides the nature and

characteristics of the merit good. If the people does not prefer the nature of the good, or

its consumption requires effort, these may lead to the non-consumption of the good.

The second source of inefficiency is in the selection of institutional framework.

The acquisition and free distribution of water from the state agency is inappropriate in

efficiency solving the drinking water problem if different localities.

2.2.2 Environmental Aspects

Economic analysis of the use of environmental resource base and their analysis

must be based on a sound understanding of the environmental functions and life

supporting services provided by the ecosystem. In the words of Maler (1997: p, 252)

“Ecosystem provides water, animal and plant food and other renewable

resources. They also recycle nutrients, control floods, filter pollutants,

assimilate waste, pollinate crops, and maintain a generic library, preserve

and generate soil, operate the hydrological cycle and maintain the gas

consumption of the atmosphere”.


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According to him the process of interaction between environmental resource base

and physical and chemical environment is highly dynamic and complex. These interactive

forms are mostly „non-linear‟. He cautions economists to take note of the complexities

involved and the non-linear relationship between economic and ecosystems while

constructing models of „natural world‟.

It is relevant to note

“The environmental resource base is dynamic and complex consisting of

biological communities that interact with the physical and chemical environment in time

and space. Thus the resource base can display threshold effects – meaning that the flow

of services can be interrupted”.

Demand for environmental resources can be twofold: as an amenity and as an

input – the former has a direct bearing on the well-being of consumers while the latter

goes to production.

Conceptually, population growth has a bearing on environmental degradation.

The resource management system at the household level largely depends upon family

size. Dasgupta and Maler showed empirical evidence to the fact that children were not

merely for the old-age support but also to promote the workforce. Bakane-Thoane (1997)

also supported the view through her study in rural Lesotho, that the economic value of

children in rural households proved to be a major determinant of fertility. The implication

is that there is a positive correlation between fertility and the need for workers

particularly in rural areas. Nerlov‟s (1991) argues,

“For example, as forest recede up the mountains sides, parents may

perceive a greater need of having an additional child to gather firewood,

more realistically; similarly in a poor agricultural setting lower

environmental quality may be associated with a greater livestock

component in total production. Arguably, children have a comparative

advantage over adults in tending livestock in contrast to the heavier labour

of planting, tilling and harvesting crops. This environmental deterioration

may well enhance the marginal productivity of children at least relative

family productivity”.


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This apparent „nexus‟ between environmental degradation and population growth

may form the basis for further research investigation. For instance, whether family size

in rural areas has a bearing in water scarce areas and distance to travel, to fetch potable

water and so on.

In order to check the excess use of water, the state fixes price, perhaps per cubic

metre of water consumed. Consequent to fixing of price, there may be a reduction in

water consumption. But the point is the price that the consumers‟ pay might not reflect

the „true social cost‟ related to water consumption. This means that the price fixed by the

state is well below the price that should motivate households to consume the „socially

optimal amount of water‟.

2.2.3 Institutional Aspects

Institutions are defined as rules, norms and conventions in an economy which

facilitate or hinder human activity (North 1990). Davis and North (1970) make a

distinction between institutional environment and institutional arrangement. The former

is the social, political and legal ground rules that govern economic activity. While the

latter is an arrangement between economic units, which govern the interaction between

the units. Bromley (1989) defines institutional arrangements as the rules and laws that define

the operation of organizations. But, there has been enduring debate in the institutional

economics literature regarding the difference between institutions and organizations.

According to North (1990), organizations are groups of individuals bound by some common

purpose in order to achieve certain objectives. He has considered organizations as the players

of an institution. The implementation of the rules and norms can be accomplished only

through organizations (Bromley 1989). In other words, Bromley argues that the existence and

operation of organizations depend upon a set of institutions.

The institutional arrangement to provide water is a matter of concern in this realm.

Whether water is provided free of cost to all households, can water be treated a free good any

longer, are some of the questions which merit attention. Given the fact that access to safe

water is a basic human right, concerted efforts have been made at the Central, State and Local

body levels right from the First Five Year Plan period. But the problems relating to recovery

of Operational and Maintenance (O & M) cost are yet to be resolved, needless to say about


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the recovery of capital cost. Many a change can be brought in the existing institutional

mechanism to overcome the problem. One possible way is through correcting and getting the

prices right. A tariff, which ensures sustainable water supply, needs to be evolved.

Water pricing theories guide resource allocation, particularly a scarce resource

such as drinking water (Jacob, 1997). There are a number of theories, which explain the

pricing of urban/rural water supplies. Marginal cost pricing, average cost pricing, long-

run marginal cost pricing, block rate and fixed rate and so on. All the theories basically

try to equate price with marginal cost or average cost in order to ensure efficiency.

Water pricing policies are of three major kinds, namely,

1. Flat rate.

2. Constant rate.

3. Block rate.

Flat rate pricing: A specific, fixed rate is levied on the consumer irrespective of the

amount of water used. For each tap connection the user has to pay a fixed rate and use an

amount of water he needs. This system can be followed only in regions where there is

excess water source. The consumer will not have any tendency to economize water since

there is no increase in the charge to increase in consumption of water.

Constant rate pricing: A constant, fixed charge for each unit is levied on the consumer.

A meter is needed to monitor the number of units drawn from the consumer and

according to the meter reading charges are calculated. In this rate water is charged at a

uniform rate, there is no increase in rate on consumption above a reasonable limit.

Block rate pricing: In this system unit price varies according to the quantity of

consumption. Tariffs are fixed up to certain levels and charges are calculated taking this

into consideration. Block rate pricing is of two types:

(i) Declining Block rate.

(ii) Increasing Block rate.

In declining block rate, the unit price falls gradually as the water consumption

increases. A minimum charge is fixed up to a certain limit and after that for each discrete


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quantity of water different rates are fixed which is declining in their value. In increasing

block rate, the unit price increases gradually as the water consumption increases. After

the minimum charge, block rate for each discrete quantity of water increases. So a person

consuming more water has to pay a higher rate.

Conventionally water resource management had followed supply based approach

with scant attention to water demand. Then at a later stage realization came in the form of

better manner through balancing both demand and supply aspects. Given the fact that

there is cost escalation of creating new sources, the limited financial resources need to be

utilized to achieve economic efficiency. The provisions of Agenda 21 of the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development give impetus to water resource

management. The recommendations of UNCED emphasize the need for pricing

mechanism, levying of water tariffs and certain economic instruments towards achieving

demand management.

Water pricing can be an effective tool in achieving sustainable development in

urban and rural water provision. Besides,

“Efficient pricing systems would increase the revenue to meet operation

and maintenance costs, recover capital investments and generate funds for

the improvement and expansion of water supply services. It would also

contribute to the protection of the environment by reducing the quantity of

wastewater”

Water pricing assumes a crucial role in the sustainable development of rural water

supply due to two reasons. Efficient pricing shall enhance the revenue to meet operation

and maintenance costs on the one hand and help achieving reduction in wastage of

potable water. Even the provisions of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development emphasized this view that there is a need for appropriate

pricing policies, as a strategy to achieve effective demand management, in promoting the

efficiency of water use and discouraging waste.

In the context rural water supply, users-pay principle can best be construed as an

economic tool. This principle envisages the responsibility to be borne by the users by paying


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charges for the use of water resources. Every user of the resource is to be charged with the

full-cost of the usage. Which includes not only the cost of the provision but also the cost

inflicted upon the system by damages caused due to usage and the opportunity cost.

Rationale of pricing of water considers the provision of drinking water as an

economic activity, which entails cost at various stages. The processes included lifting the

water from the source, treatment of water where possible and finally, transmitting to the

distributing tank. All the three stages involve costs of various inputs. Pricing of water

becomes imminent if the costs are to be recovered from users. In this context, the

available theories and approaches merit discussion.

As against the accounting approach, which does not guide resource allocation,

pricing based on marginal cost is theoretically agreeable for efficiency in resource

allocation. Generally prices are based upon how a consumer values a product against its

costs. Both consumer‟s valuation costs would vary, and resources get diverted to most

valued users. The policy prescription equates price with marginal cost to achieve ideal

output and consumption as well. The basis of pricing rests on consumer‟s valuation of a

commodity in relation to costs. Price has a direct relationship with changing values and

costs. The change in value and costs act as checks and balance the production and

consumption pattern. Price sends two signals, one in discouraging consumers from an

excess consumption and secondly, restricting the production to a required level.

The foregoing description, albeit brief, helps to conceptualize the problem in

proper perspective. Allocation of water resources across the competing sectors is crucial.

The socio-economic aspects need to be discussed in the environmental background of

water resource in order to achieve sustainability. Institutional approach to water resource

management calls for pricing the water supply to achieve optimal allocation and check

wastage of resources.

2.2 Review of Literature

The basic content and form of this chapter bear testimony to the intellectual

explorations that have been made in connection with economic and environmental

aspects of rural drinking water supply. Different strands of thought can be broadly

categorized into two groups. One set studies are related to Economic aspects of domestic


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rural water supply. These studies mainly concentrate on the issues such as the nature of

good – water inconsistency between demand and supply of water, sources and distribution of

water supply. The second group environmental aspects of rural water supply related to water

borne disease posed by poor water quality and treatment cost for water borne diseases in rural

areas. Let us discuss briefly each of these two groups in the following pages.

2.3.1 Economic aspects of Rural Water Supply

Justin and Garrick (2011), paper a decision model for selecting sustainable

drinking water supply and grey water reuse systems for developing communities with a

case study in Cimahi, Indonesia, the study analyses the development of Capacity Factor

for drinking water supply and grey water reuse through three ways. First, it developed a

ranking methodology for drinking water supply and grey water reuse technologies using

requirements analysis within the eight capacity factors. Second, a new matching rule was

developed for the capacity factor analysis that facilitates a meaningful matching between

the community and technology assessments, as well as providing some troubleshooting

capabilities. Third, it developed a scenario-based hypothesis testing by case study for a

long-term validation plan for continued refinement of capacity factor analysis.

World Health Statistics reveals certain facts related to the drinking water scenario

of Third World Countries. It states that one quarter of the Third World‟s population does

not have access to adequate safe water supply and one half does not have access to an

adequate excreta-disposal system. There are several reasons for this. Firstly the criteria

used to define an adequate water supply are open to question. Secondly, statistics on

coverage are often based on the assumption that all those with water taps in their

settlements are adequately served. But frequently community water taps are so few that

people have to queue up for a long time. This has the effect of reducing water

consumption below the level required for good health.

Adepoju Adebusola Adenike (2009), the study analyzed the willingness to pay

for the improved water supply service by households in Osogbo metropolis, Osun State.

For this study multistage random sampling technique was employed to select one

hundred and forty two households from areas with public water services and those

without connection to public water. Method of data analysis involved the use of binary


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equation model (logistic regression) for the households sampled. 38 percent of the

households are willing to pay between 1 and 3 percent of their income for alternative

water supply service. This has implication on the need for private participation in the

provision of water in the study area. The logistic regression estimates, however, revealed

that the percentage of income that a household is willing to pay for improved water supply

and willingness to pay for connection charges to the improved source are statistically

significant. This study has shown that the majority of the respondents are willing to pay for

alternative water supply, particularly if the existing services are not improved on, in terms of

the quality, quantity and the reliability of supply. An increase in income will increase the

proportion of income that households would be willing to pay for improved water supply.

Philippe Culleet (2009) spotlight on the evolving policy framework for drinking

water supply in rural areas at the union level. It examines its evolution from the 1970s

onwards and focuses in particular to the reforms of the past decade, looking more

specifically at the Swajaldhara Guidelines. These reforms are of capital importance

because they seek to completely change the rural drinking water supply policy

framework. Analysis is informed by visits to villages in Rajsamand and Bhilwara districts

of Rajasthan, Badwani districts of Madhya Pradesh and Chitrakoot district of Uttar

Pradesh. The replacement of social equity as a premise for a drinking water supply policy

with economic efficiency neither ensures that the poorest and socially most

disadvantaged individuals in a given village are preferentially targeted.

Pushpangadan and Murugan (2008) proposes an empirical methodology for

understanding the nature and behaviour of Sustainable Development as a vague and

multidimensional concept of a case study of participatory and demand determined Rural

Drinking water Supply systems in India. It combines for the first time, Supervaluationism

and Degree Theory on the measurement of Vagueness, for timely public intervention in

reversing the process of Unsustainability. The analysis clearly brings out the role of

institutional, financial and environmental factors that should be a part of Public Policy for

ensuring sustainability of potable water supply. Falling back of covered habitations or

villages to uncover has been observed in rural water supply for the last two and a half

decades. This has far reaching consequences both for the community as well as to the

government. The second is the loss of resources to the exchequer and social loss.


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Sustainable development literature shows that it is a concept in multidimensional and

vague in nature. Since the source is of the first priority of any sustainable system, it is

taken up first. If the system is sustainable in the source then quality attributes becomes

the second core for measurement of sustainability. Therefore the analysis becomes

sequential supervaluationism in nature. However lack of information limits the estimation

of super sustainable systems. The income of the households does not show any

systematic relationship to sustainability which may be due to the survival nature of the

commodity for life. The study clearly shows the immediate intervention of policy makers

by introducing institutional innovations and appropriate governance structure.

Srila Gopal, et al. (2008) observed in and around Vellore, both in epidemic and

endemic settings have found drinking water to be microbiologically contaminated and

unfit for human consumption. In this study contamination Coliforms present in water

samples collected at various locations and was evocative that contamination in both at the

source that is in overhead tanks and also in the distribution taps and water stored in

homes. Poor planning and maintenance of the water supply system has led to

inappropriate usage and overexploitation of available resources, thereby causing

contamination in the study village. The existing guidelines need to be modified. Proper

measures should be formulated for periodic monitoring and stricter implementation of

these guidelines, and policy makers should be sensitized.

Ravichandran and Boopathi (2007), in his book of Environmental Management

issues and potable water in rural Tamilnadu, the study covered 311 sample respondents

across 5 villages in Tiruchirappalli District of Tamilnadu; the empirical results showed

that Water collection time increases, the Willingness to pay also increases across all the

households. The households belong to backward castes are willing to pay a higher

amount than the schedule caste households. Regarding farm size, larger the agricultural

landholding, the higher will be the willingness to pay. On an average, the amount of

money that they are willing to pay is Rs. 8 per month per house for improved water

supply. Among the total respondents, the percentage of women water collectors

constituted 93.8, inclusive of female school going children. Willingness to pay is positive

with 75 percent of the respondents.


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Prasad (2006) accentuates on the critical evaluation of the functioning of the

(Pollution Control Board) PCBs, (regulatory system) in terms of the prevention of

environmental degradation in India. The market and liability systems are unable to provide

incentives to the polluter to reduce pollution, there is a need for the regulatory system to

prevent, control, and abate environmental pollution in the country. The decentralized system

PCBs, however, are ineffective in ensuring internalization of environmental concerns in

the process of economic development. This paper examines the functioning of PCBs in

particular the Central Pollution Control Board and Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control

Board to see if they have been able to prevent environmental externalities in the process

of economic development. Overall, the study emphasizes the necessity of improving the

functioning of the regulatory system by making necessary changes not only in the

substance of the law, but also in the working condition of the PCBs so as to improve the

environmental quality in the country.

Indranil De (2006) discussed about a survey of households in six villages in

Birbhum district of West Bengal which give evidence that decentralization in the delivery

of water supply leads to better quality of services. The study illustrates the response of

rural households with respect to water supply services, to capture the difference between

water supply services of the state and local government, the study has been conducted in

both areas, where the service is provided by the state line department and also the local

government. Household contribution for maintenance also has been found to have a

positive impact on the quality of water supply services. Overall, the results of the study

suggest that decentralization has a good impact on the quality of water supply.

Daniel Richard Olsen (2005) gives the details about the applicability of decision

support system for rural water supply in Nilgiris district. A considerable amount of

knowledge exists for planning, designing, and implementing rural water supply schemes

in developing countries around the world. Generic decision support systems (DSS) and

techniques are used to tackle the daunting task of providing water in areas that have poor

water resources and limited financial capacity. However, there is a lack of site specific

DSS that utilize local hydrological and socioeconomic data for assessing regionally based

rural water supply schemes. In the Nilgiris district of South India, an organizational

structure exists for improving local water resources through watershed management


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projects, but many of the tools used to make informed decisions are ineffective, leading

to poorly designed systems. The DSS is divided into six modules that represent different

criteria used to evaluate potential water sources: water source yield, capital costs, cost

and ease of operation and maintenance, impact of development, political and legal

constraints, and water quality. The criteria are organized in a decision matrix that

provides a total score and rank for each potential water source. There are many different

sources that can be used to supply water for domestic use, but only five are considered

for NRWS due to their popularity within the Nilgiris District. The development of

simulation models within the water source yield module for the rainwater harvesting and

check dam sources involved gathering local hydrological data. An extensive database of

precipitation data was developed for the Nilgiris District including nineteen rain gauge

stations spread evenly across the district.

Shah (2005) carries out a study on Economic Analysis of a drinking water project

undertaken in the Anantpur district in Andhra Pradesh. The nature of the execution of the

Anantpur drinking water has ensured time saving and benefit maximization. The study

finds that over a long period, the project would have larger benefit and lower cost

compared with state and national-level scenarios. The project demonstrates that a

comprehensive scheme helps to take benefits to the far end and that the benefit is

interrupted. Finally, it has to be weighed against the good quality as well as operation and

maintenance cost of the Andhra Pradesh.

Videh Upadhyay (2005) looks at the emerging policy context of irrigation and

drinking water supply in Jharkhand, the position of water rights in state legislation, the

importance of water user groups, the critical issues of access to water for both the rural

and the urban poor and the legal implications. This paper explores the questions of water

rights and related legal issues as it impacts both the rural and the urban poor in the state

of Jharkhand.

Wilderer (2004) pointed out that serving the world population with adequate

drinking water and sanitation is an important prerequisite, not only to hygienic safety, but

to prosperity and political stability as well, and will foster the adaptive capacity of the


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societies in the developing countries and beyond. Research and experience continually

confirm that a safe water supply is not sufficient and that adequate sanitation facilities

and hygiene practice are essential to improving the health of the local population.

Cyril Kanmony (2003) elucidates how human rights are violated with regards to

water, it is essential for human existence. The study made in Kaniyakumari district in

Tamil Nadu shows that the provision of safe drinking water still remains an unachieved

goal, especially in rural areas, with the most severe adverse effects on the health and

development of the rural poor. All citizens had to be provided with safe drinking water

before 1990. But this goal has not been achieved although we have entered the 21st century;

more than 4.5 lakh villages do not have safe drinking water source. However, India

utilizes only half of the available surface and ground water. Augmentation of availability

and control of water pollution is necessary to meet the drinking water needs of rural

areas.

Rekha Krishnan et al., (2003) aimed at gathering insights into the magnitude of

water-related stress. Rajasthan and Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala were

selected to examine the collision of poor water availability and water quality on the life

of people, particularly women and children. The study found that Bikaner in Rajasthan

and Raichur in Karnataka was faced with severe water shortages for drinking, water for

irrigation seemed to be an immediate requirement in the village of Solan in Himachal

Pradesh. The burden of water collection was found to be on women and children who

end up spending several hours every day on this activity. It is evident from the study that

access to water has significant benefits for human health and well being. The study places

of interest on the complementarities that exist in water, sanitation, energy, agriculture,

hygiene, education and health care. Collective efforts by government and non-

government organizations in collaboration with local communities can help mitigate

water stress, paving the way for improvement in the quality of life of the people.

Anuradha Kumar (2002) executes a study in Maharastra, an unpredictable

rainfall pattern even in normal circumstances has ensured that a large number of villages

continue to face serious problems of drinking water in Vidarbha. It is the region that has

some of the drought-prone districts in Maharastra. Successive governments in Maharastra


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have continued to pour money into schemes ranging from digging new wells to piped

supply, yet the number of habitats threatened by scarcity continues to rise. Despite visible

gains, local communities are unwilling to operate and maintain completed structures on

community property. This lack of cooperation, at least initially, occurred because the

beneficiaries were too often merely passive recipients rather than active participants.

As a whole providing development for the remote, poor, and powerless upper regions

remains a challenging task.

Purnamita Dasgupta and Sharachchandra Lele (2002) expound about the

second biennial conference of the Indian Society for Ecological Economics that centered

on the theme Water Resources, Sustainable Livelihoods and Ecosystem Services was

held at Bhopal which brought together researchers and practitioners and gave them an

opportunity to present their findings and dialogue on topics that ranged from technical to

interdisciplinary. There was a set of descriptive papers giving very useful insights on

physical availability and utilization levels of water resource. All the case studies focused

on the problem of declining availability and increasing demand. Which this the study

focused on the Status of ground water in Rajasthan, Water supply and demand in

Kolkata, Water supply and demand in Gaya, Water supply and demand in Imphal, with

special focus on local ponds as possible sources Relating to the same theme, one paper

looked at background issues highlighting, the need for research on Water management

and agricultural development in Haryana.

The analysis concluded that while increasing the price of water supplied to

industries may not reduce industrial water demand significantly, the difference between

the marginal productivity of water in industry and the price of water is high enough to

build the argument that water supply agencies can at least raise water prices and increase

their revenues. Description of water pollution forms and pathways, problem of sewage

collection and disposal in Gujarat municipalities, valuation of the pollution damage due

to leather industry in Palar river basin using damage function and willingness to pay

method, Pollution abatement may in fact also lead to improvement in technical

efficiencies in industry. This study was an econometric analysis of panel data for ninety

two water polluting firms for three years, willingness to pay for clean drinking water in


29

Bhandara district. The findings indicate that higher income and higher education levels

are correlated with higher willingness to pay for clean drinking water, Health cost of

water pollution and safe water supply for the poor.

Ramachandraiah (2001) argues that drinking water as a fundamental right.

All the right thinking people should welcome the judgement delivered in December 2000 by

the Supreme Court that access to clean drinking water is a fundamental right. The growing

business of drinking water is a disturbing trend has fast emerged in recent years in India.

In a country where millions of poor go to bed with half-empty stomachs and an uncertain

tomorrow, a bottle of this water is costlier than a litre of toned milk. It was observed that

every year, 20-30 percent more Indians agree to pay for safe drinking water which is

good enough a reason to enter into the water business. The recent landmark judgement by

the Supreme Court, placing drinking water as a fundamental right should serve as a stern

warning to the politician-bureaucrat nexus that who have in recent years turned a blind

eye to the growing pollution in Indian rivers. Unless people come forward to protect their

water bodies and demand access to safe drinking water for all.

Robert Innes and Dennis Cory (2001) elucidate the Economics of Safe Drinking

Water in general, taking the simple model of drinking water markets in which a water

company faced with a random contamination of its source, chooses a treatment system,

treatment levels, and whether to notify consumers that they should drink bottled water

rather than risk exposure to contaminants in the tap water. In addition to this, currently

the states regulate more than 186,000 public water systems. These systems are

heterogeneous in terms of the size of the customer populations that they serve and the

contaminant circumstances that they confront, sources of heterogeneity that this paper has

stressed in its modelling.

Peeyush Bajpai and Laveesh Bhandari (2001) deal with Ensuring Access to

Water in Urban Households. The link between economic status and access allows the

analysis of issues such as water sharing, sole access, ability to pay, need for

improvements, etc. The study also puts forth a strategy for levying user charges for

different economic status households and stresses the need for a substantial consumer

awareness campaign before embarking on any improvement programme. This research


30

attempts to relate the need for investment in water supply infrastructure with the

requirements and economic capabilities of the households. In almost all cities and towns

in India many households do not have access to water on tap and most have to share it

with others. It is well known that even those who have water on tap for their sole

consumption within their dwelling, the supply is erratic and the quality poor. The paper

first brings out the number of households involved and their economic characteristics,

and then links the ability to pay with the need for water access improvement at the

consumers end. In addition to this the study undertakes only one end of the water supply

process, infrastructure improvements in obtaining and transporting water also require

serious study. It argues that improvement programmes require serious strategy building

prior to investments. This strategy building would have to take into consideration public

support and our results indicate that building public support would require extensive

public awareness programmes.

Hanumantha Rao (2000) raises a number of important issues, which have a

bearing on the sustainability of watershed management. The paper proves that the overall

impacts of watershed project have been positive and significant. There has been a marked

improvement in the access to drinking water, crop yields and the area under cultivation,

leading to a rise in employment. Despite this noticeable improvement, watershed

development needs strategy shifts to a truly spontaneous and demand driven movement

of the people in dry land areas.

Pushpangadan (2000) the paper provides capacity utilization in rural schemes as

an explanation for the wide variation in the coverage of drinking water supply existing

between the estimates of norm based consumption and actual consumption. It also

develops an engineering methodology for the calculation of actual water supplied from

the pumping hours using a stratified random sample of 199 rural schemes in Kerala.

The paper effectively proves that the capacity utilization is only 49.5 percent in Kerala.

Mathai (2000) provides a descriptive picture of the water resource potential of

Kerala and gives a holistic view of diverse water problems in the state, against the

backdrop of the Indian scenario. The author identifies that Kerala has a number of

inherent constraints in the utilization of water. Though it receives substantial rainfall


31

during the year. The constraints as the author lists out are natural, anthropogenic, the

policies of the state, and a combination of all these. The research offers concrete

suggestions such as community participation, and management of local water resources

changing the role of the government from provider to facilitator and effective strategy

that will minimize the run-off.

Charles Pendley (1997) study provides a demand based approach to rural water

supply and sanitation. The paper mainly concentrates on the economics of water supply

and it is focussed on two approaches, traditional and current approach. The need for a

demand based approach instead of hitherto followed supply driven approach and

advocates community based management of the resource. The current program

approaches increasingly emphasis demand- responsiveness, it has also taken place to

build in a systematic learning component into projects to continually improve large scale

investment in the sector. There must be a balance between the economic value of water to

users, the cost of providing services to users, and the prices charged for these services.

Typically in RWSS projects these demands are not in balance. The government usually

determines the cost of providing services through the technical options at offers, and it

also sets the prices charged to users. But this price does not necessarily correspond to the

value that users attach to the services or to the cost of providing services.

Anand (1997) examines The Demand Analysis of Drinking Water in Rural India.

Using a conditional logit model the research looks at the demand side and identifies the

determinants of choice. The governments in poor countries need to have a fresh look at

their policy relating to rural water supply, every year 1.5 million children under the age

of five in India die of water related diseases. The country loses 200 million people dies

each year due to these diseases (NDWM 1993). Supply of safe water has therefore been

given high priority in Indian planning. India‟s achievements in the field of rural water

supply have earned high praise on account of the dimension of appropriate technological

solutions and strong political commitment. The study reveals that perception of health

benefits of the people is significant and they are prepared to spend a significantly higher

amount of time in collection of safe water as compared to unsafe water. The general

assumption that people are either unwilling or unable to pay for water is incorrect.

In almost all poor countries there is an element of subsidy in urban water supply that goes


32

mainly although unintentionally to the rich. This circumstance could also happen in rural

water supply when the program expands unless sufficient attention is paid to demand

analysis.

Yogesh Bhatt and Shobha Ganapathy (1996) presented a broad impression

about the community participation in rural water supply. The paper focussed on Uttan

Mahiti, a Non- Governmental Organization (NGO) working in the area of supply of

drinking water in the Bhal region of Ahmedabad district. Community participation has

been seen in two ways, an ideology of development and as a tool for planning and

management. Community participation helps to increase the acceptability and utilization

of services by community members and also enables professionals to be more productive

since community advice helps them touch the right problem in the community.

Community participation as a step help people gain control over their own lives because

power gravitates to those who solve problems. No source of underground sweet water is

available because the underground water is extremely salinity, seventy percent of the

villagers used to migrate in the best part of the year in search of drinking water thereby

breaking down the family structure and threatening the very heart of the community.

The paper discussed the aspect of community participation in rural water supply projects

with Uttan Mahiti as a special case. Community participation is the aim for different

groups associated with the project namely, NGO‟s grassroots level organizations,

community organizations and community, there is also a need to reconcile the different

objectives of community participation between these groups. This paper provides

pointers for both NGO‟s and the government to reap maximum benefits of community

participation in development projects.

Balachandra (1996) conducted a study in Kerala which has the highest density of

wells in the world. The study found that 70 percent of the urban and 40 percent of the

rural population has access to safe water supply in the state and the remaining persons

depending upon open dug wells, springs and ponds. The state faces acute water scarcity

to the tune of 5830 million cubic meters every year. The current situation in the water,

sanitation and health sectors require a much more practicable working strategy for

improving the quality of life of the people. The role of health planners and public health

engineers does not end with the mere provision of safe water and latrine construction, but


33

it has to be seen that consumers accept it for their own benefit. However, there should be

a provision to monitor regularly the water quality standards, a systematic and regular

water quality surveillance will ensure not only a sufficient quantity of drinking water, but

will also determine its quality and the needs. There is a need for effective monitoring and

evaluation of the effect of the health education on water supply.

Singh (1996) has made an attempt to suggest the organizational set-up and the

role of Panchayat Raj institutions (PRIs) in taking up the responsibilities of rural water

supply and sanitation programme (RWSSP) to make it sustainable through proper

planning and effective implementation in rural areas. The study finds that decentralized

governance provides an alternative system where a people centered approach will resolve

local problems and ensure sustainable development. The broadcasting of information

helps in removing misconceptions and in promoting right perceptions, and accelerates

the process of people‟s empowerment.

Panda (1996) brought out the effects of safe drinking water and sanitation on

diarrheal diseases among children in rural Orissa. Logistic regression analysis is carried

out and the study found that only sixty one percent of the households are utilizing

drinking water from public tube well / bore well points, although the rural water schemes

do not charge the consumers for the supply of water through spot sources and the water

supply points are physically accessible by the households in terms of proximity.

The study points to the importance of women‟s education in reducing the occurrence of

childhood diarrhea. In fact, it is the strongest predictor of childhood diarrhea. Therefore,

increasing female education should form a part of new health and public policy. Since the

infant mortality rate in Orissa is the highest in the country and diarrhea is a leading cause

of these deaths, a more effective education programme for the prevention and treatment

of diarrhea should be designed to reach the poor and illiterate mothers. Finally, with a

view to prevent diarrheal disease among children, particularly among certain socially and

economically disadvantaged groups, access to basic infrastructural facilities such as clean

drinking water and sanitation must be developed, in addition to the provision of direct

health care activities and educational opportunities.


34

Rajalakshmi (1996) conducted a study on water pollution and related health

problem in Madras city. The paper gives information about pollution caused by toxic

wastes and by inert waste materials which mixed with water and contaminates the water

bodies, toxic wastes are, in a literal sense, hazardous substances which do not easily settle

out and are not easily broken by biological means. Recently the dumping river at

Ezhil Nagar, Tamilnadu on the outskirts of Madras is an example. The study found that in

Madras city alone corporation has detected a large number of yearly cases of cholera and

malaria caused because of water contamination. Controlling malaria poses a major

problem to the Madras Corporation and public health authorities. Over 50 percent of the

malaria cases in Tamilnadu are in Chennai and there are many areas in the city where

people suffer from chronic diseases because drinking water is contaminated. In addition

to this, a general survey done by the Madras Corporation of various areas, resulted that

sewage got mixed with the drinking water. On top of the list are areas in North Chennai

like Korrukkupet, Pulianthope, Royapuram, Washermanpet, Viyasarpadi, George Town

and so on. A sample taken from the hand pump of a house showed the worst possible

contamination and impunities. The iron content of water was not found to be 4.50 mg

(permissible limit 3 mg) for drinking water. High iron content can cause malabsorption

syndromes, anaemia, cosinophile, vitamin deficiency and in extreme cases paralytic

illness. The study found that most of the areas in the city, drinking water supply from the

metro water was found contaminated. The analysis done by the king institute for the

Chennai Corporation has suggested as drastic a remedy as immediate disconnection of

connections which are supplying such contaminated water.

Niyathi (1996) studied the problems and prospects of planning of rural water

supply in Kerala. An expert team studying the outbreak of cholera in Kuttanad, water

logged region in Kerala found that the cause of the disease had been a lack of protected

water. Resource constraints, under estimation of project cost, Lack of suitable low cost

technology, poor maintenance of RWS, absence of suitable water pricing policy,

organizational problems, and wrong identification of village for power at the state level

are the major problems faced by RWS at the macro level. Maintenance works are

neglected due to lack of adequate funds and materials. Avoid intermittent water supply on

health ground through sufficient pumping operators. The infrastructure required for


35

satisfactory operation and maintenance of RWS should be given attention. Constitution of

a local level water committee to decide on matters such as distribution, time schedule,

flow restriction and maintenance of the project will deliver maximum benefits.

Safe drinking water is the basic need of the people. Any failure will reduce the welfare of

the people.

Keshabananda Das (1996) conducted a study on sustainability of drinking water

supply in rural Gujarat. Especially in rural areas it has been a cause of serious concern to

both the policy makers as well as the general public. Sustainability of drinking water

supply in rural Gujarat has caused considerable concern, especially due to the continuing fall

in the ground water levels and deterioration in the quality of potable water. Growth of rural

population and the increasing urbanization have further accentuated the demand for potable

water. As far as the quality of water is concerned, excess salinity remains the most important

problem, followed by excess fluoride and hardness. Absence of proper coordination

between the planning, execution and mechanical departments was found to be the critical

factors in public management, adversely affecting the functioning of the water supply

system in rural areas. Lack of popular participation in the operation and maintenance of

source was a disappointing feature, enhancing the role of rural population in managing

the public water sources poses a major challenge for the sustainability of safe potable

water. It is generally held that involving women in managing rural development activities

are highly desirable and essential. This is especially valid for drinking water source in

rural areas.

Giriappa (1996) brought out an Economic Analysis of Rural drinking water

supply. The study deals with the various aspects of productivity, stability, sustainability

and cost-benefit issues. Productivity signifies yield per source on the one hand and

effective utilization by the population on the other hand. In the effective utilization,

quality of water is an important one, if the water contains beyond the permissible units of

fluoride, iron, arsenic, nitrate, salinity and hardness, to that it becomes non-potable and

also having harmful effects on human health and lifestyle, stability can be achieved

through improved perenniality. Another stability aspect is higher transaction cost.

Transaction cost here indicates not merely a monetary cost involved in transportation of

water over distances but also the imputed labour cost expended in the process.


36

The concept of sustainability has been used in effecting an everlasting continuity in

resource endowment such that the socially desirable minimum level of attainment is

achievable indefinitely spatially and temporally and sustainable development indicates a

rate of growth which is just even to the disadvantaged groups. Strictly speaking, a benefit

cost analysis for a public utility like drinking water is beset with many inconsistencies,

the measures to improve quality, quantity of water mat is being preventive, corrective and

adaptive in nature. Though water may be available in future also, uncertainty looms large

regarding its satisfactory availability to the population in all the seasons with the desired

level of quality. The lack of community participation and management is an imputed cost

difficult to be measured.

Anand (1996) in his study of accessibility and health dimensions of rural water

supply in India with special reference to Kerala. About twenty four percent of the urban

population had access to protected water supply wells are the major source of drinking

water in Kerala. But due to lack of information on the quality of well water, this has not

been considered as a safe drinking water. The data collected from different parts of

Kerala gives the information that there is a disparity of water availability from piped

water supply schemes, between rural and urban areas and between different income

groups. While most of the higher income groups in urban areas got the facilities of piped

water within their premises, the lower income groups had to depend more on piped water

outside their premises. In rural areas very low proportion was served with piped water

and the majority were depending on unprotected sources. Water- borne diseases constituted

eighty percent of the health problems of the population in India. Water-washed diseases are

caused by transmission due to lack of water for personal and domestic hygiene. Kerala‟s

position is does not encouraging if we do not take into account of the wells which are the

major source of drinking water. We do not have enough scientific evidence to prove that

well water is the major cause of waterborne disease. However, there is a need for more

systematic and epidemiological analysis in order to establish linkages between

accessibility of safe drinking water and health.

Pushpangadan (1996) focussed on equitable user rates for sustainable rural water

supply in India. The case of rural water supply is even weaker mainly due to the dearth of

research effort, theoretical as well as sustainable development and the relevance of users


37

financing, a relatively unexplored area of research, in rural water supply and sanitation in

India. Estimation of replacement, operation and maintenance cost were worked and

reproducible capital in rural water supply in 1994-95 has been estimated from aggregated

expenditure data relating to the period 1980-81 to 1994-95. The estimates show that the

system is sustainable along with additional coverage and improvement in the quality of

drinking water supply only if user financing is introduced since user rates affect the poor

and weaker sections very adversely. In order to compute the cross- subsidy users have to

be divided two groups, one belonging to above poverty line and the other below the

poverty line. State wise rural poverty estimates have been used for the grouping of users.

The cross-subsidized monthly rate for full cost recovery comes to be about twenty three

rupees per household in rural India. Another important task, which is completely ignored

in the present context, is to device institutions for the successful implementation of user

financing.

James (1996) to address water pollution abatement a taxes and standards

approach for Indian industry. This paper is an effort in this latter direction in the

particular context of industrial water pollution. The approach taken here is a hybrid

between the pure pigovian tax on effluent and the standards based permits approach.

The paper contains a brief survey of existing policies for environmental regulation in

India, theoretical basis of the analysis, discusses the data and the methodology used to

derive the pollutant- specific tax rates and final results of analysis in terms of various

tax rates. Pigou‟s seminal contribution was the idea of a tax that could achieve a

socially-optimal level of pollution. A tax on output by equating the marginal benefits

achieved from the production that causes the pollution this can be translated into a tax on

effluent produced during production by equating the marginal cost of effluent control to

the cost of damage. The basic conclusion is in support of the effectiveness of a market

based hybrid instrument like a pollution tax within the context of industrial wastewater in

India. Such an approach can benefit those affected but pollution, industry and the government

in contrast to command and control measures or regulations. The analysis showed, in the

context of a selected number of firms from all over the country, the methodology of


38

determining a set of tax rates to enforce the existing standards for water quality in the

country. The empirical revealed several problems particular to the Indian context, but also

suggested ways of overcoming these problems and arriving at a set of tax rates.

Chetan Vaidya (1995) this study grounded in recognition that policy and

planning should be built on a better understanding of improvements the people desire in

their water supply services and the amount they are willing to pay. The research team set

out to investigate determinants of water demand for improved water services such as

socio-economic background, characteristics of existing and proposed system, price,

distance and reliability. Both indirect (revealed preference) and direct (contingent

valuation) methods were used to study how households made their choices about water

sources. The indirect approach used discrete choice, econometric techniques to model

households‟ decisions and to derive estimates of welfare charge from the actual choices

that the households made. Contingent valuation studies are not easy to carry out and are

more expensive than simple water demand surveys. Considering the cost of information

obtained from the surveys as compared to the investment required in the infrastructure,

use of willingness to pay studies should become an inherent part of the project design and

appraisal system in urban India.

Amrita Abraham (1993) made a study on Drinking Water for the Poor; the study

was restrained to villages covered by rural water supply schemes under the National

Program of Minimum Needs (MNP). Problem villages are those with the most acute

water problems either because they are located in difficult terrain and the nearest water

sources are 1.6 kilometers away or because the water is contaminated by organic or

inorganic substances. The study makes an effort to find out why fifty two villages

reported that the poor did not get the benefit of drinking water under MNP. The reason

behind was water point was at a distance, frequent breakdowns of water supply and

moreover it is because of inadequate duration of supply. Furthermore it is to be noted

here, the poor did not make use of the water points because they were meant for higher

caste groups. About ten percent of the poor population is made clear that they are facing

the water problem; water was available from MNP, ARP wells, unprotected canals, tanks,

ponds, open dug wells which are usually not safe. There was insufficient supply

throughout the year and this complaint applied equally to all modes of supply as much to


39

MNP and ARP wells and pipes as to open dug wells and ponds, tanks, and so on.

The main trouble with MNP and ARP wells which are equipped with hand pumps is the

frequency of breakdown and on the other hand in which those who are utilizing the piped

water said that the problem was inadequate duration of supply.

Ratna Reddy (1992) formulate an endeavour to examine the accessibility and

distributional aspects of residential water in Rajasthan. The present paper focussed and

brings out clearly that public distribution of drinking water is highly skewed in favour of

urban areas and the rich. The distribution pattern is more equitable in rural areas when

compared to urban. Nevertheless drinking water has always been at the top of the priority

list of social consumption items, because it is not only essential but also scarce.

The objective of providing drinking water to all sections of the people remains a distant

goal, in most of the urban areas in the absence of any significant progressive pricing; a

large portion of this subsidized water is used by higher income groups scanty the poor

besides resulting in wastage and non-priority use. In the rural areas, where most of the

households have low incomes to pay for water needs to be given high priority in terms of

accessibility to clean and safe drinking water. Finally, the state should also improve the

distribution systems in slums and other localities where people cannot afford to have

individual service connections. Fetching water from far-off places would further add to

their drudgery.

2.3.2 Environmental aspects of Rural Water Supply

Srikanth (2009) study analyzed water borne diseases are caused by contamination

of water by virus, bacteria (cholera, typhoid fever, bacillary dysentery etc.), Parasites, or

chemicals. Water gets contaminated either at source level or while passing through pipes

which are poorly laid and maintained, or in the homes when it is not stored properly.

About 85 percent of the rural population in India is solely dependent on ground water; so

quantity and quality are questionable. About 10 per cent of the rural and urban population

does not have access to regular safe drinking water and many more are threatened. Most of

them are left with unsafe water sources to meet their daily needs. As a quality concern, the

groundwater is often found to be contaminated with fluoride, arsenic, iron and salts. In recent

years, fluorosis has posed a greater threat to the public health issue in rural India.


40

Oguntoke et al., (2009) their empirical study examined the relationship between

the spatial pattern of waterborne diseases with reference to water quality in parts of the

Ibadan city in Nigeria. For this study 1334 cases of various waterborne diseases were

collected from eight public hospitals with catchments covering the study area and 350

residents of the selected areas to elicit information on water sourcing, handling and

storage. Analysis of hospital records showed significant difference in the occurrence of

waterborne diseases among residential areas typhoid fever had the highest occurrence is

33.3 percent followed by bacillary dysentery and cholera. The majority (77.1 percent) of

the respondents depended on wells and major source of domestic water. Provision of

adequate potable water remains the most important tool for preventing waterborne

diseases in the study area.

Grace et al., (2009) made a study on Effect of women‟s perceptions and

household practices on children‟s waterborne illness in a low income community, this

study examine the association between women‟s household practices and diarrhea among

children in a setting where contaminated drinking water and intestinal diseases are

common. This study found that diarrhea is a gendered health problem. Female children,

who are generally more involved in household activities than male children, are at higher

risk of suffering from diarrhea. Female care takers personal hygiene, household practices,

and perceptions of diarrhea are at additional risk factors. Intervention activities would be

more effective if based on a better understanding of gender roles and household power

relations.

Lenin Sundar and Saseetharan (2008) discussed ground water quality in the

Noyyal river around Coimbatore. For this study, water samples collected from 12 wells.

The physico-chemical analysis of the collected samples was carried out for the

parameters, such as pH, TDS, Total Hardness (TH), alkalinity, etc., This study found that,

in most of the places, the quality of water was not found suitable for irrigation and

industrial activities because of high concentrations of electrical conductivity and total

hardness. In general, the values of all the studied parameters were higher and above the

standards during the post-monsoon season, compared to the pre-monsoon season.


41

Ravichandran and Boopathi (2007), in his book of Environmental Management

issues and potable water in rural Tamilnadu, the study covered 311 sample respondents

across 5 villages in Tiruchirappalli District of Tamilnadu; the empirical study of water

quality results confirmed that water samples collected from 20 points across the five

sample village. The sample was drawn both surface and ground water and measured the

quality of samples for pH, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Fluoride, Total

Dissolved Solids and etc., The results of the study show that presence of faecal coliform

over and above the permissible level in surface water, while the physical and chemical

parameters exceeded the tolerance limits in groundwater sources. Though health hazards

owing to contaminate water are prevalent, the majority of the households is unaware of

the linkage between unsafe water and waterborne diseases. Primary survey results

confirmed that 67.8 percent of the households were unaware of waterborne diseases.

More than one tenth of the household respondents suffered from typhoid fever,

4.5 percent had diarrhea and 13.2 percent were affected with jaundice. The average

treatment cost per household per annum was Rs.1983 and average travel to avail medical

facilities 14.75 kilometers. In wet area, nearly 52 percent of the affected people

approached Government hospitals for treatment, whereas, 28 percent preferred private

hospitals and 20 percent depended on native medicines.

Paul Appasamy and Prakash Nelliyat (2007) gives the detail of the loss of

ecosystem services due to industrial pollution was taken up to estimate the economic

value of the loss to various stakeholders in a pollution affected area in the Noyyal River

Basin in Tiruppur and it was estimated through physical research studies of water and soil

quality and bio-mapping followed by economic valuation. Estimates of the loss to the

agriculture, drinking water, and fisheries sectors were made on an annual basis and also

capitalized. The case study illustrates the complexity in identifying and valuing the

damage loss of ecosystem services due to pollution. The extent of the area affected is

large and selected thirteen villages for a pilot survey and three villages for a detailed

household survey. The impact on agriculture in the affected area was assessed through

the Productivity Loss Method. The cost estimation on the drinking water sector covered

the entire Tiruppur Municipal area and the textile pollution affected villages. The cost

incurred by the households is one way of estimating the loss. For estimating the impact


42

on rural areas a large database provided by the Tamilnadu Water Supply and Drainage

(TWAD) Board was analyzed. The impact on drinking water in the three case study

villages was estimated through the replacement cost method. An estimate was made of

the total number of affected households who do not have access to a public scheme to

determine the total cost to these households. Tiruppur municipality, the drinking water

supply in the villages located in and around Tiruppur and the downstream part of Noyyal

are affected by textile pollution. For estimating the loss of drinking water services, the

cost of drinking water schemes as well as the cost of collection of freshwater was studied.

Indira Khurana and Romit Sen (2005) study found that today, 37.7 million

Indians are affected by waterborne diseases annually; 1.5 million children are estimated

to die of diarrhea alone and 73 million working days are lost due to waterborne disease

each year. The resulting economic loss is estimated approximately at Rs. 26,888 million

a year. The problems of chemical contamination are also prevalent in India with 1,95,813

habitations in the country due to poor water quality. The major chemical parameters of

concern are fluoride and arsenic iron is also found to be a major problem with many

habitations showing excess iron in the water samples. The provision of clean drinking

water has been given priority in the Constitution of India, with Article 47 conferring the

duty of providing clean drinking water and improving public health standards to the

State. The government has undertaken various programmes since independence to

provide safe drinking water to the rural masses. Till the 10th plan, an estimated total of

Rs.1, 105 billion was spent on providing safe drinking water. One would argue that

though the expenditure is huge, problem of safe and secure drinking water continues to

be a major hurdle and a national economic burden.

Junaid Ahmad et al., (2005) had analyzed the value of arsenic-free drinking

water to rural households in Bangladesh. This study uses contingent valuation survey

data for about 2700 households in rural Bangladesh, and applying a multinomial logit

model, the paper estimates the value of arsenic-free drinking water to the rural people.

The estimates indicate that the rural people in arsenic-affected areas of Bangladesh place

a low value on arsenic-free drinking water. It is about 10 – 14 percent of the amount they

are willing to pay for piped water and only about 0.2 – 0.3 percent of the average


43

household income. The implication of the result is that robust but costly arsenic reduction

technology such as activated alumina technology may find little social acceptance, unless

heavily subsidized.

Andrew et al., (2005) made a study on Mechanisms leading to post – supply

water quality deterioration in rural Honduran communities. This study carried out field-

based experiments in three rural Honduran communities to investigate the potential for

contamination through hand contact, method used to draw water, and dirty collection

containers. The possibility of bacterial growth occurring in stored water was also

considered. Faecal contamination was present in 44% of women‟s fingertips tested during

normal household activities, and this faecal material was easily transferred to water.

An immediate deterioration in water quality was observed on filling collection containers.

Faecal material was detected on cups and beakers used for drawing stored drinking water.

This study found evidence to show that hand, dipping utensils, dirty collection containers,

filter clothes, and the sanitary condition of storage containers can all play a role in water

quality deterioration. Nevertheless, only hands are involved at every stage of domestic

water management. Hands can directly contaminate stored drinking water through

contact, or indirectly through the transfer of faecal material to the utensils used in

household water management. The promotion of greater hygiene awareness surrounding

the domestic water management should receive more emphasis in community water

supply programmes.

Wilderer (2004) it is estimated that currently more than one billion people do not

have access to safe drinking water. About 2.4 billion people are not served with any type

of reasonable sanitation, and one-half of the world‟s hospital beds are occupied by people

suffering from waterborne disease.

Ramachandraiah (2001) comments on the landmark judgment by the Supreme

Court of India placing drinking water as a fundamental right. It is an unfortunate story in

India that most of the rivers flowing through cities are polluted. The apex court‟s

judgment helping the people, serves as a stern warning to the politician, bureaucrat nexus

who have in recent years turned a blind eye to the growing pollution of Indian rivers.


44

Pradhan et al., (2000) made a study on quality of drinking water used by the

communities and their knowledge towards water quality and waterborne diseases.

110 sample households used by the communities were selected for this study and twenty

five water samples at sources and consumption points representing all sources, wells,

stone spouts, ponds, streams, public and private taps. This study found that in dry

summer month incidence of diarrhea appears to be the most acute problem in rural

region. The reason is the majority of the households are not aware about water

contamination, inadequate supply and poor quality of drinking water. The Major finding

of his study confirmed that one third of the sample households had used hand washing

practices by water and soil after defecation, which might be a major cause of water borne

diseases.

In the light of the literature review made in this chapter, the present study

proposed to estimate the demand for domestic water in general and cooking and drinking

in particular. This is, in fact, the need of the hour as there are a large number of

criticisms on the existing state norms of 40 – 50 lpcd in vogue. Secondly, the quality of

different water sources and the health impacts thereof formed a part of the present study.

And more importantly the pricing of rural water is proposed with the help of actual field

level data. The earlier studies provided adequate guidelines to estimate the water tariff in

rural areas.

Mathai (2000) provides a descriptive picture of the water resources potential of

Kerala and gives a holistic view of diverse water problems in the state, against the

backdrop of the Indian scenario. The author identifies that Kerala has a number of

inherent constraints in the utilization of water, though it receives substantial rainfall

during the year. The constraints as the author lists out are natural, anthropogenic, the

policies of the state and a combination of all these. The paper offers concrete suggestions

such as community participation, and management of local water resources, changing the

role of the government from provider to facilitator and effective strategy that will

minimize the run-off.

Bhatia (1992) made a scientific approach to the discussion on about the water

policy of the government of India. He argues the building of water extraction structures


45

in India is mentioned as early as 1343, when Muhammad Tuglak mad advances from the

treasury for the digging of wells during a famine. The preoccupation of these policies was

overwhelming with averting starvation and mortality rather than with water scarcity as

such. This was so because groundwater scarcity was not a problem in times of draught.

This happy state of affairs, unfortunately started changing dramatically in 1960, when

water scarcity increasingly emerged as one of the most alarming aspects.

Swerdlow (1992) it is clear that the environmental factor „water‟ and the problem

of waterborne diseases, especially diarrheal diseases are linked up via two different

mechanisms; through the supply of contaminated water and or lack of water for personal

hygiene. Hence, this study carried out examining the environmental and economic

component to calculate the treatment cost of waterborne disease posed by the poor water

quality in the rural areas of Coimbatore district. Specifically the study examines the

factor to determine the treatment cost for waterborne diseases.

2.4 Critical Remarks

The foregoing review, though not exhaustive, highlights the important issues

pertaining to rural drinking water supply in the Indian context. This exercise facilitates

identifying the appropriate theoretical variables to be considered in the present study

besides finding the research gaps. Notwithstanding the fact there is a dearth of studies in

the water supply at the domestic level and with a focus on drinking water, the present

study discerns to probe the provision of water at the habitation and at the household level.

From the preceding review, the present study could identify different theoretical

and policy aspects and variables, in the realm of rural drinking water supply. They

include, starting from demand for water, various schemes for water provisions, distance

travelled to collect time spent, scarcity, family size, coverage of habitations, litre per

capita consumption (lpcd), equity, gender sustainability, cost of provision, ground water

table, water quality, pricing of water, environmental conflicts and willingness to pay for

improved water supply.

The methodology adopted in various studies was aimed at probing issues more at

piece meal level. Hardly any attempt is made so for in India to look at this problem in a


46

holistic manner by integrating both economic and environmental aspects towards finding

a solution to the problem. This is not to discount the merits of the earlier studies

conducted but to justify the necessity of the present study.

In the light of the literature review made in this chapter, the present study is

proposed to estimate the demand for domestic water in general and cooking drinking in

particular. This fact is the need of the hour as there are a large number of criticisms on

the existing state norms of 40-50 lpcd in vogue. Secondly, the quality of different water

sources and the health impacts thereof formed a part of the present study. And more

importantly the pricing of rural water is proposed with the help of actual field level data.

The earlier studies provided adequate guidelines to estimate the water tariff in rural areas.


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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35894/2/chapter2.pdf · CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... Conceptual framework