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Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 1
Lecture 8
DETERMINANTS OF THE MONEY SUPPLY, AND THE TOOLS OF CENTRAL BANKS (2)
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 2
ESCB monetary policy instruments
• In order to achieve its objectives, the ESCB has at its disposal a set of monetary policy instruments.
• The ESCB
– conducts open market operations, – offers standing facilities and– requires credit institutions to hold minimum
reserves on accounts with the ESCB.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 3
Money supply process
• In order to understand the money supply process, we have to come back to the ECB’s balance sheet and the monetary base (or high-powered money).
• The assets of the CB constitute the sources of the base.
• The liabilities of the CB constitute the uses of the base.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 4
Schematic central bank balance
Assets Liabilities
Bank notes
Gold and SDR
Forex
Securities
Bank lending
Bank reserves
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 5
Bundesbank, Balance sheet 2001
Gold 35.0 Banknotes 76.5Foreign exchange*) 71.8 Bank reserves 57.5Bank lending ECB claims 30.9 Main refinancing 80.5 Revaluation 41.7 Long-term lending 41.1 Reserve fund 5.4 Marginal refinancing 1.4 Other liabilities 11.7Loans to government 4.4 Capital 5.1Other assets 5.8 Profits 11.2TOTAL 240.0 TOTAL 240.0*) Including claims on the ECB.
31st of December, in bill. €
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 6
The control of the monetary base
• The quantity-oriented approach to monetary policy purports that the central bank can control the monetary base.
• It is basically effected via open market operations with commercial banks.
• The ECB can control OMOs more effectively than foreign reserves, but she can also use interventions in forex markets to change the monetary base.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 7
Controlling the money supply
• Under fixed exchange rates controlling the money supply is more difficult.
• In this case the central bank has to “sterilize” inflows or outflows of foreign exchange.
• It renders interest rates endogenous, i.e. they vary in response to sterilizing interventions.
• Forex interventions will be discussed later.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 8
Forex inflows with sterilization
Assets Liabilities
Base money remains fixed
Gold
Forex
Securities
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 9
Forex inflows with sterilization
Assets Liabilities
Base money remains fixed
Gold
Forex
Securities
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 10
OMOs
• Among the OMOs, the main refinancing operations (MROs) are the most important, playing a pivotal role in steering liquidity and signaling the stance of monetary policy.
• Three quarters of liquidity is provided by MROs.
• MROs were conducted as fixed rate and variable rate tenders with a minimum bid rate.
• The MROs are regular, liquidity providing, reverse transactions, conducted as standard tenders, with a weekly frequency and normally a maturity of two weeks.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 11
Longer-term refinancing (LTROs)
• Longer-term refinancing operations (LTROs) are carried out through monthly standard tenders and have a maturity of three months.
• LTROs are regular open market operations executed by the Eurosystem also in the form of a reverse transaction.
• On average over the year, LTROs provided about one quarter of the total refinancing of banks.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 12
Reserve requirements of banks
• The Eurosystem requires banks to hold minimum reserves equal to 2% of certain short-term liabilities. It is part of base money.
• The purpose is the stabilization of short-term interest rates and the enlargement of the structural liquidity deficit of banks.
• Reserve requirements bear interest, and must only be fulfilled on average over a one-month reserve maintenance period.
• It has a significant smoothing effect on the behavior of short-term interest rates.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 13
Short-term liquidity policy
• The monetary base is also affected when a central bank makes a discount loan to a bank. The ECB does not use this instrument however.
• There are two standing facilities offered by the Eurosystem– the marginal lending facility and – the deposit facility,
• These instruments provide and absorb overnight liquidity, signal the stance of monetary policy and set an upper and lower limit for the overnight market interest rate.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 14
The use of the standing facility
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 15
Key ECB interest rates
• The key ECB interest rates are at present
– the minimum bid rate on the main refinancing operations,
– the interest rate on the marginal lending facility
– and the interest rate on the deposit facility.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 16
ECB interest rates
EONIA (euro overnight index average):
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 17
Interest rate policy in Europe and the US
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 18
The notion: quantity of money
• In addition to the central bank, commercial banks do also supply credit money.
• We assume that there is a fixed relationshipbetween central bank money (base money) and credit money.
• Then the quantity of money M equalsM = m B = multiplier base money.
• We assume the ECB controls B, then she also controls M.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 19
Money creation through bank credit
• Credit money is created (destroyed) if the sum of demand deposits of non-banks at commercial banks increases (declines)
• In the case of a credit to a customer by a bank, the bank creates „book money“.
• As this credit is redeemed, money is destroyed.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 20
Money creation by a commercial bank
Example: A commercial bank receives a cash deposit of € 1 Mill. and uses it for a loan to a firm of € 1 Mill..
Cash deposit + € 1 mill. Loan + € 1 mill.
Liability + € 1 mill.
Bank
Firm
A
L
L
A
Outlays + € 1 mill.
Demand deposit + €1 mill.Loan + € 1 mill.
Liability + € 1 mill. Outlays etc.
Demand deposit etc.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 21
Money creation by banks: is it limited?
Yes, money creation by banks is not infinite!
• Central banks require commercial banks to maintain minimum reserves to be held on accounts of the central bank.
• These reserve requirements are calculated as a percentage of demand, savings and time deposits.
• Demand deposits represent a claim on central bank money, which commercial banks cannot create themselves.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 22
Multiple money creation: An example
• Mr. K. puts € 10,000 into his acount at A-Bank.
• The central bank requires minimum reserves of 20% of the deposit (=1/5).
• There remains an excess reserve of € 8,000.
• A-Bank grants a loan to Mr. L. for the purchase of a car. The amount of the loan can only be € 8,000.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 23
Example, continued
• Mr. L. transfers this amount to an account of the car dealer at B-Bank.
• At B-Bank it creates excess reserves of €8,000 minus €1,600 minimum reserves required (= € 6,400).
• These excess reserves can be used for a loan, etc.....
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 24
Example, continued
• It is best to imagine this process in terms of “rounds” of credit creation:
Round Deposit Minimum reserve Excess reserve=credit creation
1(primary impulse)
10000 2000 8000
2 8000 1600 6400
3 6400 1280 5120
4 5120 1024 4096
etc.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 25
The money creation multiplier
• The money creation multiplier is obtained as a result of an infinite geometric series.
• In the example:
10,000 + 8,000 + 6,400+..... = 50,000
• From an initial excess reserves of € 10,000 an an additional credit volume of 40000 € can be derived.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 26
By subtracting R2 from R1
it is obtained:[1 - (1-) ] Cr =
[{1-}1 - {1-}+1] ER
Cr = {1-} ER =
Cr=ER ({1-} / )
or in this case: ({1-.2} / .2 ) = 4
The credit multiplier
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 27
Critique of the simple model
• Supply of credit must meet a demand!
• Banks do not extend their lending to the maximum because of insolvency risks.
• Lending is limited by capital adequacy ratios (Basel I and II).
• But there are refinancing possibilities– through the ESCB, and– through the interbank market.
Paul Bernd Spahn, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main 28
An example: The Eurodollar market
• The Eurodollar market (better: xeno market) is an off-shore market for the US dollar (more generally: any hard currency).
• It is characterized by the absence of mandatory reserve requirements for commercial banks.
• The experience has shown that this market had avoided “credit explosion”.