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Parental involvement and student self-regulation: Testing a mediational model
Joan M.T. Walker, James R. Dallaire,
Christa L. Green, Howard M. Sandler &
Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey
Many thanks to the Institute of Education Sciences for the funding that made this research possible
(OERI/IES #R305T010673-03).
Background
Parental involvement in children’s education has been associated consistently with student outcomes (Clark, 1983; Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995).
We have a limited understanding of how parents’ involvement behaviors influence children’s learning.
Purpose of the study
To learn more about how parents contribute to student outcomes, we investigated the influence of 4 specific parental involvement behaviors:
1. Modeling
2. Instruction
3. Reinforcement
4. Encouragement
Examined involvement in context of homework: represents a common involvement activity generalizable
across families narrow-band activity accessible to empirical
examination.
Potential paths of influence
Examined 2 paths of parental involvement influence Transmission model (i.e., direct path) Cognitive mediation (i.e., mediated path)
Parent involvement behaviors
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Parent involvement behaviors
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Defining parental involvement
Modeling: Implicit parent behavior that children attend to, retain, and reproduce during homework related activities.
Instruction: Explicit parent behavior in which parents share information and structure tasks to enhance student learning during homework related activities.
Reinforcement: Explicit parent behavior that children associate with positive homework outcomes.
Encouragement: Explicit parent behavior in which parents support the emotional and cognitive aspects of children’s homework related behaviors.
Defining student self-regulation
3 components comprised self-regulation: (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1990)
Strategy use: Observable tactics students use to enhance learning; behavioral.
Academic self-efficacy: Students’ beliefs in their ability to learn; cognitive.
Intrinsic motivation: Students’ desire to learn and joy in learning; affective.
4 criteria for mediation the predictor is associated with mediator the predictor is associated with dependent variable the mediator is associated with dependent variable the association between predictor and outcome is
less after controlling for mediator (Baron & Kenny, 1986).
Parent involvement behaviors
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Participants 350 students enrolled in a public school system in
the mid-South of the U.S. 4th-6th graders 38% were female
One parent of each participating child 83% female Median family income = $30-40K per year Typically high school graduate with some college 57% Caucasian 27% African-American 6% Hispanic 4% Asian
Independent variable: Parents’ self-reported behaviorCompleted questionnaires asking about homework involvement during Fall 2003
Modeling, 10 items (e.g. “We show this child that we like to learn new things;” = .94)
Instruction, 15 items (e.g., “We teach this child to go at his or her own pace while doing homework;” = .92).
Reinforcement, 13 items (e.g., “We show this child we like it when he or she checks his or her homework;” = .96).
Encouragement, 17 items (e.g., “We encourage this child when he or she doesn’t feel like doing homework;” = .92).
6-point scale (1 = not at all true for me, 6 = completely true for me)
Measures adapted from Martinez-Pons,1996
Mediator: Student perceptions
Students completed self-report questionnaires in classrooms; items preceded by stem, “The person who usually helps me with my homework…”
Modeling,10 items (e.g., “enjoys figuring things out,” = .75) Instruction, 15 items (e.g., “teaches me how to find out more
about things that interest me,” = .86) Reinforcement, 13 items (e.g., “shows me that he or she likes
it when I stick with a problem until it gets solved,” = .88) Encouragement, 12 items (e.g., “encourages me to try new
ways to do homework when I’m having a hard time,” = .87)
Modeling items loaded on one factor (implicit) whereas all other mechanisms loaded on a 2nd (explicit) factor.
Dependent variable: Student self-regulation
Strategy use, 4 items (e.g., “I go back over things I don’t understand,” .61; Stipek & Gralinski, 1996)
Academic self-efficacy, 3 items (e.g., “I can do even the hardest homework if I try,” .70; Roeser, Midgley & Urdan, 1996)
Intrinsic motivation to learn, 3 items (e.g., “I want to learn new things,” .66; Stipek & Gralinski, 1996)
All student items rated on 4-point scale (1 = not true, 4 = very true).
Testing for mediation We conducted 3 regressions:
Model 1: examined direct path; relationship between independent variable (parental involvement mechanisms) and dependent variable (student self-regulation)
Model 2: examined relationship between predictor and mediator (student perceptions of the parent’s behavior)
Model 3: used independent variable and mediator to predict dependent variable
If mediation is present, the predictor variable should be less highly associated with the dependent variable in Model 3 than in Model 1.
Results Criteria for mediation was not met:
Model 1: Weak path between parents’ involvement behaviors and student self-regulation
Model 2: Weak path between parent involvement behaviors and student perceptions
Strongest relationship between student perceptions and student self-reported behavior
Parent involvement behaviors
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Parent involvement behaviors
Student perceptions
Student self-regulation
Model 2
R2 = .07
Model 1 R2 = .04
R2 = .41
Results, cont’d.
Factor analyses revealed differences in student and parent perceptions of the parents’ behavior: Parents reported 4 factors, children reported 2 Interpreted child factors as:
Implicit (i.e., modeling items) Explicit (i.e., instruction, reinforcement,
encouragement items)
Explanations
Methods variance (i.e., same reporter) may have inflated correlation between student perceptions and student self-reports
Omitted variables Affective quality of parent-child relationship not assessed
(Grolnick & Ryan, 1986) Children’s developmental level
Simplistic views of parents’ involvement Limited ability to reflect on own engagement/abilities
High achievers may not require parents’ involvement during homework.
Post hoc analyses Explored relationships among variables
within high- and low-achieving students. Selected upper and lower 15% of sample
Correlations between parents’ self-reported involvement behaviors and child achievement were similar among the two groups.
Stronger correlations between student perceptions of parents’ behaviors and self-regulation among lower-achieving students Suggests parents’ involvement behaviors are
more salient to low achieving students.
Next steps
Achievement may act as a moderator. Children who do not inherently engage in self-
regulatory behaviors may more actively appropriate the parents’ behavior.
Continue to pursue mediational model. Tap general context in which parental
involvement mechanisms operate (Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Steinberg et al., 1992).
ReferencesBaron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social
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Clark, R. (1983). Family life and school achievement: Why poor Black children succeed and fail. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1993). Parent-school involvement during the early adolescent years. Teachers College Record, 94, 568-587.
Grolnick, W. S., & Ryan, R. M. (1989). Parent styles associated with children’s self-regulation and competence in school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81,143-154.
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