Interdisciplinary Applicationsof the Person-Centered Approach

Jeffrey H. D. Cornelius-WhiteRenate Motschnig-Pitrik •

Michael LuxEditors

InterdisciplinaryApplications of thePerson-Centered Approach

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EditorsJeffrey H. D. Cornelius-WhiteUniversity of MissouriSpringfield, MOUSA

Renate Motschnig-PitrikUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria

Michael LuxNeurologisches Rehabilitationszentrum

QuellenhofBad WildbadGermany

ISBN 978-1-4614-7143-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-7144-8 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7144-8Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013939567

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This book is dedicated to Carl R. Rogers andto people everywhere who reach tounderstand that which is within and beyondtheir own world, build bridges with others,and unfold new facts, feelings, ideas, andactions

Preface

The idea for this book was born at the PCE 2010 Conference in Rome. Over dinnerand breaks the three of us editors started imagining a volume on the interconnec-tions of the Person-Centered Approach (PCA) with other disciplines. Somethinglike ‘Becoming Interconnected: Perspectives of the Person-Centered Approach’.

In fact it didn’t take us long to follow the crystallizing idea of building bridgesfrom, as well as toward, the PCA. While the three of us work in quite differentareas of engagement in the PCA—Jef in an academic counseling and educationalleadership department, Michael at a neurological rehabilitation center, and Renateat the Faculty of Computer Science, engaged in knowledge engineering andlearning technology—what united us was our felt confirmation that the PCAresonates with the way we want to relate to others, us, and our environment.

Certainly, Rogers and his colleagues helped us to grow in our relationships.Based on our experiences in person-centered climates and our knowledge of thePCA, we intend to support people to grow in various relationships, with them-selves, their partners, children, students, teams, communities, nations, and theenvironment. This support or in other words ‘‘input’’ or ‘‘resource’’ for growth, inour view, can take on various forms and originate from various sources: sharingexperience, knowledge, research processes and results, practices and selves.Therefore, we sought to invite authors from those disciplines and areas ofengagement that we felt work toward the same or strongly related ‘‘ends’’ to helpus to interconnect the PCA with related ‘‘siblings’’ and thus to produce a con-ceptual image that is more complete than any image from a separate perspectivewould be.

The authors whom we decided to invite for a contribution were mainly thosewhom we knew through personal contact or through publications. Thankfully, thevast majority accepted the invitation. So we created a (protected) book homepagewith relevant information for contributors as well as the contributors’ abstracts forthe sake of orientation. For each chapter, one of the co-editors of this book acted asthe primary chapter-editor to work with the author(s). Almost uniformly, thechapter editor’s comments called for a minor or major revision of a chapter.Subsequently, each chapter was read and reviewed by at least two other persons ofdifferent nationalities—often but not exclusively the other two co-editors—so as toensure an international review process of and for high quality.

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As a complementary aspect, from the first beginning we were really keen topropose key issues of the research, theory, and practice of the PCA as a groundedmeta-view for interpersonal growth in a person-centered climate. Forming, con-firming, and sharing the forward directed, lived experience of the PCA provided uswith the intrinsic motivation to engage in this book project by (re)searching,practicing, living, and writing within the PCA.

So while this book is limited by ‘‘speaking’’ through a printed medium only, itis centrally aimed at contributing to deep, significant learning in the readers’ aswell as authors’ and editors’ experiential fields. It seeks to transcend establisheddisciplinary boundaries to reach out for better informed, more flexible, more self-organizing, and sustainable solutions that our rapidly changing societies andenvironment require. It was awkward in multiple ways and ended with etc. eventhough it began with few examples which is illogical. I suggest: Just to name a fewexamples, consider problems like climate change, lack of understanding betweenpeoples, or uncompromising adherence to dogmas void of empathy. Elaboratingsolutions depends, we believe, on creative, open minds, and constructive, col-laborative efforts between peoples and multiple knowledge sources.

We are deeply convinced that, to strengthen the constructive potential inherentin humans, we need to contribute to promoting those socio-environmental con-ditions that research and practice in the person-centered, humanistic orientationhas been confirming worldwide, across all continents since more than half acentury. Briefly, the conditions of experiencing and mutually communicatingempathic understanding, acceptance, and genuineness have countlessly beenconfirmed across many disciplines to bring to the forefront the inherent, con-structive talents in humans. This holds true for individual persons as well as forgroups of small and large sizes, covering homogeneity as well as diversity. Hencewe feel these socio-environmental conditions are key to the solution of realproblems, even of problems and crises of enormous size that seem to require, firstof all, (inter)personal immersion, encounter, mutual understanding, and a loos-ening of rigidly held mental models. This is because problems such as conflictsbetween nations, climate change, or financial crises cannot be solved by a singlegenius but call for sustained collaborative effort.

Historically, the socio-environmental conditions, which promote the construc-tive sides of humans and bring along the flourishing of persons and groups weredescribed and investigated by Carl Rogers and his co-workers about 60 years ago.Rogers formulated a consistent theoretical framework, which embraces hishumanistic view of mankind and growth-promoting interpersonal relationships.Over the last years, progress in the human sciences has yielded many significantresearch findings which are, from our point of view, closely related to key features(such as subception, organismic valuing, self-organization, etc.) of the theoreticalframework of Rogers and thus the PCA. Several of these insights are communi-cated through the sibling book Interdisciplinary Handbook of the Person-CenteredApproach: Research and Theory. It is intended to help readers understand theresearch and theories from multiple perspectives and to inform the applications ofthe PCA, the focus of this book, and support their social assimilation.

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These and similar thoughts come up in our minds when trying to justify ourinitiative for editing this book on PCA applications along with its conceptualsibling, the Interdisciplinary Handbook of the Person-Centered Approach:Research and Theory. Frankly, however, the most inner sense, if we allow our-selves to share it, is our feeling, based on our own experience with and in the PCAand our being in this world that makes us sense that this project is the right thing todo at this time. It requires us to divide our limited time resources between thisproject and other responsibilities, but, in any case, it feels right to enjoy workingon this book. Our huge supply of intrinsic motivation seems to come from each ofour own experiencing, our knowledge, as well as from our appreciation of workingtogether on a project we called into life. This is perhaps the more honest expla-nation of why we are editing these books and feel so fortunate that we foundSpringer as a renowned publisher as well as top contributors from several disci-plines to help us in our bridge-building endeavor.

Not to be misunderstood, when we are saying that reciprocally perceivingperson-centered attitudes of empathic understanding, acceptance, and congruence‘‘are key to the solution of real problems’’ what we absolutely do not intend is toargue that they are all we need. That would be ridiculous. Equally, we do notintend to downplay the invaluable contributions of other disciplines, schools, andtheories. What we do, however, endeavor is to build bridges from a personcentered, experiential approach to many other disciplines. This is to join forceswith them, thereby never losing or departing from our deepest human basis—a whole person approach, as originally expressed in the life work of Carl Rogers(1902–1987), or expressed even more broadly, an empathically attuned,self-organizing whole environment approach.

More theoretically, the PCA can be seen as providing one meta-model that canhelp connect many fields of study. It provides a parsimonious explanation and anastonishingly straightforward and elegant theory on how to move forward toaddress those dimensions of the unique challenges of the present and the futurethat concern interaction within and between people. It offers constructs that havebeen supported from many fields of study, but are largely unknown to other fields.To be fully assimilated and understood, however, the constructs of the PCA needto be experienced. This is a limitation of the/any book that readers can overcomeonly when experiencing a person-centered climate. Nevertheless, this bookendeavors to highlight the parsimony, unknown research support, and links withinthe PCA and from it to various fields of study and practice.

The major contribution of this book is to identify and characterize key appli-cations—so far often dispersed—of the PCA across disciplines. Consequently, thebook’s main themes and objectives are to:

• Explore the power, depth, and practical impact of the PCA through its rela-tionship to a broad variety of disciplines.

• Articulate how the theory of PCA can be applied not only in the clinical fieldsbut also in highly influential disciplines such as education, management, com-munication, thus significantly transcending its root applications.

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• Propose an integrative framework and conceptual map to depict more of the‘‘geography’’ surrounding the PCA.

• Respond to international calls for interdisciplinary studies that facilitate dia-logue and cooperation with other disciplines to stimulate new ideas and solvetwenty-first century problems, such as conflict resolution and interculturalunderstanding.

• Introduce people who are less or not familiar with the PCA to reveal it as ameta-approach with widespread scientific support, integrative potential, andinfluential applications

• Help those who identify research and practice within the PCA—largely psy-chotherapists, but also educators, consultants, negotiators, coaches, nonviolentfacilitators, etc.—to engage with a broader literature, find scientific dialoguewith compatible findings from other disciplines, and have increased appreciationfor other disciplines.

• Stimulate further research and theory development by identifying open ques-tions stemming from applications in practice.

• Inspire new applications and the sharing of experience and insight betweenpractitioners.

• Contribute to help us move forward as a human species, regardless of which(knowledge) culture or spiritual tradition we may come from.

Overview and Structure of the Book

This book is set out to be a unique contribution to the literature in so far as itthrows fresh light on the broad, practical application, and impact of the PCA. A‘‘sibling book’’ focusing on the scientific contribution and foresight of the PCAaccompanies it. That ‘‘sibling book’’ provides transdisciplinary chapters, linkingdiverse disciplines with the PCA, including cognitive and neuroscience, devel-opmental relating, positive psychology, systems theory, and mindfulness, philos-ophy, and spirituality. The innovative approach taken in both books is to providereaders with a multidisciplinary and multi-perspective view.

This application book is structured as follows: The first section is an invitationto bridge-building, introducing the domains of application, including a few con-ceptual maps to help the reader organize and extend their understanding of theapplication chapters. It also provides an experiential example central to the roots ofthe PCA: A comprehensive transcript from a demonstration interview of CarlRogers and Dadisi, an African-American volunteer. This interview had, to the bestof the authors’ knowledge, not been previously published in written form. Sub-sequently, the application chapters follow.

The application chapters are organized into five sections starting with clinicalapplications discussing person-centered and experiential psychotherapies, person-centered medicine, and care for special needs persons, continuing with education

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with and without technology integration, followed by developmental relating withchildren and in families, proceeding to the realm of organizations, business, andleadership and following on with conflict management and international, con-structive communication. In brief, the main objective is to let the reader see hownot only psychotherapy, but social systems, medicine, art, communication, eco-nomics, and other fields can benefit from an understanding of the PCA, particularlyin today’s knowledge-based society.

In the final chapter the editors propose an initial formulation of a meta-view ofthe PCA as an ‘‘overarching paradigm,’’ drawing on not only the applicationchapters of this book, but also the research and theory chapters of the ‘‘siblingbook’’. The meta-view is intended as a generic framework to be specialized foreach area at hand so as to reach a broad understanding and be applied or exploredthrough further research or application to stimulate further engagement with thePCA.

In a nutshell, this book aims to explore and testify how the PCA contributes tomoving forward as a human species in a multitude of application areas. If thisbook facilitates letting you grasp and perceive a more complete, deeper picture ofthe interconnection of the PCA along with their implication for theory and/orpractice, it will have fulfilled its purpose. The editors trust you will explore thebook in the way that best fits for you. Moving through as designed or jumpingfrom topic to topic as your interest or need motivates you! Readers who are new toperson-centered thought may want to read the introduction and the initial sectionof the ‘‘sibling book’’ on research and theory first, and thereafter proceedwhichever way they prefer. We trust each reader and contributor to find their owninsights and significant revelations from each chapter as well as the book as awhole.

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Acknowledgments

At this point let us express our deep gratitude to our contributors from all conti-nents and to Springer for supporting this large-scale project to crystalize and bringtogether so many important and divergent views and practices. For decades, manyscholars have argued for the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration as theprimary means to solve difficult social problems and encourage the formation ofnew paradigms enriched by older traditions. Undoubtedly, without the openness ofour contributors to the interdisciplinary adventure, their acceptance of our offer-ings and constraints, and their empathy toward our shared goals and needs aseditors, this collaborative work and its thrust would not have been accomplished.

Thanks also go to Mike Bobbitt and Randi Davis, Graduate Assistants in theDepartment of Counseling, Leadership, and Special Education at Missouri StateUniversity, who helped with several miscellaneous tasks, and Dennis Kear, TamiArthaud, and David Hough, administrators at Missouri State University for supportof Jef Cornelius-White’s sabbatical, which helped this project come to fruition.Thanks to the Faculty of Computer Science at the University of Vienna, Austria,for their openness to this interdisciplinary project and for providing part of theinfrastructure to work on it. Special thanks go to Giorgia Silani, Colin Lago, WillStillwell, Natalie Rogers, Jenny Bell, Tess Sturrock, and others who providedreviews of various chapters. Thanks to our families for supporting us through somany hours of work!

Renate expresses sincere thanks to Ladislav Nykl for his continuing collabo-ration and fresh sharing, both critical and appreciative, regarding all the difficultquestions that come to the surface when you delve deep into person-centeredtheories and encounters. Thanks are also due to Sigrid Schmitz, who introducedRenate to concept mapping and hinted her to the tool CMapTools from theInstitute of Human and Machine Cognition (http://www.cmap.ihmc.us).

Last but not least, we are deeply thankful to Sharon Panulla, Executive Editor atSpringer, for her just perfect and friendly support and encouragement. She con-tributed significantly to making the genesis of the book an enriching and joyfulexperience throughout the whole process. Sharon, we appreciate your open-mindedness, prompt, friendly, and helpful responses and your patience with all ourquestions. For us, you were the best Editor we envisage in this project.

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Contents

Part I Introductory Chapters

Introduction to Interdisciplinary Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Jeffrey Cornelius-White, Renate Motschnig-Pitrik and Michael Lux

An Experiential Example of the Person-Centered Approach:Carl Rogers at Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11William Stillwell, Antonio Monteiro dos Santos,Renate Motschnig-Pitrik, Michael Lux and Jeffrey Cornelius-White

Part II Clinical Applications

Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies: An Overview . . . . 23Gerhard Stumm

Motivational Interviewing and Client-Centered Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . 43Christopher C. Wagner

Linking the Person-Centered Approach to the Arts:Person-Centered Expressive Arts Therapy and Empowerment . . . . . . 49Grace Harlow Klein

Person-Centered Work in Services for People in Needof Everyday Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Marlis Pörtner

Counselling the SAI Way. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Umesh Rao and Gita Umesh

Person-Centred Medicine and Subjectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Michel Botbol and Dusica Lecic-Tosevski

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Part III Education

The Learner-Centered Model: From the Vision to the Future. . . . . . . 83Barbara L. McCombs

The Person-Centered Approach in Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Dorothea Kunze

Characteristics and Effects of Person-Centered TechnologyEnhanced Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125Renate Motschnig-Pitrik

Ubiquitous Educational Computing and Learner-CenteredInstruction: A Likely Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Adam P. Harbaugh and Jeffrey Cornelius-White

Part IV Children and Family

Foundational Oppression: Families and Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141Bert Rice

The Person-Centered Approach in Family Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Dagmar Nuding and Dorothea Hüsson

Part V Business and Leadership

Successful Management with the Person-Centered Approach:Building the Bridge to Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155David Ryback and Renate Motschnig-Pitrik

Person-Centred Approach: Theory and Practicein a Non-therapeutic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177Eva Sollárová and Tomáš Sollár

A Person-Centered Approach to Innovation Management:Experiences and Learnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Klaus Haasis

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Part VI Conflict and Constructive Communication

The Person-Centered Approach and its Capacity to EnhanceConstructive International Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201Colin Lago

Conflict Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213Will Stillwell

PCA Encounter Groups: Transformative Learningfor Individuals and Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Maureen O’Hara

Staying Human: Experiences of a Therapist and Political Activist. . . . 229Rosemary Hopkins

Part VII Conclusion and Meta-View

The Person-Centered Approach: An Emergent Paradigm . . . . . . . . . . 235Renate Motschnig-Pitrik, Michael Lux and Jeffrey H. D. Cornelius-White

Editors Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

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