Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) The Future of School Psychology Task Force on Family-School Partnerships Kathryn Woods, Stephanie Bieltz, and Amanda

Parent ChildParent ChildInteraction Interaction TherapyTherapy(PCIT)(PCIT)

The Future of School Psychology Task Force on

Family-School Partnerships

Kathryn Woods, Stephanie Bieltz, and Amanda Clinton

DefinitionDefinition

PCIT is a short-term, empirically validated intervention that is designed

for families with young children. This form of treatment may be used for

externalizing and internalizing problems and a broad range of behavioral,

emotional, and developmental problems exhibited in

childhood.

See PCIT Handout 1 for More Information

Rationale for a Multi-Tiered Rationale for a Multi-Tiered Approach to Family-School Approach to Family-School

PartnershipsPartnerships Family-school partnerships provide a context for families and educators to collaboratively identify and prioritize concerns across a continuum of opportunities and intensities

Prevention and intervention efforts and supports are delivered toward a universal and targeted audience

A multi-tiered approach enables families and educators to provide services based on a student’s responsiveness to previous preventions, interventions, and supports

See PCIT Handout 2 for More Information

Explanation for a Multi-Explanation for a Multi-Tiered Approach to Family-Tiered Approach to Family-

School PartnershipsSchool Partnerships Provides various levels of family-school supports based on a student’s identified need and responsiveness to previous efforts Universal – Family-school collaboration provided to support all students and families (e.g., 4 As, Parent-School Collaboration, Parent Involvement, Parent Education)

Targeted – Family-school collaboration provided to support identified students and families unresponsive to previous universal efforts (e.g., Parent Education and Intervention, Parent Consultation)

Intensive – Family-school collaboration provided to students and families unresponsive to previous targeted efforts (e.g., Parent Consultation [conjoint behavioral consultation] and Parent Intervention)

Tier 2: Targeted Group InterventionsSpecific preventions and remedial interventions

for targeted groups of families and students identified as “at risk” and unresponsive to the

first tier (e.g., Parent Training and Intervention, Parent Consultation)

The Multi-Tiered Approach to The Multi-Tiered Approach to Family-School PartnershipsFamily-School Partnerships

Tier 1 80-90%

Tier 31-7%

Tier 25-15%

Tier 1: Universal Interventions

Engaging all families as collaborative partners (e.g., 4 As,

Family-School Collaboration, Parent Involvement, Parent

Education)

Tier 3: Intensive, Individual InterventionsIndividualized supports for families and students unresponsive to the first two tiers (e.g., Parent

Consultation [conjoint behavioral consultation] and Family Intervention)

Rationale for Using Rationale for Using PCITPCIT

Early intervention is critical to prevent negative developmental trajectories and outcomes

Unlike other techniques used to improve child behavior, PCIT emphasizes a comprehensive treatment approach that is focused on increasing positive behavior, decreasing negative behavior, and improving the parent-child relationship (McDiarmid & Bagner, 2005)

Parent-child relationships are at the heart of many intervention efforts and intervention efforts that focus on improving this relationship enable families to interact with their children and achieve satisfying relationships and positive outcomes for children and their families for years to come (Epps & Jackson, 2000)

See Overview Module for More Information on

Partnering with Families

PCIT ResearchPCIT Research Research examining the effectiveness of PCIT has found: Statistically and clinically significant improvements in child disruptive behaviors and noncompliance

Treatment effects that generalize to home, daycare, preschool, early elementary classroom settings, and untreated siblings

Significant improvements in parent reported activity and stress levels, child internalizing problems, and self-esteem

High degree of participant satisfaction Clinically significant improvements maintained at one and two-year follow-up evaluations

See PCIT Implementation Guidelines for Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of PCIT

Treatment GoalsTreatment Goals

Goals for treatment include: An improvement in the quality of the parent-child relationship

An increase in parenting skills An increase in child prosocial behaviors

A decrease in child behavior problems A decrease in parenting stress

(Hembree-Kigin & McNeil, 1995)

Steps in PCITSteps in PCIT

Step 1: Pretreatment Assessment of Child and Family Functioning and Feedback

Step 2: Teaching Behavioral Play Therapy Skills

Step 3: Coaching Behavioral Play Therapy

Skills Step 4: Teaching Discipline Skills

Steps in PCIT cont. Steps in PCIT cont.

Step 5: Coaching Discipline Skills Step 6: Posttreatment Assessment of Child and Family Functioning and Feedback

Step 7: Boosters

(Information on steps and session content gathered from Hembree-Kigin & McNeil, 1995)

Session #1 - IntakeSession #1 - Intake Average Length: 1-2 Sessions Process:

Information is gathered on concerns, developmental history, family functioning, and family stressors

Formal testing is conducted which will serve as a baseline measure of a child’s behavior and parenting skills

Therapist observes and may videotape how the parent and child interact with one another

Feedback on these interactions will be provided during the next session

See PCIT Implementation Guidelines for More Information on PCIT Sessions

Session #1 – IntakeSession #1 – Intake Process cont.:

Information is also collected regarding the family’s experience using time-out

Time-out is described in later sessions so it is important to inform the family that the time-out that will be described is different from the one that may have been used unsuccessfully in the past

Feedback regarding assessment results and treatment planning is provided

Preliminary feedback on observations is discussed along with results from formal testing

Parents are asked why they believe their child is experiencing problems

Therapist tries to reduce any feelings of guilt the parents may have for their child’s behavior problems while also encouraging them to take responsibility for successfully resolving them

Available ResourcesAvailable Resources Assessment tools that may be used during intake: Parent Report Measures:

Child Behavior Checklist – Parent Form Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory Parenting Stress Index Social Skills Rating System Conners Parent Rating Scale – Revised Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales Childhood Autism Rating Scale Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – 2

Beck Depression Inventory See PCIT Handout 3 for References

Available Resources Available Resources cont.cont.

Assessment tools that may be used during intake: Teacher Report Measures:

Sutter-Eyberg Student Behavior Inventory Child Behavior Checklist Social Skills Rating System Conners Teacher Rating Scale

Child Report Measures: Harter Pictoral Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – Revised

See PCIT Handout 3 for References

Session #2 – Session #2 – Teaching BehavioralTeaching Behavioral

Play Therapy Play Therapy Average Length: 1 Session Process:

Goals of behavioral play therapy are described Rationale for the use of brief daily home “play therapy” sessions is presented

“Do” and “Don’t” skills of behavioral play therapy are described

Use of strategic attention and selective ignoring are discussed

All skills are modeled together Parents are coached as they role-play skills

Logistics of play therapy at home are discussed

Session #2 – Session #2 – Teaching Behavioral Teaching Behavioral

Play TherapyPlay Therapy Goals of Behavioral Play Therapy

Goals based on presenting concerns Important to convey that playtime is a therapeutic intervention and not “just playing” with the child

Daily Home Play Therapy Practice To be done for at least 5 minutes everyday with the child leading the activity

Play therapy should not be viewed as a privilege that the child can earn or lose

Playtime is often more important on days when the child has misbehaved

Session #2 –Session #2 – Teaching Behavioral Teaching Behavioral

Play TherapyPlay Therapy “Do” Skills (DRIP)

Describe appropriate behavior Reflect appropriate verbalizations Imitate appropriate play Praise prosocial behavior

“Don’t” Skills Give commands or make requests Ask questions Criticize or correct in a negative way


Play TherapyPlay Therapy Using Strategic Attention

Involves using the “Do” skills of behavioral play therapy Used to reward the behaviors adults would like to see the child display more often

First, identify the behaviors or qualities that the parent sees as desirable and prosocial even if infrequent at first

Parents may want to think of the behaviors they would like to see their child display as opposed to their inappropriate behaviors

Once behaviors are identified, parents are to lookout for targeted behavior

“Catch the child being good” Parents are encouraged to use strategic attention and praise appropriate behavior as much as possible throughout the day


Play TherapyPlay Therapy Using Selective Ignoring

Parents are to identify behaviors or qualities they would like to see diminished

In order for ignoring to be effective the child must be doing the problem behavior to get a reaction or attention from the parent

Therapist then helps the parents analyze whether or not their attention rewards the child for engaging in each of the behaviors and whether the removal of attention should be expected to impact the behavior

Important for parents to understand that a behavior that is ignored will get worse before it gets better

Parents should determine if they can tolerate having the behavior get worse before it gets better

Parents must also understand that once they begin to ignore a behavior they must continue to ignore the behavior until it stops occurring


Play TherapyPlay Therapy Modeling Skills Together

The therapist may model the skills with the parent pretending to be the child or show a videotaped segment of a parent with a child who presented with similar problems

After demonstrating the combined skills the parent performs a role-play

The therapist should encourage parents to perform the “Do” skills and may suggest specific phrases for the parent to repeat

Purpose is to show the parent how it feels to do the skills and what it is like to have someone providing frequent feedback on their performance


Play TherapyPlay Therapy Considerations:

Behavioral play therapy is particularly helpful for one-parent families

These parents may often feel stressed and overburdened and this playtime provides them with positive interactions and time with their children

Two-parent families should consider alternating days in which each parent engages in play therapy with the child

Parents can also do play therapy at home with all of their children between the age of 2 and 7

Before leaving the session, parents should know when and where they will conduct play therapy in their home

Should be done in a place that is quiet, private, and free of distractions and should occur at about the same time everyday

Parents are reminded to practice for 5 minutes a day and are given a recording sheet to note whether or not they practiced and any difficulties or problems that came up during playtime

Session #3 – Session #3 – Coaching Behavioral Coaching Behavioral Play Therapy SkillsPlay Therapy Skills

Average Length: 2 – 4 Sessions Process:

Check-in and review homework Recording of play therapy skills Coaching of play therapy skills Feedback on progress and homework assignment

Individual time with child (optional)

Session #3 –Session #3 – Coaching Behavioral Coaching Behavioral Play Therapy SkillsPlay Therapy Skills

Observing Behavioral Play Therapy Skills The parent and child play together for five minutes and the therapist records the parent’s progress on a chart that is updated on a weekly basis

Progress is compared to mastery criteria

Criteria is based on concept of overlearning principles taught by therapists


Coaching the “Do” and “Don’t” Skills: Tips for Therapists Make coaching brief and precise

Should take the form of labeled praise, gentle correction, directives, and observations

Coach after nearly every parent verbalization Give more praise than correction Coach easier skills first Incorporate observations into feedback Make use of humor Move from more directive to less directive coaching


Qualitative Aspects of Parent-Child Interactions

Physical closeness and touching Eye contact, facial expressions, vocal qualities

Turn-taking, sharing, polite manners Developmentally sensitive teaching Task persistence

Session #4 – Session #4 – Teaching Discipline Skills Teaching Discipline Skills

Average Length: 1 Session Process:

Explain use of compliance exercises Discuss how to give effective directions Discuss how to determine if child has obeyed Discuss consequences for obeying Discuss consequences for disobeying Present backups for time-out Coach parents as they role-play discipline skills

Session #4 – Session #4 – Teaching Discipline SkillsTeaching Discipline Skills Importance of Compliance Exercises

Parents are informed of the importance of consistency, predictability, and follow-through

Parents are taught to view all misbehavior as falling into two categories: noncompliance and disruptiveness

Noncompliance – refusing to do what one is told

Disruptiveness – doing things that one is told not to do

Session #4 – Session #4 – Teaching Discipline SkillsTeaching Discipline Skills

Importance of Compliance Exercises cont. Best way to teach compliance is through practice

By receiving a great deal of enthusiastic praise for small accomplishments, the child views minding in a more positive light and the habit of defying simple requests is weakened

Once compliance is improved within these exercises parents are coached in more real-life situations such as getting their child to come in from outside


Determining Compliance: Even with well-stated commands it is sometimes difficult to determine if a child has obeyed

The following situations should be discussed with the parent to determine if the child complied with the parent’s direction

Doing something slightly different from the parent’s request

Dawdling “Playing Deaf” Partially complying Minding with a bad attitude Undoing


Consequences for Obeying Parents are taught to praise their child as specifically as possible when their child complies with a request

Labeled praise such as: “Thanks for minding,” “I like it when you do what I ask,” or “Good following instructions!”

When enthusiastic labeled praises are given for listening children begin to view compliance in a more positive light

In addition to labeled praise, the parent should mention that they are happy that the child did not have to go to time-out


Consequences for Disobeying If a child does not follow a parent’s command, parents are instructed to not repeat the command, but make a “two-choices statement”

Parents hold up two fingers and says in a neutral tone of voice, “You have two choices. You can put Mr. Potato Head back in the box or go to time-out.”

It is critical that a parent never provides a two-choices statement without being prepared to follow through with time-out

After giving the statement, parents are taught to watch closely to determine whether their child has complied

If so, enthusiastic praise is given If not, the parent should proceed with time-out


Time-Out Parent should escort child to time-out and then explain that the child is to sit in the chair until they can get off

The time-out chair should be in a specific, “boring” location that is free from distractions or attention from others

Time-out is over after the child has spent three minutes in time-out chair

More time may be added if child misbehaves in time-out chair


Backups for time-out Isolation in another room Restriction of privileges

Ways to handle time-out escape Stand by time-out chair Place hand on child’s shoulder as they sit in time-out

Repeatedly place child back in time-out chair Add additional time for time-out escapes Explain to child that time-out does not begin until they sit appropriately

Parents role-play discipline skills Time-out procedures are reviewed Parents should not use time-out until after the next session with additional coaching by the therapist

Session #5 –Session #5 – Coaching Discipline Coaching Discipline

SkillsSkills Average Length: 4-6 Sessions Process:

Rehearse time-out with family Coach discipline skills Combine play therapy and discipline skills

Coach time-out

Session #5 – Session #5 – Coaching Discipline SkillsCoaching Discipline Skills Guidelines for Coaching Discipline Skills Give one instruction at a time Use positively stated instructions Coach both verbal and nonverbal communication

Praise parental compliance Offer support and reassurance Use relaxation training strategies

Session #6 – Session #6 – Posttreatment Assessment Posttreatment Assessment

of of Child and FamilyChild and Family

Average Length: 1 – 2 Sessions Process:

Therapist and family review therapy progress

Discuss strategies for addressing any remaining problems

Decide on a schedule for maintenance or “booster” sessions

Session #6 – Session #6 – Posttreatment Assessment Posttreatment Assessment

of of Child and FamilyChild and Family

Measures that were administered before treatment are repeated Changes on formal measures and videotaped interactions of the family from pretreatment to posttreatment are reviewed

Problem-solving skills are reviewed with the parents so that they can apply their new parenting strategies to a variety of problems that may come up Parents are asked to identify at least one remaining concern and formulate a plan to address this concern

CASE EXAMPLE

BackgroundBackground

Tommy is a 5-year, 3 month-old English-speaking African-American male who demonstrates behavioral difficulties including talking back to adults, ignoring directions, and hitting other children when frustrated

He is the child of an older single mother and has two siblings in their early twenties

Step 1 – Step 1 – Pretreatment AssessmentPretreatment Assessment

Interview: Mrs. Smith, Tommy, and Tommy’s siblings attend the session

First, the limits of confidentiality are explained to the family

During a semi-structured interview, Mrs. Smith describes Tommy’s developmental history, which is significant for slight language delays. She shares that the family is under considerable stress given her long work days, the absence of Tommy’s father, and the need to rely on her adult children to care for Tommy after preschool

Step 1 – Step 1 – Pretreatment Assessment, Pretreatment Assessment,

cont.cont. Interview, cont.:

During the interview, Tommy is permitted to play with toys in the room. He is observed by the therapist to select plastic dinosaurs which he has ‘run’ in the air and often strikes against one another with loud crashing sounds

As Tommy becomes increasingly louder and more active, Mrs. Smith responds to his behavior by yelling, “Stop!” Similar techniques are employed by Tommy’s elder sister, while his brother ignores Tommy

The therapist is careful to encourage Mrs. Smith to feel comfortable managing her son’s behavior as best she can and does not intervene

Step 2 – Formal Step 2 – Formal AssessmentAssessment

Formal Assessment: Tommy is observed for a few minutes while the therapist speaks to his mother about the questionnaires she will complete

Next, formal assessment is conducted Tommy is administered the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test due to reported concerns about his language development

While Tommy is being evaluated, Mrs. Smith responds to the items on a series of behavioral checklists, including the Child Behavior Checklist – Parent Form, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, and Parenting Stress Index, in order to establish baseline information

Step 2 – Step 2 – Teaching Behavioral Teaching Behavioral

Play TherapyPlay Therapy Teaching Play Therapy:

Mrs. Smith receives information about the goals of play therapy

Mrs. Smith learns that the interventions are designed to improve her relationship with her son while reducing Tommy’s aggression and anger and increasing his self-esteem

Daily home therapy is explained to her as being done for at least 5 minutes each day and that the child should lead the activity

She expresses understanding, along with doubts, that this 5 minute play activity must take place even on days when Tommy has been non-compliant because it can break the negative cycle of behavioral non-compliance

Step 2 – Step 2 – Teaching Behavioral Teaching Behavioral Play Therapy, cont.Play Therapy, cont.

Teaching Play Therapy, cont.: The therapist explains the acronym “DRIP” to Mrs. Smith.

Mrs. Smith practices with the therapist, starting out by saying, “You play with the dolls.” The therapist reminds her it is important to describe, reflect, imitate, and praise. Mrs. Smith then says, as the therapist picks up a car and starts to play with it, “You picked a red car and you are driving it along the street.”

Step 2 – Step 2 – Teaching Behavioral Teaching Behavioral Play Therapy, cont.Play Therapy, cont.

Teaching Play Therapy, cont.: When Mrs. Smith demonstrates a solid grasp of the use of “DRIP” techniques through role plays with the therapist, she and the therapist make plans for follow-up play sessions at home

Mrs. Smith decides that the most convenient place and time to practice behavioral play therapy will be just after dinner each day. She plans to play with Tommy in his room, since it is a relatively quiet location

Step 3 – Step 3 – Coaching Behavioral Coaching Behavioral

Play TherapyPlay Therapy

Coaching Play Therapy: Mrs. Smith shares her record of play therapy sessions

She demonstrates that she engaged in play therapy 5 of the 7 days between sessions

Her efforts and consistency are praised by the therapist

Step 3 – Step 3 – Coaching Behavioral Coaching Behavioral

Play TherapyPlay Therapy Coaching Play Therapy, cont.:

Next, Mrs. Smith and Tommy play together for 5 minutes in a therapy room while the therapist observes behind a one-way mirror

Mrs. Smith is reminded to praise Tommy when he shares his toy with her and to avoid asking questions and giving commands

Step 3 – Step 3 – Coaching Behavioral Coaching Behavioral Play Therapy, cont.Play Therapy, cont.

Coaching Play Therapy, cont.: Mrs. Smith shares her record of play therapy sessions indicating that she engaged in play therapy 6 of the 7 days between sessions

During this 2nd session, focused on coaching behavioral play therapy, Mrs. Smith is encouraged to ignore behaviors that continue to be of concern to her. Specifically, when Tommy grabs toys away from her or bangs them together, she attends to another toy and does not say anything

As soon as Tommy realizes that his mother is not attending to his acting out, he offers to share with her. Mrs. Smith reflects on this behavior and praises him

Step 3 – Step 3 – Coaching BehavioralCoaching Behavioral Play Therapy, cont. Play Therapy, cont.

Coaching Play Therapy, cont.: Mrs. Smith shares that she engaged in play therapy 4 of the 7 days between sessions

During this session, qualitative aspects of PCIT are the focus

Mrs. Smith is encouraged to make eye contact with Tommy and sit close to him or give him a hug when he engages in appropriate behaviors, especially when he persists on a task that is difficult for him

Tommy responded to attention from his mother by continuing to engage in appropriate behaviors

Step 4 – Step 4 – Teaching Discipline Teaching Discipline

SkillsSkills Teaching Discipline:

This session explains to Mrs. Smith how to effectively implement consequences for Tommy’s inappropriate behavior

The therapist focuses on increasing Tommy’s compliance during play by helping Mrs. Smith give effective directions to Tommy

When they are not followed, Mrs. Smith identifies and responds to non-compliant behavior

Step 4 – Step 4 – Teaching Discipline Teaching Discipline

SkillsSkills Teaching Discipline, cont.:

Mrs. Smith gives Tommy two choices, to follow her command or go to time-out

Mrs. Smith practices giving direct commands and the use of time-out in the therapist’s office

Step 5 – Step 5 – Coaching Discipline Coaching Discipline

SkillsSkills Coaching Discipline:

Mrs. Smith is taught to increase Tommy’s compliance with her requests by setting small goals toward a skill that she knows Tommy can learn

Mrs. Smith picks building a house with blocks, since she knows Tommy can do it. She begins by giving Tommy a single simple instruction, “Tommy, put the red blocks at the bottom of the house”

When he does so, she smiles broadly, gives him a pat on the back and says, “Good listening! You put the red blocks at the bottom of the house”


SkillsSkills Coaching Discipline, cont.:

Mrs. Smith continues to give commands in simple language

When Tommy is noncompliant, Mrs. Smith holds up two fingers and calmly but firmly says, “Tommy, you have two choices. You can put the roof on the house or go to time-out”

Tommy stands with his arms folded looking at his mother then throws a block

Mrs. Smith gets up and escorts Tommy to time-out. He will not go with her so she gently picks him up and sets him in the pre-determined time-out area for 3 minutes



When time-out is over, Mrs. Smith repeats the original command in which Tommy was noncompliant

Mrs. Smith says, “Tommy, put the cardboard on top for a roof.” Tommy does nothing

Mrs. Smith holds up two fingers and says, “Tommy, you have two choices. You can put the chimney on the roof on the house or go to time-out.”

Tommy hesitates, and then puts the chimney on the roof of the house, which causes it to collapse

Mrs. Smith praises Tommy for showing he was listening by putting chimney on the house



Mrs. Smith and Tommy play in an appropriate manner without further events during this session

Tommy obeys commands that his mother makes in an appropriate fashion and time-out is not required

Step 6 – Step 6 – Posttreatment Posttreatment AssessmentAssessment

Posttreatment Assessment: The measures utilized in the initial assessment are re-administered in order to provide comparative results to Mrs. Smith

Results indicate that Tommy demonstrates significantly less aggression during play and more appropriate methods for seeking his mother’s attention. Areas of progress are discussed and comparison scenes on videotape are shown to demonstrate Tommy’s improvements

Tommy’s remaining difficulties of a short attention span and limited coping skills for challenges are discussed

Mrs. Smith indicates a willingness to continue to work on gradually increasing Tommy’s play sessions to help with his attention span. She also discusses ways in which she can provide additional praise that might influence greater coping during play therapy sessions at home

Step 6 – Step 6 – Posttreatment Posttreatment AssessmentAssessment

Posttreatment Assessment, cont.: Maintenance sessions are scheduled once a month with Mrs. Smith and Tommy

At each session, the therapist and Mrs. Smith discuss present concerns and ways to address them

Mrs. Smith and Tommy spend time interacting with one another while the therapist provides feedback and reinforcement as needed

A future booster session is scheduled for 3 months after their last meeting

Future DirectionsFuture Directions

Determine what specific context or individual variables lead to greater treatment effectiveness

Identify groups most likely to benefit from treatment to ensure that services are provided to those who will most likely benefit

Identify groups who have shown to be less responsive to treatment to identify groups in need of further study and how to modify PCIT procedures to better serve these groups

Examine effects in real-world clinics without intense supervision to improve treatment protocols and dissemination

Examine outcomes for families that do not complete training

(Herschell, Calzada, Eyberg, McNeil, 2002)


Examine the range of comorbid disorders (e.g. internalizing disorders, chronic pediatric illness, developmental disorders) that may be affected by PCIT

Explore the extent to which PCIT can be adapted Investigate effectiveness of PCIT among diverse populations in terms of ethnicity and cultural factors

Determine ways in which treatment should be tailored to maximize gains in minority groups

Examine what therapist behaviors contribute to improved treatment outcomes



Identify families at-risk for drop out and factors that may promote their adherence to treatment

Determine the level of training necessary to produce therapeutic gains

Evaluate alternate ways to deliver treatment to ensure accurate implementation so critical treatment components are not altered

Examine long-term maintenance of treatment effects

Predictors of long-term treatment outcomes


ReferencesReferencesBates, S. L. (2005). Evidence-based family-school interventions with

preschool children. School Psychology Quarterly, 20, 352-370.

Epps, S. & Jackson, B. (2000). Empowered families, successful children: Early intervention programs that work. American Psychological Association.

Hembree-Kigin, T.L. & McNeil, C.B. (1995). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy. New York: Plenum Press.

Herschell, A. D., Calzada, E. J., Eyberg, S. M., & McNeil, C. B. (2002). Parent child interaction therapy: New directions in research. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 9-16.

Jacob-Timm, S. & Hartshorne, T. S. (1998). Ethics and law for school psychologists (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley & Sons.

McDiarmid, M. D. & Bagner, D. M. (2005). Parent-child interaction therapy for children with disruptive behavior and developmental disabilities. Education and Treatment of Children, 28, 130-141.

Documents

Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) The Future of School Psychology Task Force on Family-School Partnerships Kathryn Woods, Stephanie Bieltz, and Amanda