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156
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
We
can
also
see
fro
m t
he l
ist
that
the
re i
s so
me
mor
e w
ork
to b
edo
ne.
The
rea
lly
diff
icul
t ar
eas,
esp
ecia
lly I
ntro
duct
ions
and
Dis
cus-
sion
s, n
eed
cons
ider
able
att
enti
on.
We
also
nee
d to
con
side
r w
riti
ngup
Met
hods
and
Res
ults
for
res
earc
h pa
pers
(R
Ps)
, as
opp
osed
to,
say,
lab
rep
orts
. T
here
are
som
e sm
alle
r bi
ts o
f bu
sine
ss,
such
as
ackn
owle
dgm
ents
and
tit
les
to b
e di
scus
sed.
Eve
n so
, en
ough
has
been
don
e to
mak
e it
pos
sibl
e.W
hen
you
read
an
RP
, you
may
thin
k th
at it
is a
sim
ple,
forw
ard
acco
unt
of a
n R
Ps
are
ofte
n de
sign
edto
cre
ate
this
impr
essi
on.
How
ever
, we
belie
ve th
at s
uch
impr
essi
ons
are
larg
ely
mis
lead
ing.
Wri
ters
of R
Ps,
in
our
opin
ion,
ope
rate
in
ast
rate
gic
man
ner.
Thi
s is
pri
ncip
ally
bec
ause
suc
h w
rite
rs k
now
that
RP
s ha
ve t
o ju
stif
y th
emse
lves
. T
hey
need
to
esta
blis
h th
at t
he r
e-se
arch
que
stio
ns a
re s
uffi
cien
tly i
nter
esti
ng.
The
y ne
ed t
o de
mon
-st
rate
th
at t
he
rese
arch
que
stio
ns a
re,
in t
heor
y, a
nsw
erab
le.
And
they
nee
d to
com
pete
aga
inst
oth
er R
Ps
for
acce
ptan
ce a
nd r
ecog
ni-
tion
. A
s a
resu
lt,
RP
au
thor
s ar
e ve
ry
muc
h co
ncer
ned
wit
h s
how
ing
that
the
ir s
tudi
es a
re r
elev
ant
and
sig-
nifi
cant
and
hav
e so
me
new
con
trib
utio
n to
mak
e.
Overv
iew
of
the R
ese
arc
h P
ap
er
The
ove
rall
rhe
tori
cal
shap
e of
a t
ypic
al R
P i
s sh
own
in f
igur
e 10
.T
his
diag
ram
gi
ves
a us
eful
in
dica
tion
of
th
e ou
t-in
-out
or
gene
ral-
spec
ific
-gen
eral
mov
emen
t of
the
typ
ical
RP
. A
s th
e R
P i
nE
ngli
sh h
as d
evel
oped
ove
r th
e la
st h
undr
ed y
ears
or
so,
the
four
diff
eren
t se
ctio
ns h
ave
thu
s be
com
e id
entif
ied
wit
h fo
ur d
iffe
rent
purp
oses
.
Intr
oduc
tion
(I)
Met
hods
(M)
The
mai
n pu
rpos
e of
the
Intr
oduc
tion
is
topr
ovid
e th
e ra
tion
ale
for
the
pape
r, m
ovin
gfr
om g
ener
al d
iscu
ssio
n of
the
topi
c to
the
part
icul
ar q
uest
ion
or h
ypot
hesi
s be
ing
inve
s-ti
gate
d. A
sec
onda
ry p
urpo
se i
s to
att
ract
in-
tere
st i
n th
e h
ence
rea
ders
.T
he M
etho
ds s
ectio
n de
scri
bes,
in
vari
ous
de-
gree
s of
det
ail,
met
hodo
logy
, m
ater
ials
, an
dpr
oced
ures
. T
his
is t
he n
arro
wes
t p
art
ofth
e R
P.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 15
7
Intr
od
uct
ion
(I)
Met
hod
s (a
nd
mat
eria
ls)
(M)
Res
ult
s (R
)
Dis
cuss
ion
(D
)
Gen
eral
Spe
cifi
c
Spe
cifi
c
\G
ener
al
Fig
. 10
. O
ver
all
shap
e o
f a
rese
arch
pap
er
Res
ults
(R
)
Dis
cuss
ion
(D)
In t
he
Res
ults
sec
tion,
th
e fi
ndin
gs a
re d
e-sc
ribe
d, a
ccom
pani
ed b
y va
riab
le a
mou
nts
ofco
mm
enta
ry.
The
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
offe
rs a
n in
crea
sing
lyge
nera
lize
d ac
coun
t of
wha
t ha
s be
en l
earn
edin
th
e st
udy.
Thi
s is
usu
ally
don
e th
roug
h a
seri
es o
f "p
oint
s,"
at l
east
som
e of
whi
ch r
efer
back
to
stat
emen
ts m
ade
in t
he I
ntro
duct
ion.
As
a re
sult
of t
hese
dif
fere
nt p
urpo
ses,
th
e fo
ur s
ecti
ons
have
tak
enon
dif
fere
nt l
ingu
isti
c ch
arac
teri
stic
s. W
e su
mm
ariz
e so
me
of th
ese
tab
le 1
7. T
he f
irst
lin
e of
the
tabl
e sh
ows,
for
ins
tanc
e, t
hat
the
Pre
sent
ten
se i
s co
mm
on i
n In
trod
ucti
ons
and
Dis
cuss
ions
, bu
t un
-co
mm
on i
n M
etho
ds a
nd R
esul
ts.
One
199
3 D
orot
hea
Tho
mps
on p
ubli
shed
a u
sefu
l R
P o
n R
esul
ts s
ec-
tion
s in
bio
chem
istr
y ar
ticl
es.
She
was
par
ticu
larl
y in
tere
sted
in
158
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
TA
BL
E 1
7.
Fre
quen
cies
of
Sel
ecte
d It
ems
in R
P S
ectio
ns
Pre
sent
ten
seP
ast
tens
eP
assi
ve v
oice
Cit
atio
ns/r
efer
ence
sQ
ualif
icat
ion
Com
men
tary
Intr
oduc
tion
high
mid
low
high
mid
high
Met
hods
low
high
high
low
low
low
Res
ults
low
high
vari
able
vari
able
mid
vari
able
Dis
cuss
ion
high
mid
vari
able
high
high
high
wh
at k
ind
s o
f co
mm
ents
res
earc
her
s m
ade
in t
hei
r R
esu
lts
sect
ion
san
d w
het
her
res
earc
her
s fo
llow
ed t
he
gu
idel
ines
in
man
ual
s. H
ere
are
eig
ht
sen
ten
ces
from
her
pap
er.
Bas
ed o
n ta
ble
17
and
on
yo
ur
own
kn
ow
led
ge,
can
you
gu
ess
from
whi
ch o
f th
e se
ctio
ns
they
com
e?M
ark
each
one
/,
M,
R,
or
D.
Th
ere
are
two
sen
ten
ces
from
eac
hse
ctio
n.
Wor
k w
ith
a p
artn
er,
if p
ossi
ble.
1.
Onl
y fu
rth
er r
esea
rch
can
det
erm
ine
the
app
lica
bil
ity
of
this
stu
dy
's f
ind
ing
s to
sci
enti
fic
dis
cip
lin
es o
uts
ide
bio-
chem
istr
y.
—
2.
Th
e d
ata
wer
e an
aly
zed
bo
th q
ual
itat
ivel
y an
d q
uan
-ti
tati
vel
y.
3.
Sh
ort
co
mm
un
icat
ion
s an
d m
ini-
rev
iew
s w
ere
excl
uded
from
th
e sa
mp
le b
ecau
se t
hes
e p
ub
lica
tio
ns
hav
e di
ffer
ent
obje
ctiv
es a
nd
use
a d
iffe
rent
fo
rmat
fro
m t
hat
of
the
ex-
per
imen
tal
rese
arch
art
icle
.4
. T
he
assu
mp
tio
ns
un
der
lyin
g th
is s
tud
y ar
e g
rou
nd
edla
rgel
y in
soc
iolo
gica
l ac
cou
nts
of
the
scie
ntif
ic e
nte
rpri
se(K
no
rr-C
etin
a, 1
981;
Lat
ou
r, 1
987;
Lat
ou
r an
d W
oolg
ar,
1979
).5
. T
hes
e st
yle
gu
ides
are
, at
bes
t, s
uper
fici
al d
escr
ipti
on
s o
fth
e co
nte
nt
of
thes
e se
ctio
ns.
6.
In 1
5 o
f th
e sa
mp
le a
rtic
les,
th
ese
met
hodo
logi
cal
nar
ra-
tiv
es i
ncl
ud
ed e
xpli
cit
just
ific
atio
ns
for
the
sele
ctio
n of
cert
ain
tech
nic
al p
roce
du
res,
lab
ora
tory
eq
uip
men
t, o
r al
-te
rnat
ives
to
stan
dar
d pr
otoc
ols.
7.
Sci
enti
fic
sty
le m
anu
als
rein
forc
e th
e co
ncep
tion
th
at R
e-su
lts
sect
ion
s si
mpl
y p
rese
nt
exp
erim
enta
l d
ata
in a
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 15
9
"col
d,"
pu
rely
obj
ecti
ve,
exp
osi
tory
man
ner
(C
ounc
il o
f B
i-ol
ogy
Ed
ito
rs,
1972
; D
ay,
1988
; M
itch
ell,
196
8; W
oodf
ord,
1968
).8
. In
38%
of
the
JBC
Res
ult
s se
ctio
ns
sam
ple
d,
and
his
co
-au
tho
rs d
irec
tly
rela
te t
hei
r fi
nd
ing
s to
th
ose
of
earl
ier
stu
die
s, a
s th
e fo
llow
ing
illu
stra
te:
. .
.
Met
ho
ds
You
mig
ht
hav
e ex
pec
ted
us t
o b
egin
ou
r d
iscu
ssio
n of
RP
sec
tio
ns
wit
h th
e In
tro
du
ctio
n.
Inst
ead
, w
e ar
e b
egin
nin
g w
ith
Met
ho
ds.
Th
isis
usu
ally
th
e ea
sies
t se
ctio
n to
wri
te a
nd
, in
fac
t, i
t is
oft
en t
he
sect
ion
that
res
earc
her
s w
rite
fir
st.
In U
nit
s S
even
an
d E
igh
t, w
e w
ill
invo
lve
you
in t
he
wri
tin
g u
p o
fa
ver
y sm
all
rese
arch
in
ves
tig
atio
n o
f o
ur
own.
Am
ong
oth
er t
hin
gs,
we
ho
pe
in t
his
way
to
illu
stra
te c
erta
in s
trat
egic
asp
ects
of
RP
wri
tin
g.
We
sum
mar
ize
ou
r m
inip
roje
ct i
n T
ask
Tw
o.Y
ou w
ill
rem
emb
er f
rom
Un
it O
ne
that
sen
ten
ce c
on
nec
tors
are
wor
ds l
ike
how
ever
an
d th
eref
ore.
We
bec
ame
inte
rest
ed i
n th
e po
si-
tion
of
sen
ten
ce c
on
nec
tors
in
wri
tten
aca
dem
ic E
ng
lish
sen
ten
ces.
We
bec
ame
curi
ou
s ab
ou
t th
is s
ince
we
foun
d th
at t
he
stan
dar
dg
ram
mar
s o
f En
gli
sh h
ad l
ittl
e to
say
on
this
to
pic
. W
e ar
e cu
rren
tly
wri
tin
g u
p o
ur
smal
l-sc
ale
inv
esti
gat
ion
. L
ike
man
y o
ther
ac
a-de
mic
s, w
e st
arte
d w
ith
Met
ho
ds.
Tas
k T
wo
Her
e is
o
ur
dra
ft.
Ple
ase
read
it
and
an
swer
th
e q
ues
tion
s th
at
follo
w.
Met
hods
ord
er t
o in
ves
tig
ate
the
po
siti
on
of c
on
nec
tors
, w
e ex
amin
edth
eir
occ
urr
ence
in
acad
emic
pap
ers
pu
bli
shed
in
thre
e jo
urn
als.
sam
ple
co
nsi
sted
of
all
the
mai
n ar
ticl
es a
pp
eari
ng
in t
he
thir
d is
sues
of t
he
1992
vo
lum
es o
f Col
lege
Com
posi
tion
and
Com
- E
ngli
sh f
or S
peci
fic
Pur
pose
s,
and
Res
earc
h in
th
eT
each
ing
of E
ngli
sh.
Ap
pen
dix
A f
or a
lis
t of
th
e ar
ticl
es
160
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
stu
die
d.)
sam
ple
am
ou
nte
d to
ab
ou
t 23
0 ru
nn
ing
pag
es o
fte
xt,
co
mp
risi
ng
12
arti
cles
(fo
ur f
rom
eac
h jo
urn
al).
occ
ur-
ren
ce o
f a
con
nec
tor
was
ide
ntif
ied,
hig
hli
gh
ted
, an
d th
en c
oded
for
on
e o
f th
ree
po
siti
on
s in
a c
lau
se.
th
e co
nn
ecto
r w
as t
he
firs
t o
r la
st w
ord
in t
he
clau
se,
it w
as d
esig
nat
ed "
init
ial"
or
"fin
al"
resp
ecti
vel
y.
it o
ccu
rred
in
any
oth
er p
osi
tio
n,
it w
as c
lass
ifie
das
"m
edia
l."
fol
low
ing
exam
ple
s il
lust
rate
th
e co
ding
sys
-te
m:
A t
-tes
t w
as r
un
;
how
ever
, th
e re
sult
s w
ere
insi
gn
ific
ant.
In
itia
lth
e re
sult
s, h
owev
er,
wer
e in
sig
nif
ican
t.
Med
ial
the
resu
lts
wer
e, h
owev
er,
insi
gn
ific
ant.
M
edia
lth
e re
sult
s w
ere
insi
gn
ific
ant,
how
ever
. F
inal
th
e p
urp
ose
s of
th
is s
tud
y,
the
cate
go
ry o
f se
nte
nce
con
-n
ecto
r w
as i
nte
rpre
ted
qu
ite
bro
adly
. i
ncl
ud
ed i
tem
s li
ke
unfo
rtun
atel
y th
at a
re s
om
etim
es c
on
sid
ered
to
be
sen
ten
ce a
d-
ver
bs.
in
clu
ded
su
ch i
tem
s as
as
it w
ere
and
in t
urn,
whi
chh
ave
an u
nce
rtai
n g
ram
mat
ical
sta
tus.
als
o co
un
ted
con-
jun
ctio
ns
lik
e bu
t as
co
nn
ecto
rs w
hen
th
ey o
ccu
rred
as
firs
t el
e-m
ents
in
se
nte
nce
s, b
ecau
se t
hey
see
med
to
be
func
tion
ing
asco
nn
ecto
rs i
n th
ese
con
tex
ts.
1.
As
is c
ust
om
ary
, th
e m
ain
ten
se i
n o
ur
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
is t
he
pas
t. I
n on
e se
nte
nce
, ho
wev
er,
the
mai
n v
erb
is i
n th
e p
rese
nt.
Wh
ich
one
is i
t an
d w
hy?
2.
Co
nsi
der
th
e fo
llow
ing
sub
ject
-ver
b co
mb
inat
ion
s fr
om s
en-
ten
ces
in o
ur
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
:
1. w
e ex
amin
ed .
. .
5.
each
occ
urr
ence
was
id
enti
fied
..
.6
. it
was
des
ign
ated
. .
.7
. it
was
cla
ssif
ied
...
9.
the
cate
go
ry w
as i
nte
rpre
ted
. .
.10
. w
e in
clu
ded
. .
. w
e in
clu
ded
. .
.12
. w
e co
un
ted
. .
.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 16
1
Th
ese
eig
ht
sen
ten
ces
des
crib
e w
hat
we
did
. A
s yo
u ca
n se
e, i
nfo
ur c
ases
we
use
d th
e p
ast
pas
siv
e, a
nd
in f
our
case
s w
e u
sed
we
and
the
pas
t ac
tiv
e. I
s th
is s
wit
chin
g ac
cep
tab
le t
o yo
u?C
ould
you
do
this
in
yo
ur
fiel
d?
Wh
at w
ould
yo
ur
adv
iso
r o
r in
-st
ruct
or
reco
mm
end
? D
o yo
u th
ink
we
sho
uld
hav
e b
een
con
sis-
ten
t? I
n o
ther
wo
rds,
do
you
thin
k w
e sh
ou
ld h
ave
use
d ei
ther
the
pas
siv
e o
r w
e al
l th
e w
ay t
hro
ug
h?
In a
cla
ssic
198
1 p
aper
, T
aro
ne
et a
rgu
e th
at t
he
choi
ce o
fp
assi
ve
ver
sus
we
+ a
ctiv
e is
no
t al
way
s a
"fre
e" s
tyli
stic
choi
ce.
Acc
ordi
ng t
o T
aro
ne
et a
l.,
the
pas
siv
e in
th
e as
tro
-p
hy
sics
pap
ers
they
ex
amin
ed i
s u
sed
for
stan
dar
d p
roce
du
res,
whi
le t
he
use
of
we
sig
nal
s so
met
hin
g ne
w o
r u
nex
pec
ted
. D
oyo
u th
ink
this
mig
ht
be
tru
e o
f y
ou
r fi
eld?
3.
Do
you
thin
k th
e th
ird
par
agra
ph
sho
uld
com
e be
fore
th
ese
cond
? W
hat
are
th
e ad
van
tag
es a
nd
dis
adv
anta
ges
of
such
ach
ange
?
4.
As
it h
app
ens,
ou
r ac
cou
nt
of
Met
ho
ds
is n
ot
qu
ite
accu
rate
. In
actu
al f
act,
we
con
du
cted
a p
ilo
t st
ud
y o
n on
e jo
urn
al.
Wh
enth
at e
xp
erie
nce
ap
pea
red
to w
ork
ou
t, w
e ex
ten
ded
th
e sa
mp
le.
Is t
her
e an
y go
od r
easo
n fo
r m
enti
on
ing
this
par
t o
f th
e (t
rue)
sto
ry?
Wh
en y
ou w
rite
up
a M
eth
od
s se
ctio
n, i
s it
ap
pro
pri
ate
to s
impl
ify
or
stra
igh
ten
ou
t th
e ac
tual
pro
cess
? Is
it
OK
to
"tid
y u
p"
in t
his
way
?
F
inal
ly,
wou
ld y
ou l
ike
to g
ues
s w
hat
ou
r re
sult
s w
ere?
Wh
atp
erce
nta
ge
of
con
nec
tors
wer
e in
itia
l, m
edia
l, a
nd
fin
al?
Lan
gu
age
Focu
s: I
mp
erati
ves
in
Res
earc
h P
ap
ers
th
e M
eth
od
s se
ctio
n in
Tas
k T
wo,
sen
ten
ce 3
cu
rren
tly
read
s:
(See
Ap
pen
dix
A f
or a
lis
t of
th
e ar
ticl
es s
tud
ied
.)
cou
ld,
of c
ou
rse,
hav
e w
ritt
en:
(A l
ist
of t
he
arti
cles
stu
die
d is
giv
en i
n A
pp
end
ix A
.)
162
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Co
mm
and
-lik
e im
per
ativ
es a
re c
omm
on i
n te
xtb
oo
ks,
man
ual
s, l
ec-
ture
s, a
nd
lab
s.
Ana
lyze
th
e re
sult
s in
fig
ure
1.
Com
plet
e th
e fo
llow
ing
sen
ten
ces.
Not
ice
the
rela
tio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
A a
nd
B.
Pre
pare
5cc
of
dis
till
ate.
Car
ry
this
to
tal
forw
ard.
In R
Ps,
ho
wev
er,
imp
erat
ives
are
les
s co
mm
only
use
d b
ecau
seth
ey m
ay b
e of
fens
ive.
Th
ey m
ay u
pse
t th
e fr
agil
e re
lati
on
ship
be-
twee
n th
e w
rite
r an
d th
e re
ader
, si
nce
the
read
er (
inst
ruct
or,
ad
vi-
sor,
or
som
eone
ou
tsid
e) c
an b
e ex
pect
ed t
o h
ave
a st
atu
s co
mp
arab
leto
or
hig
her
th
an t
he
auth
or.
How
ever
, on
e v
erb
is w
idel
y u
sed
in m
any
RP
fie
lds.
In
dee
d,
itm
ay a
cco
un
t fo
r up
to
50%
of
all
the
(occ
asio
nal)
use
s of
the
imp
era-
tiv
e in
res
earc
h w
riti
ng
. A
s yo
u m
ay h
ave
gu
esse
d b
y no
w,
that
ver
bis
let
.
Let
p s
tan
d fo
r th
e pr
ice-
cost
rat
ioL
et N
eq
ual
th
e n
um
ber
of
con
sum
ers
A f
ew o
ther
im
per
ativ
e v
erb
s ca
n b
e fo
und
in m
ath
emat
ical
arg
u-
men
ts,
such
as
supp
ose,
sub
stit
ute,
an
d as
sum
e.A
rat
her
mo
re d
iffi
cult
cas
e oc
curs
wh
en y
ou w
ant
to d
irec
t y
ou
rre
ader
s' a
tten
tio
n to
som
e p
arti
cula
r p
oin
t, a
s w
e di
d w
hen
we
wro
te"(
See
Ap
pen
dix
A f
or a
lis
t )
." W
e w
ante
d th
e re
ader
s to
kno
wat
th
is
po
int
in
ou
r p
aper
th
at
we
hav
e el
sew
her
e pr
ovid
ed
full
det
ails
of
ou
r d
ata.
In R
Ps
wou
ld y
ou a
ccep
t im
per
ativ
e u
ses
of t
he
foll
owin
g, a
nd
, if
so,
can
you
pro
vid
e an
ex
amp
le?
1. N
otic
e2
. C
on
sid
er3
. Im
agin
e4.
N
ote
5.
Ref
er
Co
mp
are
7.
Rec
all
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 16
3
8.
Ob
serv
e9.
T
ake
the
case
of,
etc.
10.
Dis
reg
ard
If y
ou t
hin
k th
at a
n im
per
ativ
e m
igh
t ca
use
off
ense
by
bei
ng
impo
-li
te,
ther
e ar
e ea
sy w
ays
of
esca
pe.
Imp
erat
ive
Pas
siv
e
Now
co
mp
are
the
resu
lts
in t
able
s 4
and
5.
Th
e re
sult
s in
tab
les
4 an
d 5
can
now
be
com
-p
ared
.C
on
dit
ion
al.
If w
e no
w c
om
par
e th
e re
sult
s in
tab
les
4 an
d5
, w
e ca
n se
e th
at .
. .
Wri
tin
g U
p a
Met
ho
ds
Sec
tio
n
One
of
us
(Jo
hn
) in
terv
iew
ed a
stu
den
t p
lan
nin
g h
er f
irst
res
earc
hp
aper
for
her
mas
ters
in
soci
al w
ork.
Mei
-Lan
sai
d th
at t
he
prov
i-si
onal
tit
le f
or h
er r
esea
rch
pap
er w
as "
Ch
ines
e E
lder
ly L
ivin
g in
the
Un
ited
Sta
tes:
A P
robl
em-f
ree
Po
pu
lati
on
?" S
he s
aid
that
sh
eh
ad c
ho
sen
this
top
ic b
ecau
se o
f so
me
"pre
vai
lin
g m
yth
s" t
hat
th
eC
hin
ese
com
mu
nit
ies
wou
ld a
lway
s lo
ok a
fter
th
eir
eld
erly
an
d th
atsu
ch e
lder
ly w
ould
no
t ac
cep
t h
elp
from
ou
tsid
ers.
Sh
e be
liev
ed t
hat
cert
ain
trad
itio
nal
C
hin
ese
atti
tud
es,
such
as
"f
ilia
l pi
ety,
" w
ere
beg
inn
ing
to c
han
ge
in U
.S.
com
mu
nit
ies.
S
he
add
ed t
hat
all
th
ere
sear
ch t
o d
ate
had
bee
n co
ndu
cted
in
the
larg
e co
mm
un
itie
s in
big
citi
es o
n th
e E
ast
and
Wes
t C
oas
ts.
Sh
e w
ante
d to
stu
dy
smal
ler
com
mu
nit
ies
in a
mid
wes
t to
wn
. Jo
hn
then
ask
ed h
er a
bo
ut
met
h-
odol
ogy.
Jo
hn
Sw
ale
s: H
ow a
re y
ou g
oing
to
coll
ect
yo
ur
dat
a?M
ei-L
an
: B
y fa
ce-t
o-fa
ce i
nte
rvie
ws.
I w
ant
to d
o on
e-on
-one
in
-te
rvie
ws
bec
ause
I t
hin
k if
oth
er f
amil
y m
emb
ers
are
ther
e th
ein
terv
iew
ees
wil
l n
ot
rev
eal
thei
r d
eep
feel
ings
an
d re
al p
rob
-le
ms.
How
wil
l yo
u fi
nd y
ou
r su
bjec
ts?
I'll
use
fri
end
s an
d ac
qu
ain
tan
ces
in t
he
loca
l C
hin
ese
com
- t
o in
tro
du
ce m
e.J
S:
Wil
l yo
u re
cord
th
e in
terv
iew
s?
164
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
ML
: Y
es,
bu
t of
co
urs
e I
wil
l as
k p
erm
issi
on
firs
t.J
S:
Wil
l yo
u u
se E
ng
lish
?M
L:
Th
e in
terv
iew
ees
can
use
an
y la
ng
uag
e th
eyM
and
arin
, T
aiw
anes
e, o
r E
ng
lish
. W
hat
ever
is
mo
st c
omfo
rt-
able
for
th
em.
JS
: H
ow l
on
g d
o yo
u p
lan
the
inte
rvie
ws
to l
ast,
an
d d
o yo
u h
ave
a fi
xed
list
of
qu
esti
on
s?M
L:
Ab
ou
t an
ho
ur.
I h
ave
a li
st o
f q
ues
tio
ns
bu
t I
do
no
t w
ant
tofo
llow
th
em v
ery
exac
tly.
I w
ill
use
wh
at s
ocio
logi
sts
call
"se
mi-
stru
ctu
red
" in
terv
iew
s. P
art
pla
nn
ed,
par
t "g
o w
ith
the
flo
w,"
as
the
Am
eric
ans
say.
JS
: F
inal
ly,
how
man
y pe
ople
wil
l yo
u in
terv
iew
?M
L:
Bec
ause
of
lim
ited
tim
e an
d co
nta
cts,
onl
y ab
ou
t te
n.
So
Iw
ill
be
do
ing
a q
ual
itat
ive
anal
ysi
s. T
her
e w
ill
no
t b
e en
ou
gh
sub
ject
s fo
r st
atis
tics
.
Tas
k T
hree
Now
wit
h a
par
tner
dra
ft t
he
firs
t se
nte
nce
of
Mei
-Lan
's M
eth
od
sse
ctio
n.
Rem
emb
er t
o u
se f
orm
al s
tyle
. Y
ou m
ay w
ish
to c
on
sid
erw
hic
h of
th
e fo
llow
ing
elem
ents
sh
ou
ld b
e in
clu
ded
.
1.
met
hodo
logy
2.
the
pu
rpo
se o
f th
e m
etho
dolo
gy3
. th
e sa
mp
le
Tas
k F
our
Now
wri
te a
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
of y
ou
r ow
n. I
f yo
u do
no
t h
ave
any
suit
able
m
ater
ial,
yo
u
an
Mei
-L
an's
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
for
her
. In
th
is c
ase,
ass
um
e th
at s
he
has
now
com
ple
ted
the
wor
k.
Meth
ods
Secti
ons
acro
ss D
iscip
lines
Th
e tw
o M
eth
od
s se
ctio
ns
we
hav
e b
een
wo
rkin
g on
so
far
wou
ld f
all
un
der
th
e b
road
cat
ego
ry o
f "s
ocia
l sc
ienc
e."
Stu
die
s sh
ow t
hat
mo
stM
eth
od
s se
ctio
ns
in s
ocia
l sc
ienc
e d
isci
pli
nes
sh
are
a n
um
ber
char
acte
rist
ics:
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 16
5
The
y ar
e ex
pli
cit
abo
ut
det
ails
an
d p
roce
du
res.
The
y ar
e sl
ow p
aced
sin
ce t
hey
do
no
t p
resu
me
mu
ch b
ack
gro
un
dkn
owle
dge.
The
y co
nta
in j
ust
ific
atio
ns,
ex
pla
nat
ion
s, a
nd
(so
met
imes
) ex
-am
ple
s.T
he t
erm
ino
log
y is
oft
en r
epea
ted
.
In s
ocia
l sc
ienc
e, e
du
cati
on
, p
ub
lic
hea
lth
, an
d so
on,
met
hodo
logy
is
ofte
n a
ver
y im
po
rtan
t an
d h
otl
y d
ebat
ed i
ssu
e.
Ind
eed
, in
som
eca
ses
in t
hes
e ar
eas,
th
e m
ain
po
int
of
an R
P w
ill
be
to a
nn
ou
nce
som
e d
evel
op
men
t in
met
ho
d.
How
ever
, in
sci
ence
, en
gin
eeri
ng
, an
dm
edic
al r
esea
rch
, st
and
ard
pra
ctic
es a
nd
esta
bli
shed
met
ho
ds
are
muc
h m
ore
wid
ely
avai
lab
le.
As
a re
sult
, M
eth
od
s se
ctio
ns
in t
hes
efi
eld
s m
ay b
e v
ery
diff
eren
t.
Tas
k F
ive
Rea
d th
is o
pen
ing
to a
Met
hod
s se
ctio
n a
nd
an
swer
th
e q
ues
tion
sth
at f
ollo
w. M
etho
ds f
or A
naly
sis
and
Fun
ctio
nal
Pro
pert
ies
The
sta
nd
ard
met
ho
ds
(AO
AC
, 19
75)
wer
e u
sed
for
the
det
erm
inat
ion
of
tota
l so
lids
, n
itro
gen
, cr
ud
e fa
t, a
sh,
and
Vit
a-m
in C
. T
otal
su
gar
s w
ere
det
erm
ined
by
the
met
ho
d o
f P
ott
er e
t (
1968
), a
nd
the
tota
l ca
rbo
hy
dra
tes
(in
term
s o
f gl
ucos
e) w
ere
assa
yed
acc
ord
ing
to t
he
pro
ced
ure
of
Dub
ois
et a
l. (
1956
). T
he
met
ho
d of
Ko
hle
r an
d P
atte
n (1
967)
was
fol
low
ed f
or d
eter
min
ing
aci
d co
mpo
siti
on.
(Quo
ted
by K
no
rr-C
etin
a 1
98
1,
157)
W
hat
fie
ld d
o yo
u th
ink
this
ex
trac
t co
mes
fro
m?
W
hat
dif
fere
nces
can
you
no
te b
etw
een
this
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
and
the
one
give
n in
Tas
k T
wo?
Wh
at e
vide
nce
can
you
fin
dh
ere
of
shar
ed b
ack
gro
un
d kn
owle
dge?
Wh
at i
s st
rik
ing
abo
ut
the
way
s in
wh
ich
the
met
ho
ds
in t
his
pas
sag
e ar
e d
escr
ibed
(or,
mo
re e
xact
ly,
no
t d
escr
ibed
)?
= A
ssoc
iati
on o
f O
per
atio
nal
Ana
lyti
c C
hem
ists
166
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
3.
Wou
ld a
Met
ho
ds
sect
ion
wri
tten
lik
e th
is b
e p
oss
ible
in
yo
ur
fiel
d?
Tas
k Si
x
We
can
conc
lude
th
at M
eth
od
s se
ctio
ns
vary
gre
atly
in
wh
at w
em
igh
t ca
ll "
spee
d."
Typ
e 1
Slo
w (
as i
n o
ur
own
dra
ft)
Typ
e 2
Fai
rly
slow
Typ
e 3
Fai
rly
fast
Ty
pe
4 F
ast
(as
in t
he
pap
er q
uo
ted
by
Kn
orr
-Cet
ina)
Her
e is
pa
rt o
f a M
eth
od
s se
ctio
n w
ritt
en b
y on
e o
f ou
r st
ud
ents
. S
he
is w
ork
ing
on a
Ph
.D.
in p
hysi
olog
y. W
hat
"sp
eed"
wou
ld y
ou g
ive
it?
Su
pp
ose
Ju
n's
ad
vis
or
sug
ges
ted
that
it
coul
d b
e "s
peed
ed u
p"
ali
ttle
. W
hat
ad
vic
e d
o yo
u ha
ve?
Th
ere
are
also
a c
oupl
e o
f sm
all
mis
tak
es t
ow
ard
the
end
. C
an y
ou c
orr
ect
tho
se a
s w
ell?
Bin
ding
Ass
ay
and
Dow
n R
egul
atio
n St
udy
Cel
ls w
ere
cult
ure
d in
pla
tes.
Rec
epto
r b
ind
ing
was
det
er-
min
ed b
y in
cub
atin
g th
e in
tact
cel
ls w
ith
(3H
)NM
S i
n 1
ml
buff
erA
at
4°C
or
Non
-spe
cifi
c b
ind
ing
was
def
ined
in
the
pre
sen
ceo
f at
rop
ine.
In
cub
atio
n w
as t
erm
inat
ed b
y w
ash
ing
the
cell
s w
ith
ice-
cold
sal
ine
thre
e ti
mes
. C
ells
wer
e sc
rap
ed i
n 0.
5ml
wat
er a
nd
susp
ensi
on
s w
ere
pu
t in
to 5
mm
bio
-saf
e sc
inti
llat
ion
flu
id a
nd
then
co
un
ted
in a
Bec
km
an l
iqu
id s
cin
till
atio
n co
un
ter.
F
or t
he
stu
dy
of d
own
reg
ula
tio
n,
cell
s w
as p
re-i
ncu
bat
ed w
ith
10m
m M
CC
h fo
r di
ffer
ent
per
iod
s ti
me
and
then
was
hed
wit
h a
buff
er A
thre
e ti
mes
. T
he
bin
din
g as
say
was
per
form
ed a
s d
escr
ibed
abo
ve.
Yan
g, u
ned
ited
)
Wh
ere
on t
he
"spe
ed"
scal
e (T
ypes
1-4
) w
ould
you
pla
ce y
ou
r ow
nm
eth
od
s d
escr
ipti
on
s an
d th
ose
ty
pic
al o
f y
ou
r fi
eld
?
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
I
/ 16
7
Lan
guag
e F
ocu
s: H
yp
hen
s in
No
un
Ph
rase
s
Not
ice
that
Ju
n's
fir
st s
ente
nce
en
ds
wit
h th
e n
ou
n p
hra
se "
24-w
ell
pla
tes.
" H
yp
hen
s ar
e of
ten
use
d to
cl
arif
y ho
w
com
plex
n
ou
np
hra
ses
are
to b
e in
terp
rete
d.
In J
un
's c
ase,
her
hy
ph
en i
nd
icat
edth
at s
he
was
usi
ng
pla
tes
con
tain
ing
24
wel
ls.
Wit
ho
ut
the
hy
ph
en,
the
ph
rase
co
uld
be
inte
rpre
ted
as
24
pla
tes
con
tain
ing
an
un
-sp
ecif
ied
nu
mb
er o
f w
ells
. W
hat
dif
fere
nces
can
you
see
bet
wee
n th
efo
llow
ing
pai
rs o
f n
ou
n p
hra
ses?
smal
l-ca
r fa
cto
ry /
sm
all
car
fact
ory
blu
e-li
ned
pap
er /
blu
e li
ned
pap
eru
niv
ersi
ty-p
aid
per
son
nel
/ u
niv
ersi
ty p
aid
per
son
nel
Rea
d th
e ab
ove
pai
rs a
lou
d.
Can
you
mak
e a
dis
tin
ctio
n b
etw
een
them
in
term
s o
f st
ress
an
d in
ton
atio
n?
Can
you
th
ink
of o
ne o
r tw
o si
mil
ar p
airs
fro
m y
our
own
fiel
d?
How
w
ould
yo
u in
dic
ate
wh
at y
ou
mea
nt
by
the
foll
owin
g n
oun
ph
rase
s? A
ll t
hre
e ar
e am
big
uo
us,
at
leas
t o
ut
of
con
tex
t.
arti
fici
al h
eart
val
vera
pid
rel
ease
mec
han
ism
stro
ng
acti
ng
dir
ecto
r
Result
s
Th
e o
ther
sec
tio
n w
e w
ill
dea
l w
ith
in t
his
un
it i
s th
e R
esu
lts
sec-
tio
n.
Ag
ain
we
wil
l b
egin
by
ask
ing
you
to r
ead
the
Res
ult
s se
ctio
n of
ou
r ow
n p
aper
. A
s it
sta
nd
s at
pre
sen
t, i
t is
an
inco
mp
lete
dra
ft.
Res
ults
A t
ota
l of
467
sen
ten
ce c
on
nec
tors
was
fou
nd,
aver
agin
g ju
st o
ver
two
per
pag
e. E
lev
en o
f th
e 1
2 ar
ticl
es u
sed
con
nec
tors
wit
h so
me
freq
uenc
y, w
ith
tota
ls r
ang
ing
from
24
to 5
8.
Th
e on
e ex
cept
ion
was
th
e on
ly a
rtic
le i
n th
e sa
mp
le t
hat
dea
lt w
ith
lite
rary
tex
ts,
168
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
ua
te S
tud
ents
wh
ich
use
d on
ly n
ine
con
nec
tors
. T
he
scar
city
of
con
nec
tors
in
this
pap
er m
ay b
e d
ue
to i
ts h
eav
y u
se o
f co
mm
enta
ry o
n li
tera
ryp
assa
ges
.
Sev
enty
dif
fere
nt s
ente
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs o
ccu
rred
in
the
sam
ple
.T
his
lar
ge
nu
mb
er i
s so
mew
hat
su
rpri
sin
g,
even
tak
ing
into
ac-
cou
nt
ou
r b
road
in
terp
reta
tio
n o
f "co
nnec
tor.
" T
ho
se t
hat
occ
urr
edfo
ur t
imes
or
mo
re a
re l
iste
d in
dec
reas
ing
freq
uenc
y o
f u
se i
nta
ble
18. T
AB
LE
18.
F
req
uen
cy o
f C
on
nec
tors
Ran
k
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
14 17 19 22 25
Item
how
ever
firs
t, s
econ
d, e
tc.
thu
sal
sofo
r ex
amp
lein
ad
dit
ion
fina
lly
ther
efo
reo
n th
e o
ther
han
dth
enn
ever
thel
ess
for
inst
ance
furt
her
mo
rem
oreo
ver
in p
arti
cula
rb
ut
in f
act
yet
that
is
in c
on
tras
tin
oth
er w
ords
furt
her
sim
ilar
lyof
cou
rse
as a
res
ult
Tot
al o
ccu
rren
ce
62 52 33 30 29 20 19 16 14 12 11 9 8 6 5 4
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pa
per
I
/ 1
69
Th
ere
are
a n
um
ber
of
surp
rise
s in
th
e fr
eque
ncy
dat
a. T
her
ew
as
un
exp
ecte
dly
h
eav
y u
se
of
the
"inf
orm
al"
con
nec
tors
bu
t(n
ine
inst
ance
s)
and
yet
(eig
ht
inst
ance
s).
Alt
ho
ug
h th
ese
are
kn
ow
n to
be
freq
uen
t in
new
spap
ers
and
corr
esp
on
den
ce,
we
wer
eso
mew
hat
su
rpri
sed
to f
ind
so m
any
in r
efer
eed
sch
ola
rly
jou
r-n
als.
In
con
tras
t, t
her
e w
as m
inim
al u
se o
f "c
oncl
usiv
es,"
su
ch a
sin
con
clus
ion.
Un
der
2%
of
all
the
con
nec
tors
fel
l in
to t
his
cat
e-go
ry.
Fin
ally
, v
ery
un
even
fre
qu
enci
es i
n ce
rtai
n o
ther
cat
ego
ries
wer
e n
ote
d.
Co
ntr
asts
: ho
wev
er,
62
nev
erth
eles
s, 1
1 al
l th
e sa
me,
0R
esu
lts:
th
us,
33
ther
efo
re,
16
hen
ce,
1
We
now
tu
rn t
o th
e p
osi
tio
nal
d
ata.
O
f th
e 46
7 co
nn
ecto
rsfo
und,
352
occ
urr
ed i
n in
itia
l p
osi
tio
n (7
5.4%
), 1
09 i
n m
edia
l po
si-
tio
n,
and
only
six
in
fin
al p
osi
tio
n.
Cle
arly
, fi
nal
po
siti
on
is v
ery
rare
in
this
kin
d o
f w
riti
ng
, an
d w
e w
ill
no
t d
iscu
ss i
t fu
rth
er.
Ifw
e no
w e
xam
ine
the
po
siti
on
al d
ata
in t
erm
s o
f in
div
idu
al c
on-
nec
tors
, w
e fi
nd
that
dif
fere
nt c
on
nec
tors
beh
ave
som
ewh
at d
iffe
r-en
tly
. In
tab
le 1
9 al
l co
nn
ecto
rs o
ccu
rrin
g fo
ur t
imes
or
mo
re a
reca
teg
ori
zed
for
per
cen
tag
e of
occ
urr
ence
in
init
ial
po
siti
on
. (I
nfor
-m
al u
ses
of
but
and
yet
hav
e b
een
excl
uded
.)
TA
BL
E 1
9.
Po
siti
on
al C
ateg
ori
es o
f C
on
nec
tors
Cat
egor
yC
on
nec
tors
Occ
urre
nce
B C D
Fir
st,
seco
nd,
etc.
, in
add
itio
n,
nev
erth
eles
s,fi
nal
ly,
that
is,
as
a re
sult
mor
eove
r, t
hu
s, i
np
arti
cula
r/in
fac
t, i
n o
ther
wo
rds,
of
cour
seho
wev
er,
for
inst
ance
, on
th
eo
ther
han
d,
furt
her
mo
real
so,
for
exam
ple
, th
eref
ore
,
then
100%
in
init
ial
posi
tion
Bet
wee
n 75
% a
nd
99%
in
init
ial
posi
tion
Bet
wee
n 50
% a
nd
74%
in
init
ial
posi
tion
Bet
wee
n 25
% a
nd
49%
in
init
ial
posi
tion
170
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
ua
te S
tud
ents
Tas
k Se
ven
Go
bac
k an
d re
ad t
hro
ug
h th
e R
esu
lts
sect
ion
of o
ur
pap
er,
un
der
lin
-in
g al
l th
e oc
casi
ons
wh
ere
we
hav
e u
sed
nu
mb
ers
(ign
ore
per
cen
t-ag
es).
Can
you
det
erm
ine
the
rule
s w
e fo
llow
ed f
or w
hen
to
wri
ten
um
ber
s as
dig
its
(12,
etc
.) a
nd
wh
en a
s w
ords
(tw
elve
, W
hat
are
the
rule
s yo
u u
se i
n y
ou
r fi
eld
?
Tas
k E
ight
Not
ice
tha
t o
ur
Res
ult
s se
ctio
n is
no
t co
mp
lete
. S
up
po
se w
e as
ked
you
wh
at w
e co
uld
incl
ud
e in
th
e co
nclu
ding
par
agra
ph
to o
ur
Re-
sult
s S
ecti
on
, b
ased
on
the
info
rmat
ion
in t
able
18?
Wh
at h
igh
lig
ht-
ing
stat
emen
ts w
ould
you
su
gg
est?
Ref
er b
ack
to U
nit
Fo
ur
if n
eces
-sa
ry.
Giv
e y
ou
r su
gg
esti
on
s in
ord
er,
from
th
e fi
rst
stat
emen
t to
be
incl
ud
ed t
o th
e la
st.
Com
menta
ry i
n R
esu
lts
Secti
ons
It i
s of
ten
said
th
at t
he
Res
ult
s se
ctio
n o
f an
RP
sh
ou
ld
sim
ply
rep
ort
th
e d
ata
that
has
bee
n co
llec
ted;
th
at i
s, i
t sh
ou
ld f
ocus
exc
lu-
sive
ly o
n th
e p
rese
nt
resu
lts.
In
dee
d,
man
y o
f th
e bo
oks
and
man
-u
als
aim
ing
at
hel
pin
g st
ud
ents
an
d sc
ho
lars
to
w
rite
re
sear
chp
aper
s of
fer
this
kin
d o
f ad
vic
e. T
hes
e bo
oks
arg
ue,
par
ticu
larl
y,
that
all
ev
alu
atio
n an
d co
mm
enta
ry s
ho
uld
be
left
un
til
the
Dis
cus-
sio
n.
How
ever
, re
sear
ch s
how
s th
at t
his
dis
tin
ctio
n b
etw
een
Res
ult
san
d D
iscu
ssio
n is
no
t as
sh
arp
as c
omm
only
bel
ieve
d. F
or e
xam
ple
,T
ho
mp
son
(199
3)
stu
die
d th
e R
esu
lts
sect
ion
s fr
om 2
0 p
ub
lish
edb
ioch
emis
try
pap
ers.
Tab
le 2
0 p
rese
nts
wh
at s
he
foun
d.T
his
is
pa
rt o
f T
ho
mp
son
's c
on
clu
sio
ns:
My
rese
arch
d
emo
nst
rate
s th
at
this
ca
se
bio-
n
ot
pre
sen
t re
sult
s on
ly
in
a fa
ctu
al
exp
osi
tory
man
ner
; th
ey a
lso
empl
oy a
var
iety
of
rhet
ori
cal
mov
es t
o ar
gu
efo
r th
e v
alid
ity
of s
cien
tifi
c fa
cts
and
know
ledg
e cl
aim
s. (P.
126)
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pa
per
I
/ 17
1
TA
BL
E 2
0.
Co
mm
enta
ry F
ound
in
Res
ult
s S
ecti
ons
Typ
e of
co
mm
enta
ry
Nu
mb
er o
f p
aper
s(m
ax. =
20)
Just
ify
ing
the
met
hodo
logy
Inte
rpre
tin
g th
e re
sult
sC
itin
g ag
reem
ent
wit
h p
rev
iou
s st
ud
ies
Co
mm
enti
ng
on
the
dat
aA
dm
itti
ng
diff
icul
ties
in
inte
rpre
tati
on
Po
inti
ng
out
dis
crep
anci
esC
alli
ng
for
furt
her
res
earc
h
19 19 11 10 8 4 0
Au
tho
rs o
ften
in
clu
de
com
men
tary
bec
ause
th
ey a
re a
war
e o
f th
eir
aud
ien
ce.
Th
ey c
an a
ntic
ipat
e th
at t
hei
r re
ader
s m
ay b
e th
ink
ing
,"W
hy d
id t
hey
use
th
is m
eth
od
rath
er t
han
th
at o
ne?"
or
"Isn
't th
isre
sult
rat
her
str
ang
e?"
For
obv
ious
rea
son
s, a
uth
ors
may
no
t w
ant
to
po
stp
on
e re
spo
nd
ing
to
such
im
agin
ary
qu
esti
on
s an
d cr
itic
alco
mm
ents
un
til
the
fin
al s
ecti
on
.
Tas
k N
ine
Car
eful
ly r
ead
a R
esu
lts
sect
ion
that
you
hav
e w
ritt
en o
r re
ad f
rom
your
fie
ld a
nd
ou
r d
raft
on
sen
ten
ce c
on
nec
tors
, m
ark
ing
any
com
-m
enta
ry e
lem
ents
. In
yo
ur
esti
mat
ion
, w
hic
h o
f th
e fo
llow
ing
typ
esar
e th
e p
assa
ges
mo
st l
ike?
Typ
e 1 2 3
Giv
es s
trai
gh
tfo
rwar
d d
escr
ipti
on
of
the
auth
or'
s re
-su
lts;
in
clu
des
no
com
men
tary
at
all
(no
com
par
iso
ns
wit
h th
e w
ork
of
oth
ers,
no
just
ific
atio
ns,
ver
y h
igh
lig
hti
ng
stat
emen
ts).
Is m
ost
ly r
estr
icte
d to
pre
sen
t fi
nd
ing
s, b
ut
incl
ud
es a
few
min
or
use
s of
co
mm
enta
ry.
Co
nsi
sts
of b
oth
des
crip
tio
n of
fin
ding
s an
d a
nu
mb
erof
co
mm
enta
ry e
lem
ents
; u
ses
sev
eral
of
the
cate
go
ries
men
tio
ned
by
Th
om
pso
n.
Mak
es h
eav
y u
se o
f co
mm
enta
ry;
use
s m
ost
of
the
cat-
ego
ries
fou
nd b
y T
ho
mp
son
; co
uld
alm
ost
be
tak
en f
ora
dis
cuss
ion
.
172
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Be
pre
par
ed t
o d
iscu
ss y
ou
r fi
ndin
gs i
n cl
ass.
B
rin
g th
e p
assa
ge
from
yo
ur
fiel
d w
ith
you.
Tas
k T
en
Pro
du
ce a
Res
ult
s se
ctio
n fr
om y
ou
r ow
n w
ork
(or
par
t of
one
if y
ou
rw
ork
is e
xte
nsi
ve)
. If
yo
ur
resu
lts
are
no
t y
et c
omp
lete
, cr
eate
som
efi
nd
ing
s o
n y
ou
r ow
n.
Alt
ern
ativ
ely
, yo
u m
ay
com
plet
e th
e fi
nal
par
agra
ph
of t
he
Res
ult
s se
ctio
n fo
r th
e se
nte
nce
con
nect
or m
ini-
RP
.
Uni
t E
ight
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
In t
his
fin
al u
nit
, w
e d
eal
wit
h th
e re
mai
nin
g p
arts
of
a re
sear
chp
aper
in
the
foll
owin
g o
rder
:
Intr
od
uct
ion
sect
ion
sD
iscu
ssio
n se
ctio
ns
Ack
now
led
gm
ents
Tit
les
Ab
stra
cts
Intr
od
ucti
on S
ecti
ons
It i
s w
idel
y re
cogn
ized
th
at w
riti
ng
intr
od
uct
ion
s is
slo
w,
diff
icul
t,an
d tr
ou
ble
som
e fo
r b
oth
n
ativ
e sp
eak
ers
as
wel
l as
n
on
nat
ive
spea
ker
s.
A v
ery
lon
g ti
me
ago,
th
e G
reek
ph
ilo
sop
her
Pla
to r
e-m
ark
ed,
"The
beg
inn
ing
is h
alf
of
the
who
le."
In
dee
d,
even
tual
lypr
oduc
ing
a go
od I
ntr
od
uct
ion
sect
ion
alw
ays
seem
s li
ke
a b
attl
eh
ard
won
.W
riti
ng
the
Intr
od
uct
ion
of
an R
P i
s p
arti
cula
rly
tro
ub
leso
me.
In
som
e k
ind
s o
f te
xts
, su
ch a
s te
rm p
aper
s o
r ca
se r
epo
rts,
it
is p
oss
i-bl
e to
sta
rt i
mm
edia
tely
wit
h a
topi
c o
r th
esis
sta
tem
ent
The
pu
rpo
se o
f th
is p
aper
is
to .
..T
his
pap
er d
escr
ibes
an
d an
aly
zes
. .
.M
y ai
m i
n th
is p
aper
is
to .
..In
th
is p
aper
, w
e re
po
rt o
n ..
.
How
ever
, th
is k
ind
of
op
enin
g is
rar
e an
d u
nu
sual
in
an R
P (
prob
a-bl
y u
nd
er 1
0% o
f p
ub
lish
ed R
Ps
star
t in
th
is w
ay).
In
fact
, st
ate-
lik
e th
ose
abo
ve t
yp
ical
ly c
ome
at o
r n
ear
the
end
of
an R
PIn
tro
du
ctio
n.
Why
is
this
? A
nd w
hat
com
es b
efor
e?W
e be
liev
e th
at th
e an
swer
to th
ese
qu
esti
on
s li
es in
two
inte
rco
n-
Par
ts.
Th
e fi
rst
hal
f of t
he
answ
er l
ies
in t
he
nee
d to
ap
pea
l to
read
ersh
ip.
In a
ter
m p
aper
ass
ign
men
t, t
he
read
er i
s se
t.
173
174
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
dee
d th
e re
ader
is
requ
ired
to
read
an
d ev
alu
ate
yo
ur
pap
er!)
On
the
oth
er h
and
, a
pap
er t
hat
is
des
ign
ed f
or t
he
exte
rnal
onl
yin
to
attr
act
an a
ud
ien
ce.
We
can
illu
stra
te t
his
by
tak
ing
the
case
of
one
of
tho
se f
ew p
ub
lish
ed p
aper
s th
at a
ctu
ally
does
sta
rt b
y d
escr
ibin
g th
e p
rese
nt
rese
arch
. H
ere
is t
he
op
enin
gse
nte
nce
of
the
Intr
od
uct
ion
:
Th
is s
tud
y o
f th
e w
riti
ng
of
22
firs
t g
rad
ers
and
13
thir
d g
rad
ers
is c
on
cern
ed w
ith
how
ch
ild
ren
lear
n th
e ru
les
of
pu
nct
uat
ion
.(C
orde
iro
1988
, 62
)
Th
e C
ord
eiro
pap
er,
"Ch
ild
ren
's P
un
ctu
atio
n:
An
An
aly
sis
of
Err
ors
in P
erio
d P
lace
men
t,"
was
pu
bli
shed
in
a jo
urn
al c
alle
d R
esea
rch
inth
e T
each
ing
of
Eng
lish
. A
s th
e ti
tle
of
this
jo
urn
al i
nd
icat
es,
the
jou
rnal
cov
ers
sev
eral
dif
fere
nt r
esea
rch
area
s. D
ou
btl
ess,
th
e v
ery
spec
ific
op
enin
g to
th
e C
ord
eiro
pap
er w
ill
app
eal
imm
edia
tely
to
tho
se r
esea
rch
ers
acti
vel
y in
volv
ed i
n th
e to
pic.
On
the
oth
er h
and
,it
is
lik
ely
at t
he
sam
e ti
me
to "
turn
off"
man
y o
ther
rea
der
s o
f th
e w
ho h
ave
no
inte
rest
in
this
pre
cise
res
earc
h ar
ea.
We
beli
eve
that
we
can
bes
t ex
pla
in t
he
seco
nd h
alf
of th
e an
swer
by u
sin
g a
of
com
peti
tion
as
it i
s u
sed
in e
colo
gy.
Just
as
pla
nts
co
mp
ete
for
lig
ht
and
spac
e, s
o w
rite
rs o
f RP
s co
mpe
tefo
r ac
cep
tan
ce a
nd
reco
gn
itio
n.
In o
rder
to
ob
tain
th
is a
ccep
tan
cean
d re
cog
nit
ion
, m
ost
wri
ters
u
se
an o
rgan
izat
ion
al
pat
tern
th
atco
nta
ins
the
foll
owin
g th
ree
"mov
es"
in t
able
21
, in
th
e o
rder
giv
en.
Cre
ati
ng
a R
ese
arc
h S
pace
In s
um
mar
y,
then
, th
e In
tro
du
ctio
n se
ctio
ns
of
RP
s ty
pic
ally
fol
low
the
pat
tern
in
tab
le
21
in r
esp
on
se
to t
wo
kin
ds
of
com
pet
itio
n:
com
pet
itio
n fo
r re
sear
ch s
pac
e an
d co
mp
etit
ion
for
read
ers.
We
can
call
th
is r
het
ori
cal
pat
tern
th
e C
reat
e-a-
Res
earc
h-S
pac
e (o
r C
AR
S)
mo
del
.
Tas
k O
ne
Rea
d ou
r d
raft
In
tro
du
ctio
n to
ou
r a
nd
carr
y o
ut
the
task
sth
at
follo
w.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 17
5
TA
BL
E 2
1.
Mov
es i
n R
esea
rch
Pap
er I
ntr
od
uct
ion
s
Mov
e 1 2 3
Est
abli
shin
g a
rese
arch
ter
rito
rya.
b
y sh
owin
g th
at t
he
gen
eral
res
earc
h ar
ea i
s im
po
rtan
t,ce
ntr
al,
inte
rest
ing
, p
rob
lem
atic
, o
r re
lev
ant
in s
ome
way
. (o
ptio
nal)
b.
by
intr
od
uci
ng
and
rev
iew
ing
item
s o
f p
rev
iou
s re
sear
chin
th
e (
obli
gato
ry)
Est
abli
shin
g a
a.
by
ind
icat
ing
a g
ap i
n th
e p
rev
iou
s re
sear
ch,
rais
ing
aq
ues
tio
n ab
ou
t it
, o
r ex
ten
din
g p
rev
iou
s kn
owle
dge
inso
me
way
. (o
blig
ator
y)O
ccup
ying
th
e n
ich
ea.
b
y o
utl
inin
g p
urp
ose
s o
r st
atin
g th
e n
atu
re o
f th
ep
rese
nt
(ob
liga
tory
)b
. b
y an
no
un
cin
g p
rin
cip
al f
ind
ing
s, (
opti
onal
)b
y in
dic
atin
g th
e st
ruct
ure
of
the
RP
. (o
ptio
nal)
c
eco
logy
, a
nich
e is
a p
arti
cula
r w
here
a p
arti
cula
r or
gani
sm c
an t
hri
ve.
In o
ur c
ase,
a n
iche
is
a co
ntex
t w
here
a p
arti
cula
r pi
ece
of r
esea
rch
mak
es p
arti
cula
rly
good
sens
e.
The
Pos
itio
n o
f Se
nten
ce C
onne
ctor
s in
Aca
dem
ic E
ngli
shC
. B
. F
eak
and
J. M
. S
wal
es
Intr
oduc
tion
1 Man
y co
mm
enta
tors
hav
e n
ote
d th
at s
ente
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs (
e.g.
,ho
wev
er)
are
an i
mp
ort
ant
and
usef
ul e
lem
ent
in e
xp
osi
tory
an
dar
gu
men
tati
ve
wri
tin
g.
stu
die
s o
f th
eir
occ
urr
ence
in
acad
emic
E
ng
lish
ex
ten
d at
le
ast
as
far
bac
k as
H
ud
dle
sto
n(1
971)
. w
riti
ng
tex
tbo
ok
s ha
ve
for
man
y y
ears
reg
ula
rly
incl
uded
ch
apte
rs o
n se
nte
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs (
e.g.
, H
erb
ert,
196
5).
Mos
t re
fere
nce
gra
mm
ars
dea
l w
ith
thei
r g
ram
mat
ical
st
atu
s,cl
assi
fica
tion
, m
ean
ing
, an
d u
se.
att
enti
on
has
als
o b
een
give
n to
th
e p
osi
tio
n o
f se
nte
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs i
n cl
ause
s an
d se
n-te
nce
s. a
nd
(19
73)
obse
rve
(a)
that
th
e n
orm
alpo
siti
on i
s in
itia
l; (
b) t
hat
cer
tain
co
nn
ecto
rs,
such
as
henc
e an
dov
eral
l, "
are
rest
rict
ed,
or
vir
tual
ly r
estr
icte
d,
to i
nit
ial
po
siti
on
"
(p.
an
d (c
) th
at m
edia
l p
osi
tio
ns
are
rare
for
mo
st c
on-
nec
tors
, an
d fi
nal
po
siti
on
s ev
en r
arer
. o
nly
atte
mp
t kn
ow
n
176
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
to u
s to
ex
pla
in d
iffe
renc
es i
n p
osi
tio
n o
n se
man
tic
gro
un
ds
is a
nu
np
ub
lish
ed p
aper
by
Sal
era
(197
6)
dis
cuss
ed
inan
d (
1983
). S
aler
a p
aper
dea
ls o
nly
wit
had
ver
sati
ves
lik
e ho
wev
er a
nd
sug
ges
ts t
hat
in
itia
l p
osi
tio
n re
-fl
ects
so
met
hin
g co
ntr
ary
to e
xp
ecta
tio
n,
wh
ile
med
ial
po
siti
on
refl
ects
a c
on
tras
t th
at i
s n
ot
nec
essa
rily
un
exp
ecte
d.
nei
ther
of
thes
e st
ud
ies
pro
vid
es a
ny
des
crip
tiv
e ev
iden
ce o
f th
eac
tual
po
siti
on
s o
f se
nte
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs i
n ac
adem
ic t
exts
. t
he
pre
sen
t p
aper
, w
e re
po
rt
on
a p
reli
min
ary
stu
dy
of
sen
ten
ce-
con
nec
tor
po
siti
on
in a
sam
ple
of
twel
ve p
ub
lish
ed a
rtic
les.
1.
Div
ide
the
tex
t in
to t
he
thre
e b
asic
mov
es.
2.
Loo
k at
tab
le 2
1 ag
ain
. W
her
e in
ou
r In
trod
uct
ion
wou
ld y
oud
ivid
e M
ove
1 in
to l
a an
d
3.
Wh
at k
ind
of M
ove
2 do
we
use
?
4.
Wh
at k
ind
of M
ove
3a d
o w
e u
se?
5.
Un
der
lin
e o
r h
igh
lig
ht
any
wo
rds
or
exp
ress
ion
s in
sen
ten
ces
1th
rou
gh
3 u
sed
to e
stab
lish
a r
esea
rch
terr
ito
ry.
6.
Lis
t th
e si
x ci
tati
on
s u
sed
in o
ur
dra
ft i
ntr
od
uct
ion
. (S
aler
a is
cite
d tw
ice.
) D
o yo
u h
ave
a cr
itic
ism
of
ou
r re
vie
w o
f th
e p
re-
vio
us
lite
ratu
re?
7.
Wh
ere
do
thes
e si
x ci
tati
on
s oc
cur
in t
he
sen
ten
ce?
Wh
at d
oes
this
tel
l u
s?
In U
nit
Sev
en,
we
arg
ued
th
at R
Ps
wer
e n
ot
sim
ple
acc
ou
nts
of
inv
esti
gat
ion
s. T
his
is
also
ver
y tr
ue
of o
ur
own
min
i-R
P.
If y
ou l
ook
bac
k at
ou
r in
tro
du
ctio
n,
you
wil
l n
ote
th
at w
e n
ever
act
ual
ly s
ayw
hat
ou
r m
oti
ve
or
rati
on
ale
for
carr
yin
g o
ut
this
sm
all
stu
dy
was
.R
ath
er,
the
stu
dy
seem
s to
em
erg
e as
a n
atu
ral
and
rati
on
al r
e-sp
on
se t
o a
disc
over
ed g
ap i
n th
e li
tera
ture
.
In f
act,
th
is i
s n
ot
how
th
e st
ud
y st
arte
d at
all
. In
Fal
l 19
92,
ast
ud
ent
in J
oh
n's
Res
earc
h P
aper
Wri
tin
g cl
ass
ask
ed h
im i
f th
ere
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/
wer
e an
y ru
les
for
wh
ere
to p
ut t
he
sen
ten
ce c
on
nec
tors
. N
ot h
avin
gan
y im
med
iate
an
swer
, Jo
hn
play
ed f
or t
ime
and
ask
ed w
hat
th
ecl
ass
did.
Mos
t sa
id t
hey
alw
ays
pu
t th
em f
irst
, ev
en t
ho
ug
h th
eyh
ad n
otic
ed t
hat
th
ey d
id n
ot
alw
ays
com
e fi
rst
in t
he
book
s an
dp
aper
s th
at t
hey
rea
d.
Th
en o
ne s
tud
ent,
Art
hu
r H
sien
g,
said
th
ath
e re
mem
ber
ed a
soc
iolo
gy p
rofe
ssor
tel
lin
g th
e cl
ass
nev
er t
o p
ut
how
ever
in
init
ial
po
siti
on
. A
s E
ng
lish
tea
cher
s, w
e w
ere
so s
tru
ckby
th
is p
iece
of
gra
mm
atic
al f
olkl
ore
that
we
deci
ded
to i
nv
esti
gat
e!
Tas
k T
wo
Dis
cuss
th
e fo
llow
ing
issu
es w
ith
a g
rou
p.
1.
Do
you
thin
k th
e "t
rue"
sto
ry b
ehin
d o
ur
inv
esti
gat
ion
sho
uld
be
bu
ilt
into
th
e In
tro
du
ctio
n?
If s
o, w
her
e an
d ho
w?
2.
Alt
ern
ativ
ely
, d
o yo
u th
ink
it s
ho
uld
be
mad
e p
art
of
the
Dis
-cu
ssio
n? O
r w
ould
th
e A
ckn
ow
led
gm
ents
be
the
bes
t p
lace
to
men
tio
n ho
w t
he
stu
dy
cam
e ab
ou
t? O
r a
foot
note
? O
r sh
ou
ld i
tb
e o
mit
ted
alto
get
her
?
3.
Do
mem
ber
s of
yo
ur
gro
up
hav
e co
mp
arab
le e
xp
erie
nce
s to
sto
ries
ab
ou
t ho
w p
iece
s o
f re
sear
ch s
tart
edal
mo
st b
y ac
cid
ent
bu
t ar
e d
escr
ibed
as
if t
hey
wer
e p
lan
ned
?
4.
How
wou
ld y
ou a
nsw
er t
he
foll
owin
g q
ues
tio
n?
In a
ny
inv
esti
-g
atio
n,
cert
ain
even
ts t
ake
plac
e in
a c
erta
in o
rder
. D
o yo
uth
ink
it i
s n
eces
sary
to
kee
p to
th
at o
rder
wh
en w
riti
ng
an R
P,
or
is a
n au
tho
r fr
ee t
o ch
ang
e th
at o
rder
to
con
stru
ct a
mo
rerh
eto
rica
lly
effe
ctiv
e p
aper
?
Of
cou
rse,
by
this
tim
e yo
u m
ay b
e th
ink
ing
that
all
th
is r
het
ori
-ca
l w
ork
in I
ntr
od
uct
ion
s is
onl
y n
eed
ed i
n th
e so
cial
sci
ence
s an
dth
e h
um
anit
ies.
Th
ere,
aca
dem
ics
may
in
dee
d n
eed
to c
reat
e re
-se
arch
sp
aces
fo
r th
emse
lves
. S
urel
y,
you
may
b
e th
ink
ing
, th
eC
AR
S m
odel
is n
ot n
eces
sary
in "
tru
e" s
cien
ce. B
efor
e co
min
g to
an
ysu
ch c
oncl
usio
n, c
on
sid
er t
he
firs
t h
alf
of
the
Intr
od
uct
ion
to t
his
Pap
er f
rom
aer
osp
ace
and
atm
osp
her
ic s
cien
ce.
180
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Dis
cuss
wit
h a
grou
p th
e va
lidi
ty o
f ea
ch.
Whi
ch d
o yo
u th
ink
con-
trib
ute
mos
t to
our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f w
hy c
itat
ions
are
use
d in
aca
-de
mic
wri
ting
? D
oes
your
gro
up h
ave
any
othe
r th
eori
es?
1. T
his
theo
ry i
s w
idel
y pr
opos
ed i
n m
anua
ls a
nd s
tand
ard
prac
-ti
ce g
uide
s.
Cit
atio
ns a
re u
sed
to r
ecog
nize
and
ack
now
ledg
e th
e in
tell
ec-
tual
pro
pert
y ri
ghts
of
auth
ors.
The
y ar
e a
mat
ter
of e
thic
s an
da
defe
nse
agai
nst
plag
iari
sm (
see
Not
es o
n P
lagi
aris
m i
n U
nit
Fiv
e).
2. T
his
theo
ry h
as m
any
supp
orte
rs,
espe
cial
ly i
n w
ell-
esta
blis
hed
fiel
ds l
ike
the
scie
nces
.
Cit
atio
ns a
re u
sed
to s
how
res
pect
to
prev
ious
sch
olar
s. T
hey
reco
gniz
e th
e hi
stor
y of
the
fiel
d by
ack
now
ledg
ing
prev
ious
achi
evem
ents
.
The
rem
aini
ng t
heor
ies
have
bee
n pr
opos
ed b
y in
divi
dual
aut
hors
.
3. R
avet
z 19
71:
Cit
atio
ns o
pera
te a
s a
kind
of
mut
ual
rew
ard
syst
em.
Rat
her
than
pay
oth
er a
utho
rs m
oney
for
the
ir c
ontr
ibut
ions
, w
rite
rs"p
ay"
them
in
cita
tion
s.
4. G
ilbe
rt 1
977:
Cit
atio
ns a
re t
ools
of
pers
uasi
on;
wri
ters
use
cit
atio
ns t
o gi
veth
eir
stat
emen
ts g
reat
er a
utho
rity
.
5. B
avel
as 1
978:
Cit
atio
ns a
re u
sed
to s
uppl
y ev
iden
ce t
hat
th
e au
thor
qua
lifie
sas
a m
embe
r of
the
chos
en s
chol
arly
com
mun
ity;
cita
tion
s ar
eus
ed t
o de
mon
stra
te f
amil
iari
ty w
ith
the
fiel
d.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 18
1
6. S
wal
es 1
990:
Cit
atio
ns a
re u
sed
to c
reat
e a
rese
arch
spa
ce f
or t
he
citi
ng a
u-th
or.
By
desc
ribi
ng w
hat
has
been
don
e, c
itat
ions
poi
nt t
he
way
to
wha
t h
as n
ot b
een
done
and
so
prep
are
a sp
ace
for
new
rese
arch
.
Now
sup
pose
th
at w
e ha
ve a
ctua
lly
carr
ied
out
a st
udy
of t
he
reas
ons
for
usin
g ci
tati
ons
in a
cade
mic
tex
ts a
nd h
ave
begu
n to
wri
te a
n T
his
is t
he d
raft
of t
he i
ntro
duct
ion
so f
ar.
Rea
d it
and
cons
ider
the
que
stio
ns t
hat
fol
low
.
are
wid
ely
reco
gniz
ed a
s be
ing
an i
mpo
rtan
t
and
dist
inct
ive
prop
erty
of
acad
emic
tex
ts.
th
eV
pr
esen
ce o
r ab
senc
e of
cit
atio
ns a
llow
s th
e r
eade
rE
to
get
an
imm
edia
te s
ense
of
whe
ther
a t
ext
is a
n "a
ca-
dem
ic"
or "
popu
lar"
one
. c
itat
ion
is s
uch
an o
b-
viou
s su
rfac
e ph
enom
enon
, it
has
bee
n m
uch
disc
usse
d in
the
acad
emic
wor
ld.
the
re a
re s
ever
al t
heor
ies
abou
t th
e ro
le a
nd p
urpo
se o
f ci
tati
ons
in a
cade
mic
tex
ts.
We
now
hav
e to
wri
te M
ove
1. H
ow c
an w
e se
quen
ce o
ur s
ix t
heor
ies
(plu
s an
y ot
hers
th
atha
ve c
ome
up i
n yo
ur g
roup
s)?
The
key
ele
men
t in
lit
erat
ure
revi
ews
is t
hat
ord
er i
s im
pose
d on
the
mat
eria
l, n
ot s
o m
uch
orde
r in
you
r ow
n m
ind,
but
ord
er i
n th
e re
ader
's m
ind.
2.
Cle
arly
we
need
to
star
t w
ith
the
two
maj
or t
radi
tion
al v
iew
s(t
heor
ies
1 an
d 2)
. H
ow c
an w
e or
der
the
rem
aini
ng f
our
(3-6
)?
Sho
uld
we
orga
nize
in
the
chro
nolo
gica
l or
der
as p
rese
nted
? Is
lea
st i
n th
is w
eak
kind
of
orde
ring
? Is
th
ere
anot
her
way
?
4. O
ne p
ossi
bili
ty m
ight
be
to c
ateg
oriz
e th
eori
es 3
-6. D
o yo
u co
n-si
der
the
theo
ries
by
Rav
etz,
Gil
bert
, B
avel
as,
and
Sw
ales
to
be
182
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 18
3
econ
omic
th
eori
es?
soci
olog
ical
th
eori
es?
rhet
ori
cal
theo
ries
?
We
coul
d th
en d
ecid
e to
tak
e n
ext
the
case
wh
ere
we
hav
e tw
om
emb
ers
in t
he
cate
gor
y. O
ne
pla
n co
uld
look
lik
e th
is.
Th
eory
1
Th
eory
2E
stab
lish
ed m
ajor
th
eori
es
Rh
eto
rica
l
Eco
nom
ic
Soc
iolo
gica
l
Th
eori
es 4
an
d 6
Th
eory
3
Th
eory
5
Th
eori
es a
sso
ciat
edw
ith
ind
ivid
ual
auth
ors
.
Tas
k F
ive
Wri
te e
ithe
r a
shor
t re
view
of
the
cita
tion
lit
erat
ure
or
a sh
ort
re-
view
of
at l
east
fiv
e pa
pers
fro
m y
our
own
fiel
d. U
se t
he r
efer
ence
syst
em t
hat
you
are
mos
t co
mfo
rtab
le w
ith.
If
you
revi
ew p
aper
sfr
om y
our
fiel
d, a
lso
hand
in a
rou
gh d
iagr
am s
how
ing
how
you
hav
eim
pose
d or
der
on t
he
mat
eria
l.
La
ng
ua
ge
Foc
us:
Cit
ati
on
an
d T
ense
Ten
se c
hoic
e in
rev
iew
ing
prev
ious
res
earc
h is
sub
tle
and
som
ewha
tfl
exib
le.
(It
is a
lso
not v
ery
muc
h li
ke t
he "
rule
s" y
ou m
ay h
ave
been
tau
gh
t in
Eng
lish
cla
sses
.) T
he f
ollo
win
g, t
here
fore
, ar
e on
ly g
ener
algu
idel
ines
for
ten
se u
sage
.S
ever
al s
tudi
es h
ave
show
n th
at a
t le
ast
two-
thir
ds o
f al
l ci
ting
stat
emen
ts f
all
into
one
of
thes
e th
ree
maj
or p
atte
rns.
I P
ast-
rese
arch
er
acti
vity
as
agen
t
Jone
s (1
987)
inv
esti
gate
d th
e ca
uses
of
illi
tera
cy.
The
cau
ses
of il
lite
racy
wer
e in
vest
igat
ed b
y Jo
nes
(198
7).
P
rese
nt a
ctiv
ity
not
as a
gent
The
cau
ses
of il
lite
racy
hav
e be
en w
idel
y in
vest
igat
ed (
Jone
s19
87, F
erra
ra 1
990,
Hyo
n 19
94).
The
re h
ave
been
sev
eral
inv
esti
gati
ons
into
the
cau
ses
of il
lit-
erac
y (J
ones
198
7, F
erra
ra 1
990,
Hyo
n 19
94).
Sev
eral
res
earc
hers
hav
e st
udie
d th
e ca
uses
of
illi
tera
cy.
III.
ref
eren
ce t
o re
sear
cher
act
ivit
y
The
cau
ses
of il
lite
racy
are
com
plex
(Jo
nes
1987
, F
erra
ra19
90, H
yon
1994
).Il
lite
racy
app
ears
to
have
a c
ompl
ex s
et o
f cau
ses.
1 -3
Not
e th
ese
com
mon
use
s of
thes
e p
atte
rns:
Pat
tern
to
sing
leP
atte
rn t
o ar
eas
of p
erfe
ctP
atte
rn t
o st
ate
of c
urre
nt
Als
o no
te t
hat
in
pat
tern
s I
and
II,
atte
ntio
n is
giv
en t
o w
hat
pre-
viou
s re
sear
cher
s di
d, w
hile
in
pat
tern
III
, th
e fo
cus
is o
n w
hat
has
been
fou
nd.
Fin
ally
not
e th
at d
iffe
rent
are
as o
f sc
hola
rshi
p ha
ve s
omew
hat
diff
eren
t pr
efer
ence
s. P
atte
rns
I an
d II
are
mos
t co
mm
on i
n th
ehu
man
itie
s an
d le
ast
com
mon
in
scie
nce,
eng
inee
ring
, an
d m
edic
alre
sear
ch.
How
ever
, al
l th
ree
pat
tern
s te
nd t
o oc
cur
in m
any
exte
n-si
ve l
iter
atur
e re
view
s, s
ince
the
y ad
d va
riet
y to
the
tex
t.W
e ha
ve s
aid
that
the
se t
hre
e p
atte
rns
cove
r ab
out
two-
thir
ds o
fth
e ca
ses.
The
rea
son
this
pro
port
ion
is n
ot h
ighe
r is
beca
use
wri
ters
lit
erat
ure
revi
ews
can
have
cer
tain
opt
ions
in
thei
r ch
oice
of
tens
es.
Thi
s is
par
ticu
larl
y tr
ue
of p
atte
rn I
. T
he m
ain
verb
s in
Pat
tern
I c
an r
efer
to w
hat
a pr
evio
us r
esea
rche
r di
d (i
nves
tiga
ted,
stud
ied,
ana
lyze
d, e
tc.)
. B
y an
d la
rge,
in
thes
e ca
ses
the
past
is
184
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
ob
lig
ato
ry.
How
ever
, th
e m
ain
ver
bs
can
also
ref
er t
o w
hat
th
e p
re-
vio
us
rese
arch
er w
rote
or
thou
ght
{sta
ted,
con
clud
ed,
clai
med
, et
c.).
Wit
h th
ese
rep
ort
ing
ver
bs,
ten
se o
pti
on
s ar
e p
oss
ible
.
Jon
es (
1987
) co
nclu
ded
that
ill
iter
acy
can
be
rela
ted
to .
..Jo
nes
(19
87)
has
con
clud
ed t
hat
. .
.Jo
nes
(19
87)
conc
lude
s th
at .
. .
Th
e di
ffer
ence
s am
on
g th
ese
ten
ses
are
sub
tle.
In
gen
eral
, a
mov
efr
om p
ast
to p
rese
nt
perf
ect
and
then
to
pre
sen
t in
dic
ates
th
at t
he
rese
arch
rep
ort
ed i
s in
crea
sin
gly
clo
se t
o th
e w
rite
r in
som
e w
ay:
clos
e to
th
e w
rite
r's
own
opin
ion,
clo
se t
o th
e w
rite
r's
own
rese
arch
,o
r cl
ose
to t
he
curr
ent
stat
e o
f kn
owle
dge.
Th
e p
rese
nt
ten
se
choi
ce
is
som
etim
es
call
ed
the
cita
tion
alpr
esen
t an
d is
als
o u
sed
wit
h fa
mou
s o
r im
po
rtan
t so
urc
es.
Pla
to a
rgu
es t
hat
. .
.C
onfu
cius
say
s .
. .
Th
e B
ible
say
s .
. .
Th
e C
on
stit
uti
on
stat
es .
..
Co
mp
arab
le o
pti
on
s ex
ist
in t
he
sub
ord
inat
e cl
ause
.
Jon
es (
1987
) fo
und
that
ill
iter
acy
was
co
rrel
ated
mo
st c
lose
ly w
ith
pov
erty
.Jo
nes
(19
87)
foun
d th
at i
llit
erac
y is
co
rrel
ated
mo
st c
lose
ly w
ith
po
ver
ty.
Th
e fi
rst
sen
ten
ce s
how
s th
at t
he
wri
ter
beli
eves
th
at t
he
fin
din
gsh
ou
ld b
e u
nd
erst
oo
d w
ith
in t
he
con
tex
t o
f th
e si
ng
le s
tud
y.
In t
he
seco
nd,
the
wri
ter
imp
lies
th
at a
wid
er g
ener
aliz
atio
n is
po
ssib
le.
Va
ria
tio
n i
n R
evie
win
g th
e L
iter
atu
re
In t
he
lan
gu
age
focu
s, w
e co
nce
ntr
ated
on
the
thre
e m
ain
cita
tio
np
atte
rns.
Th
ere
are,
of
cou
rse,
som
e o
ther
s.
Acc
ordi
ng t
o Jo
nes
(19
87),
th
e ca
use
s of
illi
tera
cy a
re c
lose
ly r
e-la
ted
to p
over
ty.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 18
5
res
earc
h sh
ows
that
ill
iter
acy
and
po
ver
ty a
re i
nte
r-re
late
d
Jon
es 1
987)
.
Can
you
com
e up
wit
h so
me
mor
e?
Goo
d w
rite
rs o
f li
tera
ture
rev
iew
s em
ploy
a r
ang
e of
pat
tern
s in
ord
er t
o v
ary
thei
r se
nte
nce
s. A
s th
is i
s so
met
hin
g th
at w
e h
ave
alre
ady
dis
cuss
ed
in T
ask
Tw
elve
of
Un
it
Six
, yo
u m
ay w
ant
tore
view
th
at s
ecti
on b
efor
e d
oin
g th
is n
ext
task
.
Tas
k Si
x
Her
e is
a r
evie
w t
hat
use
s on
ly c
itat
ion
pat
tern
I.
As
you
can
see,
usi
ng
the
sam
e st
ruct
ure
all
th
e ti
me
can
cau
se t
he
read
er t
o lo
sein
tere
st.
Rew
rite
th
e p
assa
ge
so t
hat
it
has
mo
re v
arie
ty.
You
r ve
r-si
on w
ill
pro
bab
ly b
e sh
ort
er t
han
th
e a
dv
anta
ge!
The
Ori
gins
of
the
Fir
st S
cien
tifi
c A
rtic
les
fir
st s
cien
tifi
c jo
urn
al w
as s
tart
ed i
n L
ondo
n in
166
5.ou
sly,
th
e fi
rst
scie
ntif
ic a
rtic
les
had
no
dir
ect
mod
els
to b
uil
d on
,an
d se
ver
al
sch
ola
rs
hav
e d
iscu
ssed
p
oss
ible
in
flu
ence
s.(1
983)
su
gg
ests
th
at t
he
firs
t ar
ticl
es d
evel
oped
fro
m t
he
sch
ola
rly
lett
ers
that
sci
enti
sts
wer
e ac
cust
om
ed t
o se
nd
ing
to e
ach
oth
er.
(1
986)
sh
owed
th
at e
arly
ar
ticl
es
wer
e al
so
infl
u-en
ced
by
the
new
spap
er r
epo
rts
of
that
tim
e. (
1987
) de
-sc
ribe
d th
e in
flue
nce
of t
he
ph
ilo
sop
hic
al e
ssay
. (
1984
)cl
aim
ed t
hat
th
e sc
ient
ific
boo
ks o
f R
ob
ert
Boy
le w
ere
ano
ther
mod
el.
Baz
erm
an (
1988
) ar
gu
ed t
hat
dis
cuss
ion
amo
ng
the
scie
nti
sts
them
selv
es m
ade
its
own
con
trib
uti
on
to t
he
emer
-ge
nce
of t
he
scie
ntif
ic a
rtic
le.
Mov
e a
Nic
he
man
y w
ays,
Mov
e 2
is t
he
key
mov
e in
In
tro
du
ctio
ns.
It
is t
he
th
at c
on
nec
ts M
ove
1 (w
hat
has
bee
n do
ne)
to M
ove
3 (w
hat
pre
sen
t re
sear
ch i
s ab
ou
t).
Mov
e 2
thu
s es
tab
lish
es t
he
mo
tiv
a-ti
on f
or
the
stu
dy
. B
y th
e en
d o
f M
ove
2,
the
read
er s
ho
uld
hav
e a
id
ea o
f w
hat
is
goin
g to
com
e in
Mov
e 3.
186
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Mos
t M
ove
2s e
stab
lish
a n
ich
e by
in
dic
atin
g a
sho
win
gth
at
the
rese
arch
sto
ry s
o fa
r is
no
t y
et c
om
ple
te.
Mov
e 2
s th
en a
re a
par
ticu
lar
kin
d o
f cr
itiq
ue
(see
Un
it 6
).U
sual
ly M
ove
2s
are
qu
ite
sho
rt,
ofte
n co
nsi
stin
g o
f no
mo
re t
han
a se
nte
nce
. S
om
etim
es,
how
ever
, M
ove
2s c
an b
e q
uit
e co
mpl
icat
ed.
Co
nsi
der
, fo
r ex
amp
le,
the
Mov
e 2
from
th
e A
lmos
ino
pap
er o
n th
eca
lcu
lati
on
of
vo
rtex
flo
ws.
(M
ove
1 ap
pea
rs e
arli
er i
n th
is u
nit
.)
Tas
k Se
ven
Rea
d th
e m
idd
le s
ecti
on
of
the
Alm
osin
o in
tro
du
ctio
n (c
on
tain
ing
Mov
e 2
) an
d th
en a
nsw
er t
he
qu
esti
on
s th
at f
ollo
w.
th
e p
rev
iou
sly
men
tio
ned
met
ho
ds
suff
er f
rom
som
e li
mit
atio
ns
mai
nly
co
nce
rnin
g th
e tr
eatm
ent
of
the
vo
rtex
wak
e fo
rmat
ion
and
its
inte
ract
ion
wit
h th
e bo
dy.
M f
irst
gro
up
of
can
no
t tr
eat
3D
flo
ws
and
is
lim
ited
to
ver
y sl
end
er b
odie
s. s
econ
d g
rou
p of
V
pu
tati
on
al
is t
ime
con
sum
ing
and
ther
efo
reE
ex
pen
siv
e, a
nd
its
sep
arat
ion
pre
dic
tio
n is
no
t su
ffic
ient
lyac
cura
te.
th
e m
eth
od
s in
th
is g
rou
p an
d th
e m
eth
od
2 in
9 su
ffer
fr
om
the
dep
end
ency
o
n to
o m
any
sem
i-
emp
iric
al i
np
uts
an
d as
sum
pti
on
s co
nce
rnin
g th
e v
ort
exw
ake
and
its
sep
arat
ion
.
stea
dy
, 3
D
no
nli
nea
rv
ort
ex-l
atti
ce m
eth
od
, u
po
n w
hic
h th
e p
rese
nt
met
ho
d is
bas
ed,
elim
inat
es m
any
of
thes
e li
mit
atio
ns
by
intr
od
uc-
ing
a m
ore
co
nsi
sten
t m
odel
, b
ut
it c
an t
reat
onl
y sy
mm
et-
rica
l fl
ow
cas
es.
(Co
py
rig
ht
© 1
984
wit
h p
erm
issi
on
)
1.
How
man
y "c
riti
qu
e" e
xp
ress
ion
s ca
n yo
u fi
nd
in t
he
pas
sag
e?U
nd
erli
ne
or
hig
hli
gh
t th
em.
2.
Wh
at w
ord
sig
nal
s th
at M
ove
1 h
as e
nd
ed a
nd
Mov
e 2
has
star
ted
? W
hat
oth
er w
ords
or
exp
ress
ion
s co
uld
also
in
dic
ate
this
sh
ift?
3.
Th
is M
ove
2 oc
cupi
es f
ive
sen
ten
ces.
Wh
y do
you
th
ink
has
pu
t th
ese
sen
ten
ces
in t
his
par
ticu
lar
ord
er?
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 18
7
Wh
at d
o yo
u th
ink
the
nex
t se
nte
nce
is
goin
g to
be?
we
hav
e se
en,
Alm
osin
o re
lies
mo
stly
on
ver
bs
and
adje
ctiv
esto
ch
arac
teri
ze w
eak
nes
ses
in t
he
pre
vio
us
rese
arch
. C
are
is o
bvi-
ousl
y n
eed
ed w
hen
sel
ecti
ng
vo
cab
ula
ry o
f th
is s
ort
.
Tas
k E
ight
Her
e ar
e so
me
"neg
ativ
e" v
erb
s an
d ad
ject
ives
. D
ecid
e ho
w "
nega
-ti
ve"
they
are
. W
ork
wit
h a
par
tner
. U
se t
he
key
belo
w.
defi
nite
ly o
r st
ron
gly
neg
ativ
en
eutr
al o
r sl
igh
tly
neg
ativ
e =
-
Ver
bs How
ever
, p
rev
iou
s re
sear
ch i
n th
is f
ield
has
a.
con
cen
trat
ed o
n x.
b.
dis
reg
ard
ed x
.c.
fa
iled
to
con
sid
er x
.d.
ig
nore
d x.
e.
bee
n li
mit
ed t
o x
f.
mis
inte
rpre
ted
x.
g.
neg
lect
ed t
o co
nsi
der
x.
h.
ov
eres
tim
ated
x.
i.
over
look
ed x
.j.
b
een
rest
rict
ed t
o x
.k.
su
ffer
ed f
rom
x.
1.
un
der
esti
mat
ed x
.
Adj
ecti
ves
Nev
erth
eles
s, t
hes
e at
tem
pts
to
esta
bli
sh a
lin
k b
etw
een
sec-
on
dar
y sm
oke
and
lun
g ca
nce
r ar
e at
a.
con
tro
ver
sial
b.
inco
mp
lete
in
conc
lusi
ved.
m
isg
uid
ed
e.
qu
esti
on
able
f.
un
con
vin
cin
gg
. u
nsa
tisf
acto
ry
. w
illi
ng
Grad
uate
Stu
den
ts
La
ng
ua
ge
Fo
cus:
Neg
ati
ve
Op
enin
gs
Pro
bab
ly t
he
mo
st c
omm
on w
ay t
o in
dic
ate
a g
ap i
s to
use
a "
nega
-ti
ve"
su
bje
ct.
Pre
sum
ably
, n
egat
ive
sub
ject
s ar
e ch
osen
bec
ause
th
eysi
gn
al i
mm
edia
tely
to
the
read
er t
hat
Mov
e 1
has
com
e to
an
end
.N
ote
th
e fo
llow
ing
use
s l
ittl
e an
d
Un
cou
nta
ble
H
owev
er,
Cou
nta
ble
H
owev
er,
litt
le i
nfo
rmat
ion
.li
ttle
att
enti
on
. .
.li
ttle
wor
k .
. .
litt
le d
ata
. .
.li
ttle
res
earc
h .
. .
few
stu
die
s .
. .
few
in
ves
tig
atio
ns
few
res
earc
her
s .
.fe
w a
ttem
pts
. .
.
No
te t
he
diff
eren
ces
in t
he
foll
owin
g p
airs
:
He
has
lit
tle
rese
arch
(n
egat
ive,
i.e
., n
ot
eno
ug
h)
He
has
a l
ittl
e re
sear
ch (
neu
tral
, i.
e.,
may
be
eno
ug
h)
Th
e d
epar
tmen
t h
as f
ew (
neg
ativ
e, i
.e.,
no
t en
ou
gh
)T
he
dep
artm
ent
has
a f
ew (
neu
tral
, i.
e.,
may
be
eno
ug
h)
No
te t
he
use
of
no/n
one
of:
No
stu
die
s/d
ata/
calc
ula
tio
ns
. .
.
Use
no
wh
en y
ou
r co
nclu
sion
is
bas
ed o
n b
ut
does
no
t d
irec
tly
refe
rto
th
e ci
ted
lite
ratu
re.
If y
ou w
ant
to r
efer
dir
ectl
y to
th
e p
rev
iou
sre
sear
ch,
use
non
e of
.
Non
e of
th
ese
stu
die
s/fi
nd
ing
s/ca
lcu
lati
on
s .
. .
Of
cou
rse,
no
t al
l I
ntr
od
uct
ion
s ex
pre
ss M
ove
2 by
in
dic
atin
gan
obv
ious
gap
. Y
ou m
ay p
refe
r, f
or v
ario
us
reas
on
s, t
o av
oid
neg
a-ti
ve
or
qu
asi-
neg
ativ
e co
mm
ent
alto
get
her
. In
su
ch c
ases
, a
usef
ulal
tern
ativ
e is
to
use
a c
on
tras
tiv
e st
atem
ent.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 18
9
The
res
earc
h h
as t
end
ed t
o fo
cus
on
. .
. ,
rath
er t
han
on
...
The
se s
tud
ies
hav
e em
ph
asiz
ed .
. .
, a
s op
pose
d to
...
Alt
houg
h co
nsi
der
able
res
earc
h h
as b
een
devo
ted
to .
. .
, r
ath
erle
ss a
tten
tio
n h
as b
een
pai
d to
...
Tw
o o
ther
str
ateg
ies
are
qu
ite
com
mon
, p
arti
cula
rly
in t
he
"har
der"
area
s. T
he
firs
t is
rai
sin
g a
qu
esti
on
, a
hy
po
thes
is,
or
a n
eed
.H
ere
are
som
e sk
elet
al e
xam
ple
s.
How
ever
, it
rem
ain
s u
ncl
ear
wh
eth
er .
. .
It w
ould
th
us
be
of
inte
rest
to
lear
n ho
w .
. .
If t
hes
e re
sult
s co
uld
be c
onfi
rmed
, th
ey w
ould
pro
vide
str
on
g ev
i-de
nce
for
...
The
se f
ind
ing
s su
gg
est
that
th
is t
reat
men
t m
igh
t n
ot
be
so e
ffec
-ti
ve w
hen
ap
pli
ed t
o ..
.It
wou
ld s
eem
, th
eref
ore
, th
at f
urt
her
in
ves
tig
atio
ns
are
nee
ded
in
ord
er t
o ..
.
Not
e th
at i
n th
ese
case
s, s
ente
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs a
re n
ot
lim
ited
to
the
how
ever
ty
pe.
The
sec
ond
stra
teg
y is
co
nti
nu
ing
a li
ne
of
rese
arch
. T
his
las
tst
rate
gy
is l
arg
ely
rest
rict
ed t
o R
Ps
wri
tten
by
rese
arch
gro
up
s w
hoar
e fo
llow
ing
up
thei
r ow
n re
sear
ch o
r th
at d
one
by
sim
ilar
gro
up
s.T
he a
uth
ors
dra
w a
con
clus
ion
from
th
eir
surv
ey o
f th
e p
rev
iou
sre
sear
ch i
nd
icat
ing
how
so
me
fin
din
g in
th
e im
med
iate
res
earc
hli
tera
ture
can
be
exte
nd
ed o
r ap
pli
ed i
n so
me
way
. H
ere
are
thre
eex
amp
les.
The
se r
ecen
t d
evel
op
men
ts i
n co
mp
ute
r-ai
ded
des
ign
clea
rly
hav
eco
nsi
der
able
po
ten
tial
. In
th
is p
aper
, w
e d
emo
nst
rate
. .
.T
he l
iter
atu
re s
how
s th
at R
asch
An
aly
sis
is a
use
ful
tech
niq
ue
for
val
idat
ing
mu
ltip
le-c
ho
ice
test
s. T
his
pap
er u
ses
Ras
ch A
nal
-y
sis
to .
..
act
ive-
R n
etw
ork
s el
imin
ate
the
nee
d fo
r an
y ex
tern
al p
as-
sive
rea
ctan
ce e
lem
ents
. T
his
pap
er u
tili
zes
the
acti
ve-R
ap
-p
roac
h fo
r th
e d
esig
n of
a c
ircu
it .
. .
190
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Occupyin
g t
he N
iche
Th
e th
ird
and
fin
al s
tep
in t
he
typ
ical
RP
In
tro
du
ctio
n is
to
mak
e an
offe
r to
fil
l th
e g
ap (
or a
nsw
er t
he
qu
esti
on
) th
at h
as b
een
crea
ted
inM
ove
2.
Th
e fi
rst
elem
ent
in M
ove
3 is
obl
igat
ory.
It
has
tw
o m
ain
var
ian
ts:
Pu
rpo
siv
e (P
)
Des
crip
tiv
e (D
)
Tas
k N
ine
Th
e au
tho
r o
r au
tho
rs i
nd
icat
e th
eir
mai
np
urp
ose
or
pu
rpo
ses.
or
Th
e au
tho
r o
r au
tho
rs d
escr
ibe
the
mai
nfe
atu
re o
f th
eir
rese
arch
.
Her
e ar
e th
e b
egin
nin
g p
arts
of
ten
op
enin
g M
ove
3 se
nte
nce
s. D
e-ci
de i
n ea
ch c
ase
wh
eth
er t
hey
are
pu
rpo
siv
e o
r d
escr
ipti
ve,
an
den
ter
a P
or
a D
in
the
bla
nk
. O
ne
of
them
is
from
th
e A
lmos
ino
pap
er (
see
Mov
e 2
in T
ask
Sev
en).
Can
you
gu
ess
whi
ch o
ne i
t is
?C
om
ple
te a
t le
ast
thre
e o
f th
e se
nte
nce
s w
ith
yo
ur
own
wo
rds.
T
he
aim
of
the
pre
sen
t p
aper
is
to g
ive
. .
.
2.
Th
is p
aper
rep
ort
s o
n th
e re
sult
s o
bta
ined
. .
.
3.
In t
his
pap
er w
e gi
ve p
reli
min
ary
resu
lts
for
. .
.
4.
Th
e m
ain
pu
rpo
se o
f th
e ex
per
imen
t re
po
rted
her
e w
as
...
5.
Th
is s
tud
y w
as d
esig
ned
to
eval
uat
e .
. .
6.
Th
e p
rese
nt
wor
k ex
ten
ds
the
use
of
the
last
mod
el b
y ..
.
7.
We
now
rep
ort
th
e in
tera
ctio
n b
etw
een
. .
.
8.
Th
e p
rim
ary
focu
s o
f th
is p
aper
is
on
...
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 19
1
9 T
he
aim
of
this
in
ves
tig
atio
n w
as t
o te
st .
. .
10.
It i
s th
e p
urp
ose
of
the
pre
sen
t p
aper
to
prov
ide
. .
.
Not
e th
at M
ove
3 is
ty
pic
ally
sig
nal
ed b
y so
me
refe
ren
ce t
o th
ere
sen
t te
xt,
su
ch a
s th
e u
ses
this
, th
e pr
esen
t, r
epor
ted,
an
d he
re.
If t
he
con
ven
tio
ns
of
the
fiel
d o
r jo
urn
al a
llow
it,
it
is a
lso
com
mon
for
the
auth
ors
to
swit
ch f
rom
th
e im
per
son
al t
o th
e p
erso
nal
by
usi
ng
we,
or
mo
re r
are
ly/.
Als
o n
ote
th
at t
hes
e si
gn
als
com
e ea
rly
inth
e se
nte
nce
. It
is
ver
y u
nu
sual
to
fin
d:
We
pre
sen
t th
e re
sult
s of
th
ree
exp
erim
ents
in
this
pap
er.
rath
er t
han
:
In t
his
pape
r w
e p
rese
nt
the
resu
lts
of
thre
e ex
per
imen
ts.
Lan
guag
e F
ocu
s: T
ense
an
d P
urp
ose
Sta
tem
ents
Stu
den
ts s
om
etim
es a
sk w
het
her
th
ey s
ho
uld
use
was
or
is i
n p
ur-
pose
st
atem
ents
. In
dee
d,
bo
th w
ere
use
d in
th
e p
hra
ses
in T
ask
Nin
e. T
he a
nsw
er t
o th
is q
ues
tio
n d
epen
ds
on
how
you
ref
er t
o y
ou
rw
ork.
You
hav
e tw
o ch
oice
s:
1.
Ref
erri
ng t
o th
e ty
pe
of
art
icle
, th
esis
, re
po
rt,
re-
sear
ch n
ote
, et
c.2.
R
efer
ring
to
the
typ
e of
in
ves
tig
a-ti
on,
stu
dy
, su
rvey
, et
c.
If y
ou c
hoos
e to
ref
er t
o th
e ty
pe
of te
xt,
you
mu
st u
se t
he
pre
sen
tte
nse
. If
wri
te,
"The
aim
of
this
pap
er w
as t
o ..
. i
t su
gg
ests
hat
you
are
ref
erri
ng
to a
n o
rig
inal
aim
th
at h
as n
ow c
han
ged
. y
ou c
hoos
e to
ref
er t
o th
e ty
pe
of i
nv
esti
gat
ion
, yo
u ca
n u
seer
was
or
is.
How
ever
, th
ere
is a
n in
crea
sin
g te
nd
ency
to
choo
se p
erh
aps
bec
ause
it
mak
es t
he
rese
arch
see
m r
elev
ant
fre
sh a
nd
new
. T
he
"saf
e ru
le"
then
is
to o
pt f
or t
he
pre
sen
t.
192
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
ua
te S
tud
ents
M 0 V E
Co
mp
leti
ng
an
In
tro
du
ctio
n
Th
ere
are
a n
um
ber
o
f el
emen
ts
that
ca
n fo
llow
th
e p
urp
os-
ive/
des
crip
tiv
e st
atem
ent.
W
hil
e th
ese
elem
ents
ar
e ty
pic
ally
nee
ded
in
lon
ger
tex
ts,
such
as
thes
es,
dis
sert
atio
ns,
or
long
an
dco
mpl
ex R
Ps,
th
ey m
ay n
ot
be n
eces
sary
in
sho
rt R
Ps.
We
brie
fly
rev
iew
eac
h in
tu
rn.
Sec
on
dar
y A
ims
or
Fea
ture
s
So
met
imes
a
seco
nd s
ente
nce
is
nec
essa
ry t
o co
mpl
ete
Mov
e 3
a.H
ere,
for
ex
amp
le,
is t
he
Alm
osin
o M
ove
3.
11T
he
pre
sen
t w
ork
exte
nd
s th
e u
se o
f th
e la
st m
odel
to
asy
mm
etri
c, b
ody-
vort
ex c
ases
, th
us
incr
easi
ng
the
ran
ge
of f
low
pat
tern
s th
at c
an b
e in
ves
tig
ated
. a
dd
itio
n,
anef
fort
is
mad
e to
im
prov
e th
e n
um
eric
al p
roce
du
re t
o ac
cel-
erat
e th
e co
nver
genc
e o
f th
e it
erat
ive
solu
tio
n an
d to
get
a3
bet
ter
roll
up
of
the
vo
rtex
lin
es r
epre
sen
tin
g th
e w
ake.
(Cop
yrig
ht ©
198
4 w
ith
per
mis
sio
n)
Th
ese
seco
nd
ary
stat
emen
ts a
re o
ften
in
tro
du
ced
by
such
lan
gu
age
as In a
dd
itio
n,
. .
.A
dd
itio
nal
ly,
. .
.A
sec
on
dar
y ai
m .
. .
A f
urt
her
rea
son
for
. .
.
Sta
tin
g V
alue
You
may
als
o w
ant
to c
on
sid
er w
het
her
you
wan
t to
men
tio
n at
th
isst
age
any
thin
g ab
ou
t th
e co
ntr
ibu
tio
n y
ou
r re
sear
ch w
ill
mak
e. O
fco
urs
e, y
ou w
ill
do
this
in
the
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
in a
ny
case
. N
ote
that
Alm
osin
o sq
uee
zes
a v
alu
e st
atem
ent
into
his
in
tro
du
ctio
n.
. .
. ,
thu
s in
crea
sin
g th
e ra
ng
e o
f flo
w p
rob
lem
s th
at c
an b
e in
ves
-ti
gat
ed.
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pa
per
II
/ 19
3
u op
t fo
r a
val
ue
stat
emen
t, i
t w
ould
be
wis
e to
be
cau
tio
us
and
to u
se q
ual
ific
atio
ns
(see
Un
it F
our)
.
Tas
k T
en
pre
sen
t th
e F
eak
and
Sw
ales
dra
ft I
ntr
od
uct
ion
(see
Tas
k O
ne)
sim
ply
end
s w
ith
a M
ove
3a.
In
the
pre
sen
t p
aper
, w
e re
po
rt
on
a p
reli
min
ary
stu
dy
of
sen
ten
ce-c
on
nec
tor
po
siti
on
in a
sam
ple
of
twel
ve p
ub
lish
ed a
rti-
cles
.
Wou
ld y
ou a
dv
ise
us t
o ad
d an
y of
th
e fo
llow
ing
val
ue
stat
emen
ts?
Wh
at a
re t
he
adv
anta
ges
or
dis
adv
anta
ges
of e
ach
? If
you
do
no
t li
ke
any
of t
hem
, ca
n yo
u of
fer
one
of y
ou
r ow
n, o
r ed
it o
ne o
f th
em t
oyo
ur s
atis
fact
ion
? W
ork
wit
h a
par
tner
if
po
ssib
le.
1.
In t
his
way
, w
e of
fer
a so
luti
on
to a
lo
ng
-sta
nd
ing
pro
ble
m i
nE
ng
lish
gra
mm
ar.
2.
It i
s ho
ped
that
th
is s
mal
l st
ud
y w
ill
rev
ive
inte
rest
in
a lo
ng-
negl
ecte
d fe
atu
re o
f ac
adem
ic E
ng
lish
.
3.
The
in
form
atio
n p
rese
nte
d sh
ou
ld b
e us
eful
to
all
tho
se t
each
-in
g ac
adem
ic w
riti
ng
to n
on
nat
ive
spea
ker
s o
f E
ng
lish
.
Ann
ounc
ing
Pri
nci
pal
Fin
din
gs
The
re i
s so
me
conf
usio
n as
to
wh
eth
er R
P I
ntr
od
uct
ion
s sh
oul
d cl
ose
wit
h a
stat
emen
t o
f th
e p
rin
cip
al r
esu
lts.
On
e in
ves
tig
atio
n (S
wal
esan
d N
ajja
r 19
87)
foun
d th
at p
hy
sici
sts
do
this
ab
ou
t h
alf
the
tim
e,b
ut
edu
cati
on
al r
esea
rch
ers
har
dly
eve
r in
clu
de
such
sta
tem
ents
.O
ne u
sefu
l g
uid
elin
e is
to
ask
yo
urs
elf
wh
eth
er t
he
RP
wil
l op
enw
ith
an A
bst
ract
. If
th
ere
is a
n A
bst
ract
, d
o yo
u n
eed
to g
ive
the
mai
n fi
nd
ing
s th
ree
tim
es:
in t
he
Ab
stra
ct,
in t
he
Intr
od
uct
ion
and
in t
he R
esu
lts?
We
thin
k n
ot.
If t
her
e is
no
Ab
stra
ct, y
ou m
ay w
ish
tore
cons
ider
. A
no
ther
su
gg
esti
on
wou
ld b
e to
fol
low
sta
nd
ard
pra
ctic
ein
yo
ur
fiel
d—
or
ask
yo
ur
inst
ruct
or.
194
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 19
5
Ou
tlin
ing
the
Str
uct
ure
of
the
Tex
t
A f
inal
opt
ion
is t
o co
nsi
der
wh
eth
er y
ou n
eed
to e
xp
lain
how
you
rte
xt
is o
rgan
ized
. T
his
ele
men
t is
ob
lig
ato
ry i
n d
isse
rtat
ion
s, b
ut
ison
ly i
ncl
ud
ed i
n R
Ps
un
der
cer
tain
cir
cum
stan
ces.
One
su
ch c
ircu
m-
stan
ce a
rise
s w
hen
yo
ur
tex
t is
un
usu
al i
n so
me
way
, su
ch a
s n
ot
usi
ng
the
fo
rmat
. A
no
ther
ari
ses
if y
ou a
re w
ork
ing
in s
ome
new
fie
ld.
Coo
per
(198
5) f
ound
, fo
r ex
amp
le,
that
ou
tlin
ing
the
RP
stru
ctu
re w
as q
uit
e co
mm
on i
n co
mp
ute
r te
chno
logy
. A
sk y
ours
elf
wh
eth
er y
ou
r an
tici
pat
ed r
ead
ers
nee
d to
hav
e th
e o
rgan
izat
ion
of
the
RP
ex
pla
ined
.
Her
e is
a u
sefu
l ex
amp
le o
f a
tex
tual
ou
tlin
e, w
ell-
mo
tiv
ated
by
the
un
usu
al s
tru
ctu
re o
f th
e p
aper
. N
otic
e ho
w i
t u
ses
a go
od v
arie
tyo
f se
nte
nce
st
ruct
ure
s.
Th
e p
aper
is
abo
ut
curr
ency
rat
es i
n th
eE
uro
pea
n C
omm
on M
ark
et a
nd
was
wri
tten
by
one
of
ou
r st
ud
ents
.
Th
e p
lan
of
this
pap
er i
s as
fol
low
s. S
ecti
on
II d
escr
ibes
th
e cu
r-re
nt
arra
ng
emen
ts f
or r
egu
lati
ng
exch
ang
e ra
tes
wit
hin
th
e E
C.
In S
ecti
on
III
a th
eore
tica
l m
odel
is
con
stru
cted
whi
ch i
s d
esig
ned
to
cap
ture
th
ese
arra
ng
emen
ts.
Ex
per
imen
tal
par
amet
ers
are
then
tes
ted
in S
ecti
on
IV.
Fin
ally
, S
ecti
on
V o
ffer
s so
me
sug
ges
-ti
on
s fo
r th
e m
odif
icat
ion
of
the
curr
ent
mec
han
ism
s.
(Pie
rre
Mar
tin
, u
ned
ited
)
Tas
k E
leve
n
Bel
ow i
s a
tex
tual
ou
tlin
e by
an
oth
er o
ne o
f ou
r st
ud
ents
. N
otic
e ho
wth
is t
ime
it l
ack
s v
arie
ty.
Can
you
rew
rite
it?
Th
e re
st o
f th
e p
aper
is
org
aniz
ed a
s fo
llow
s. S
ecti
on 2
pre
sen
tsth
e th
eore
tica
l co
ncep
t. S
ecti
on 3
pre
sen
ts t
he
emp
iric
al s
peci
fica
-ti
on
, th
e im
ple
men
tati
on
of
the
mod
el.
Sec
tion
4 p
rese
nts
th
ere
sult
s o
f st
atis
tica
l an
d o
ther
co
mp
uta
tio
nal
an
aly
ses.
Sec
tion
5su
mm
ariz
es t
he
fin
din
gs
and
pro
vid
es a
bri
ef d
iscu
ssio
n co
ncer
n-in
g th
e sh
ort
com
ing
s o
f th
e m
eth
od
s em
ploy
ed.
Fin
ally
, an
ap
pen
-d
ix p
rese
nti
ng
the
det
aile
d al
geb
raic
wo
rks
is p
rese
nte
d at
th
een
d o
f th
e p
aper
.(A
bdul
Mal
ik,
un
edit
ed)
Tas
k T
wel
ve
wri
te,
or r
ewri
te,
an R
P i
ntr
od
uct
ion
of y
ou
r ow
n.
Dis
cuss
ion S
ecti
ons
It i
s n
ot
so e
asy
to p
rov
ide
usef
ul g
uid
elin
es f
or w
riti
ng
Dis
cuss
ion
or C
oncl
usio
ns s
ecti
on
s. (
We
wil
l n
ot
dis
tin
gu
ish
bet
wee
n th
ese
two
term
s,
sinc
e th
e di
ffer
ence
is
lar
gel
y co
nv
enti
on
al,
dep
end
ing
on
trad
itio
ns
in p
arti
cula
r fi
eld
s an
d jo
urn
als.
) S
ee w
hat
is
done
in
yo
ur
own
fiel
d.T
he p
robl
em i
s th
at D
iscu
ssio
ns
var
y co
nsi
der
ably
dep
end
ing
on
a n
um
ber
of
fact
ors
. N
ot a
ll t
hes
e fa
cto
rs a
re u
nd
erst
oo
d,
bu
t on
eim
po
rtan
t on
e is
th
e k
ind
of
rese
arch
the
stu
dy
atte
mp
ted
to a
nsw
er.
An
oth
er f
acto
r th
at l
ead
s to
var
ia-
tion
is
the
po
siti
on
of
the
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
in t
he
RP
. B
y th
e ti
me
read
ers
reac
h th
e D
iscu
ssio
n,
auth
ors
can
ass
um
e a
fair
am
ou
nt
of
shar
ed k
now
ledg
e. T
hey
can
assu
me
(if
no
t al
way
s co
rrec
tly
) th
atth
e re
ader
has
un
der
sto
od
the
pu
rpo
se o
f th
e st
ud
y,
ob
tain
ed a
sen
seo
f th
e m
etho
dolo
gy,
and
follo
wed
alo
ng
wit
h th
e re
sult
s. A
uth
ors
can
use
this
un
der
stan
din
g to
pic
k an
d ch
oose
wh
at t
o co
nce
ntr
ate
on
inth
e D
iscu
ssio
n. A
s a
resu
lt,
they
ty
pic
ally
hav
e g
reat
er f
reed
om t
han
in t
he
Intr
od
uct
ion
.O
vera
ll,
if R
esu
lts
dea
l w
ith
fact
s,
then
Dis
cuss
ion
s d
eal
wit
hpo
ints
; fa
cts
are
desc
ript
ive,
wh
ile
po
ints
are
int
erpr
etiv
e. E
ffec
tive
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
s ar
e si
mil
ar t
o ef
fect
ive
lect
ure
s, w
hic
h,
asan
d H
uck
in (
1990
) n
ote
, ar
e b
ased
on
po
ints
, ra
ther
th
an o
n fa
cts.
Fu
rth
er,
auth
ors
o
f D
iscu
ssio
ns
hav
e so
me
flex
ibil
ity
in d
ecid
ing
whi
ch o
f th
eir
po
ssib
le p
oin
ts t
o in
clu
de
and
then
wh
ich
to h
igh
lig
ht.
Dis
cuss
ions
, th
en,
sho
uld
be
mo
re t
han
su
mm
arie
s. T
hey
sho
uld
go b
eyon
d th
e re
sult
s. T
hey
sh
ou
ld b
e
Aca
dem
ic W
riti
ng
for
Gra
du
ate
Stu
den
tsC
on
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 19
7
AN
D,
if p
ossi
ble,
som
eco
mb
inat
ion
of t
hes
e.
mo
re t
heo
reti
cal
or
mo
re a
bst
ract
orm
ore
gen
eral
or
mo
re i
nte
gra
ted
wit
h th
e fi
eld
or
mo
re c
on
nec
ted
to t
he
real
wor
ld
or
mo
re c
on
cern
ed w
ith
imp
lica
tio
ns
or
app
lica
tio
ns
As
Wei
ssbe
rg a
nd
Bu
ker
no
te,
"in
the
dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
you
sho
uld
step
bac
k an
d ta
ke
a b
road
loo
k at
yo
ur
fin
din
gs
and
yo
ur
stu
dy
as a
wh
ole
" (1
990,
160
).
We
hav
e sa
id t
hat
Dis
cuss
ion
s ca
n b
e vi
ewed
as
pre
sen
tin
g a
seri
es o
f p
oin
ts.
Typ
ical
ly,
they
are
arr
ang
ed a
s in
tab
le 2
2.
Mov
e 1
is u
sual
ly q
uit
e ex
ten
siv
e, a
nd
Mov
es 2
an
d 3
are
ofte
n q
uit
esh
ort
. A
t th
is p
oin
t, y
ou m
igh
t w
ant
to o
bser
ve t
hat
Mov
e 1
and
the
late
r m
oves
se
em
self
-con
trad
icto
ry.
Why
, yo
u m
ay a
sk,
bu
ild
up
som
eth
ing
in
ord
er t
o ap
par
entl
y at
tack
it
late
r? H
owev
er,
if w
ere
mem
ber
pos
itio
ning
, w
e ca
n se
e th
at a
uth
ors
can
pre
sen
t th
em-
selv
es v
ery
effe
ctiv
ely
by b
oth
1.
hig
hli
gh
tin
g in
tell
igen
tly
the
stre
ng
ths
of
the
stu
dy
and
2.
hig
hli
gh
tin
g in
tell
igen
tly
its
wea
kn
esse
s.
Ind
eed
, M
oves
2
and
3 ca
n al
so b
e u
sed
to i
dent
ify
and
open
up
futu
re
rese
arch
sp
ace
for
auth
ors
an
d th
eir
coll
eag
ues
. H
owev
er,
TA
BL
E 2
2.
Dis
cuss
ion
Mov
es
Mov
e 1
Mov
e 2
Mov
e 3
Poi
nts
to c
onso
lidat
e yo
ur r
esea
rch
spac
e (o
blig
ator
y)P
oint
s to
ind
icat
e th
e li
mit
atio
ns o
f you
r st
udy
(opt
iona
l bu
tco
mm
on)
Poi
nts
to i
dent
ify
usef
ul a
reas
of
furt
her
rese
arch
(op
tiona
lan
d on
ly c
omm
on i
n so
me
area
s)
this
is
lik
ely
to h
app
en,
acco
rdin
g to
Hu
ckin
(19
87),
in
area
s t
her
e is
fie
rce
com
pet
itio
n fo
r re
sear
ch g
ran
ts.
Tas
k T
hirt
een
We
have
no
ted
in t
his
tas
k n
ine
po
ints
we
wou
ld l
ike
to m
ake
in t
he
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
of t
he
pap
er o
n se
nte
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs.
The
y ar
e n
ot
yet
in o
rder
. W
e be
liev
e th
at t
hey
fal
l in
th
e fo
llow
ing
cate
go
ries
:
Mov
e 1
(Con
soli
dati
on)
2(L
imit
atio
n)
Mov
e 3
(Fu
rth
er r
esea
rch
)
Six
Po
ints
(3
resu
lts,
1 m
etho
dolo
gy,
1 ce
n-tr
alit
y,
1 li
tera
ture
co
mp
aris
on
)
Tw
o p
oin
ts
One
po
int
Into
whi
ch c
ateg
ory
doe
s ea
ch p
oin
t fa
ll?
Fil
l in
th
e b
lan
ks
wit
h th
ela
bels
. T
he
firs
t on
e h
as b
een
done
for
you
. R
evie
w t
he
Met
ho
ds,
Res
ult
s, a
nd
Intr
od
uct
ion
sect
ion
s of
ou
r m
ini-
RP
, if
nec
essa
ry (
see
Un
it S
even
an
d U
nit
Eig
ht
Tas
k O
ne).
Th
e fi
rst
one
has
bee
n do
nefo
r yo
u.
1. M
ove
2 (L
imit
atio
n)
Th
is i
s a
ver
y li
mit
ed s
tud
y re
stri
cted
to
a si
ng
le f
ield
.
2.
Pos
itio
n v
arie
s fr
om o
ne c
on
nec
tor
to a
no
ther
(+
exa
mpl
e[s]
).
3.
_ Sen
ten
ce-c
on
nec
tors
are
qu
ite
com
mon
in
acad
emic
wri
tin
g (a
v-er
age
of 2
per
pag
e).
4.
Ou
r su
rvey
sho
ws
un
exp
ecte
d di
ffer
ence
s in
th
e fr
eque
ncy
wit
hw
hich
in
div
idu
al c
on
nec
tors
are
use
d (+
exa
mpl
e[s]
).
19
8 /A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
5.
Fu
rth
er
rese
arch
in
this
are
a m
igh
t p
rod
uce
mat
eria
ls o
fg
reat
er h
elp
to w
rite
rs,
esp
ecia
lly
no
nn
ativ
e sp
eak
ers.
6.
Ou
r su
rvey
sho
ws
that
25
% o
f co
nn
ecto
rs d
o n
ot
occu
r at
th
eb
egin
nin
g of
sen
ten
ces.
It i
s im
po
rtan
t to
con
duct
su
rvey
s to
est
abli
sh w
her
e co
n-n
ecto
rs a
ctu
ally
occ
ur i
n se
nte
nce
s.
8.
We
are
no
t y
et i
n a
po
siti
on
to o
ffer
exp
lan
atio
ns
for
choi
ces
ofco
nn
ecto
r p
osi
tio
ns.
Tw
enty
-fiv
e p
erce
nt
no
nin
itia
l se
ems
hig
her
th
an t
he
gra
mm
arbo
oks
wou
ld p
red
ict,
bu
t lo
wer
th
an M
orro
w (
1989
), w
ho f
ound
53
% n
on
init
ial
in a
n ec
onom
ics
jou
rnal
(al
tho
ug
h M
orro
w u
sed
a b
road
er d
efin
itio
n of
con
nect
or).
As
we
can
see,
th
e h
eart
of
a M
ove
1 ty
pic
ally
con
sist
s of
sta
te-
men
ts o
f re
sult
s fo
llow
ed b
y a
foll
ow-u
p of
som
e k
ind
. T
he f
ollo
w-u
pm
igh
t ta
ke
the
form
o
f ex
amp
les,
co
mp
aris
on
s w
ith
oth
er w
ork,
con
clu
sio
ns
that
mig
ht
be
dra
wn
, o
r co
mm
enta
ry o
n w
het
her
th
ere
sult
s ar
e ex
pect
ed o
r u
nex
pec
ted
.
Tas
k F
ourt
een
Ple
ase
wri
te o
ur
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
for
us.
Ref
er t
o th
e R
esul
ts s
ec-
tio
n be
fore
Tas
k F
ive
for
det
ails
of
ou
r st
ud
y.
Op
enin
g a
Dis
cuss
ion
Sec
tio
n
As
we
hav
e al
read
y su
gg
este
d,
ther
e ar
e m
any
op
tio
ns
in o
peni
ng a
Dis
cuss
ion
. C
on
sid
er t
he
case
of
the
foll
owin
g d
ata.
We
stud
ied
Dis
-cu
ssio
n o
pen
ing
s in
15
arti
cles
fro
m a
sm
all
U.S
. re
gio
nal
jou
rnal
of
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pap
er I
I /
199
atu
ral
his
tory
res
earc
h.
We
foun
d g
reat
var
iati
on
. F
ou
r se
ctio
ns
op
en w
ith
the
mai
n re
sult
s. T
his
was
th
e la
rges
t ca
tego
ry,
bu
t st
ill
less
th
an
30%
o
f th
e to
tal.
T
hre
e b
egin
wit
h a
disc
ussi
on o
f th
eli
tera
ture
. H
ere
are
two
exam
ple
s.
a G
raik
owsk
i et
(19
86)
reco
vere
d .
. .
tox
in f
rom
. .
. a
nd
foun
dth
at .
..
suff
ered
100
% m
ort
alit
y w
hen
. .
.
Foo
d sh
ort
ages
, so
cial
str
ess
. .
. w
ith
in .
. .
are
cau
ses
of d
is-
per
sal
amo
ng
. .
. (F
ritz
an
d M
ech
19
81
, M
essi
er 1
985,
Mec
h19
87,
Pac
kar
d an
d M
ech
1980
).
Tw
o se
ctio
ns
star
t in
a m
ore
dra
mat
ic w
ay b
y of
feri
ng a
gen
eral
conc
lusi
on.
c.
Ap
par
entl
y,
we
are
wit
nes
s to
th
e ea
rly
ph
ases
of
a cl
assi
c po
p-u
lati
on
expl
osio
n.d
. F
rom
th
is d
ata,
it
is c
lear
th
at .
. .
are
no
t m
ajor
co
nsu
mer
s o
fco
mm
erci
ally
im
po
rtan
t fis
h-s
pec
ies
in .
..
The
rem
ain
ing
typ
es o
f op
enin
g oc
cur
only
onc
e in
th
e sa
mp
le.
We
wer
e su
rpri
sed
, fo
r ex
amp
le,
to f
ind
only
one
op
enin
g th
at r
emin
ds
the
read
er o
f th
e or
igin
al p
urpo
se.
e.
The
obj
ecti
ve o
f th
e su
rvey
was
to
qu
anti
fy t
he
nu
mb
erw
ith
in .
. .
In a
no
ther
cas
e, t
he
auth
or
op
ens
wit
h a
sum
mar
y.
f. T
his
rep
ort
bri
ng
s to
get
her
all
kno
wn
reco
rds
sin
ce 1
959.
In a
no
ther
, th
e au
tho
rs r
aise
th
e le
vel
of
dis
cuss
ion
by
refe
rrin
g to
theo
ry.
g T
he
inte
rrel
atio
nsh
ip o
f b
ird
po
pu
lati
on
s an
d th
e en
vir
on
men
tis
ex
trem
ely
com
plex
.
On
e au
tho
r st
art
s w
ith
a co
mm
ent
abo
ut
met
hodo
logy
.
• T
her
e is
a b
ias
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
usi
ng
eith
er g
rou
nd
or
aeri
alco
un
ts,
excl
usiv
ely.
200
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
An
oth
er a
uth
or
beg
ins
his
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
by
hig
hli
gh
tin
g th
esp
ecia
l im
po
rtan
ce o
f h
is r
esea
rch
site
.
i.
...
is o
ne o
f th
e fe
w s
ites
in
No
rth
Am
eric
a w
her
e th
e p
rese
nce
of a
sig
nif
ican
t n
um
ber
of
mig
rati
ng
. .
. h
as b
een
do
cum
ente
d.
An
d in
th
e fi
nal
cas
e, t
he
auth
or
actu
ally
beg
ins
by
dis
cuss
ing
the
lim
itat
ions
of
th
e d
ata.
j.
Th
e ce
nsu
s fi
gu
re i
s ex
pect
ed t
o b
e an
un
der
esti
mat
e o
fth
e to
tal
po
pu
lati
on
Th
is s
mal
l su
rvey
sho
ws
som
e o
f th
e m
any
stra
teg
ies
that
can
be
ado
pte
d fo
r o
pen
ing
a D
iscu
ssio
n se
ctio
n.
Th
e ch
oice
of
str
ateg
ycl
earl
y d
epen
ds
in p
art
on
how
th
e au
tho
rs v
iew
th
eir
wor
k. W
e w
ill
brie
fly
com
men
t o
n th
e la
st t
hre
e ca
ses.
In
h th
e au
tho
r b
egin
s w
ith
a m
etho
dolo
gy c
riti
qu
e of
pre
vio
us
wor
k, b
ecau
se o
ne o
f h
is m
ain
po
ints
is
that
he
has
tak
en t
he
tro
ub
le t
o "c
ombi
ne b
oth
aer
ial
and
gro
un
d su
rvey
s."
In i
th
e re
sear
cher
beg
ins
by
stre
ssin
g th
e p
oin
tth
at t
he
loca
tion
of
his
res
earc
h si
te o
ffer
s ex
cep
tio
nal
ad
van
tag
es.
Fin
ally
, ta
ke
the
case
of
j. I
t m
igh
t ap
pea
r th
at t
he
auth
or
has
ado
pte
d a
ver
y ri
sky
stra
teg
y,
bu
t in
th
is p
arti
cula
r co
nte
xt
it i
s n
ot.
It s
oon
emer
ges
th
at c
arry
ing
ou
t a
com
plet
e ce
nsu
s o
f th
is p
arti
cu-
lar
spec
ies
wou
ld b
e v
ery
diff
icul
t. T
here
fore
, th
e au
tho
r p
resu
mab
lyfe
lt o
n sa
fe g
rou
nd
wh
en h
e op
ened
in
this
way
. In
dee
d,
he c
an g
o on
to c
laim
th
at h
is n
um
ber
s ar
e m
uch
lar
ger
th
an a
nybo
dy e
lse
has
so
far
bee
n ab
le t
o re
po
rt.
Tas
k F
ifte
en
Su
rvey
an
d cl
assi
fy t
he
op
enin
gs
of
at l
east
six
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
sfr
om a
jo
urn
al i
n y
ou
r fi
eld
. B
rin
g y
ou
r fi
nd
ing
s to
cla
ss.
Lan
guag
e F
ocu
s: L
evel
s of
Gen
era
liza
tio
n
In t
he
Res
ult
s se
ctio
ns,
sta
tem
ents
may
be
qu
ite
spec
ific
an
d c
lose
lyti
ed t
o th
e d
ata.
As
can
be s
een
in T
able
1,
84%
of
the
stu
den
ts p
erfo
rmed
abo
veth
e 1
2th
-gra
de
leve
l.
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pap
er I
I /
201
Sev
en o
ut
of e
igh
t ex
per
imen
tal
sam
ple
s re
sist
ed c
orro
sion
lo
ng
er
than
th
e co
ntr
ols
.
On
the
oth
er h
and
, in
th
e A
bst
ract
or
in a
Su
mm
ary
sect
ion,
sp
ace
rest
rict
ion
s m
ay l
ead
to a
hig
h le
vel
of
gen
eral
ity
.
The
res
ult
s in
dic
ate
that
th
e st
ud
ents
per
form
ed a
bove
th
e 1
2th
-
gra
de
leve
l.
The
ex
per
imen
tal
sam
ple
s re
sist
ed c
orro
sion
lo
ng
er t
han
th
e co
n-
tro
ls.
In t
he
Dis
cuss
ion
, w
e u
sual
ly e
xpec
t so
met
hin
g in
bet
wee
n th
ese
two
leve
ls.
On
e co
mm
on d
evic
e is
to
use
one
of t
he
foll
owin
g "p
hra
ses
of g
ener
alit
y."
Ove
rall
In g
ener
alO
n th
e w
hole
In t
he
mai
nW
ith
. .
. ex
cept
ion(
s)
Ove
rall
, th
e re
sult
s in
dic
ate
that
stu
den
ts p
erfo
rmed
abo
ve t
he
12
th-g
rad
e le
vel.
The
ove
rall
res
ult
s in
dic
ate
. .
.T
he r
esu
lts
ind
icat
e, o
ver
all,
th
at .
. .
In g
ener
al,
the
exp
erim
enta
l sa
mp
les
resi
sted
. .
.W
ith
one
exce
pti
on
, th
e ex
per
imen
tal
sam
ple
s re
sist
ed .
. .
Lim
ita
tio
ns
in D
iscu
ssio
ns
We
saw
in
Intr
od
uct
ion
Mov
e 2s
(se
e p
age
18
5-8
9)
that
ex
ten
siv
e"n
egat
ive"
lan
gu
age
was
a p
ossi
ble
op
tio
n.
In c
on
tras
t, D
iscu
ssio
nM
ove
2s
ten
d to
use
les
s el
abo
rate
neg
ativ
e la
ng
uag
e.
Th
e m
ain
reas
on
is o
bvio
us;
it i
s no
w y
ou
r ow
n re
sear
ch t
hat
you
are
tal
kin
gab
out!
An
oth
er r
easo
n is
th
at m
any
lim
itat
ion
stat
emen
ts i
n D
iscu
s-si
ons
are
no
t so
mu
ch a
bo
ut
the
wea
kn
esse
s in
th
e re
sear
ch,
asbo
ut w
hat
can
not
be
conc
lude
d fr
om t
he
stu
dy
in q
ues
tio
n.
Pro
du
c-in
g st
atem
ents
of t
his
kin
d p
rov
ides
an
exce
llen
t o
pp
ort
un
ity
for
the
202
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
wri
ter
to s
how
th
at
he
or s
he
un
der
stan
ds
how
evi
den
ce n
eed
s to
be
eval
uat
ed i
n th
e p
arti
cula
r fi
eld
.
Tas
k Si
xtee
n
Co
mp
lete
fou
r o
f th
e st
atem
ents
in
set
A.
Bas
e tw
o o
n th
e m
ini-
RP
on s
ente
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs a
nd
two
on s
tud
ies
you
hav
e b
een
invo
lved
wit
h in
yo
ur
fiel
d.
Co
mp
lete
at
leas
t on
e st
atem
ent
from
B.
A.
Lim
itat
ion
s of
Res
earc
h S
cope
It
sh
ou
ld b
e n
ote
d th
at t
his
stu
dy
has
ex
amin
ed o
nly
. .
.2
. T
his
an
aly
sis
has
co
nce
ntr
ated
on
...
3.
Th
e fi
nd
ing
s o
f th
is s
tud
y ar
e re
stri
cted
to
...
4.
Th
is s
tud
y h
as a
dd
ress
ed o
nly
the
qu
esti
on
5.
Th
e li
mit
atio
ns
of
this
stu
dy
are
clea
r: .
. .
6.
We
wou
ld l
ike
to p
oin
t o
ut
that
we
have
no
t .
. .
B.
Lim
itat
ion
s in
Co
ncl
usi
on
s. B
elow
are
som
e ty
pic
al o
pen
ing
sfo
r st
atem
ents
th
at f
irm
ly s
tate
th
at c
erta
in c
oncl
usio
nssh
ou
ld n
ot b
e d
raw
n.
1.
How
ever
, th
e fi
ndin
gs d
o n
ot
impl
y .
. .
2.
Th
e re
sult
s o
f th
is s
tud
y ca
nn
ot
be
tak
en a
s ev
iden
cefo
r ..
.
3.
Un
fort
un
atel
y,
we
are
un
able
to
det
erm
ine
from
th
isd
ata
. .
.
4.
Th
e la
ck o
f ..
. m
ean
s th
at w
e ca
nn
ot
be
cert
ain
. .
.
We
said
ear
lier
th
at M
ove
2s a
re o
pti
on
al i
n D
iscu
ssio
ns.
If
you
feel
it
is u
nn
eces
sary
to
com
men
t o
n y
ou
r w
ork
in e
ith
er o
f th
e ab
ove
two
way
s, a
use
ful
alte
rnat
ive
is t
o pl
ace
the
lim
itat
ion
in a
n op
en-
ing
ph
rase
.
No
twit
hst
and
ing
its
lim
itat
ion
s, t
his
stu
dy
does
su
gg
est
. .
.D
esp
ite
its
pre
lim
inar
y ch
arac
ter,
th
e re
sear
ch r
epo
rted
her
ew
ould
see
m t
o in
dic
ate
. .
.
How
ever
ex
plo
rato
ry,
this
stu
dy
may
off
er s
ome
insi
ght
into
. .
.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h I
I /
203
Par
agra
ph
Par
agra
ph 2
Par
agra
ph 3
Fig
. 11
. S
hape
of
a lo
nger
Dis
cuss
ion
Cy
cles
of
Mo
ves
Fin
ally
, w
e sh
ou
ld
po
int
ou
t th
at
man
y D
iscu
ssio
n se
ctio
ns
run
thro
ug
h th
e M
ove
1-2-
3 (o
r p
art
of i
t) s
equ
ence
mor
e th
an o
nce.
Com
mon
ly,
each
cyc
le o
ccup
ies
one
par
agra
ph
. F
urt
her
, th
e m
ore
rese
arch
qu
esti
on
s th
ere
are
to b
e d
iscu
ssed
, th
e m
ore
th
is c
ycli
ng i
sli
kely
to
occu
r. S
uch
cyc
ling
can
als
o oc
cur
in I
ntr
od
uct
ion
s, b
ut
itte
nd
s to
be
less
com
mon
, es
pec
iall
y in
sh
ort
er R
Ps.
If y
ou w
ish
to w
rite
a l
on
ger
Dis
cuss
ion
, fo
llow
th
e sh
ape
reco
m-
men
ded
in
fig
ure
Beg
in w
ith
spec
ific
s an
d th
en m
ove
tow
ard
s th
e
mo
re g
ener
al.
Tas
k Se
vent
een
Wri
te o
r re
wri
te a
Dis
cuss
ion
sect
ion
for
your
ow
n re
sear
ch.
If y
ou
are
wo
rkin
g w
ith
oth
ers,
co
llab
ora
te w
ith
them
.
Ack
no
wle
dg
men
ts
Ack
no
wle
dg
men
ts h
ave
beco
me
an i
nte
gra
l p
art
of
mo
st R
Ps.
In
-de
ed,
one
fam
ou
s pr
ofes
sor
of
ou
r ac
qu
ain
tan
ce r
epo
rted
to
us
that
he
alw
ays
read
s th
e A
ckn
owle
dg
men
ts s
ecti
on o
f an
RP
fir
st.
Wh
enw
e as
ked
him
why
, h
e re
pli
ed,
"Oh,
th
e fi
rst
thin
g I
wan
t to
kno
w i
sw
ho h
as b
een
talk
ing
to w
hom
." W
hil
e w
e d
o n
ot
thin
k th
at t
his
is
204
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
stan
dar
d re
adin
g be
hav
ior,
it
does
sho
w t
hat
Ack
no
wle
dg
men
ts c
anb
e m
ore
th
an a
dis
pla
y o
f n
eces
sary
po
lite
nes
s.
Ack
no
wle
dg
men
ts
occu
r ei
ther
at
the
bo
tto
m o
f th
e fi
rst
pag
e,fo
llow
ing
the
Dis
cuss
ion
, o
r so
met
imes
at
the
end
. T
hey
prov
ide
ano
pp
ort
un
ity
for
you
to s
how
th
at y
ou a
re a
mem
ber
of
a co
mm
un
ity
and
hav
e be
nefi
ted
from
th
at m
emb
ersh
ip.
Her
e w
e li
st s
ome
of
the
com
mon
ele
men
ts i
n A
ckn
ow
led
gm
ents
.
1.
Fin
anci
al s
up
po
rt
Su
pp
ort
for
th
is w
ork
was
pro
vide
d by
(sp
onso
r).
Th
is r
esea
rch
was
par
tial
ly s
up
po
rted
by
a g
ran
t fr
om (
spon
-so
r).
Th
is r
esea
rch
was
fun
ded
by
Co
ntr
act
(nu
mb
er)
from
(sp
onso
r).
2.
Th
ank
s
We
wou
ld l
ike
to t
han
k A
, B
, an
d C
for
th
eir
hel
p .
. .
I w
ish
to t
han
k A
for
his
en
cou
rag
emen
t an
d g
uid
ance
thro
ug
ho
ut
this
pro
ject
.W
e ar
e in
deb
ted
to B
for
. .
.W
e ar
e al
so g
rate
ful
to D
for
...
3. D
iscl
aim
ers
(fol
low
ing
elem
ent
1 or
2)
How
ever
, th
e o
pin
ion
s ex
pre
ssed
her
e d
o n
ot
nec
essa
rily
ref
lect
the
poli
cy o
f (s
pons
or).
Th
e in
terp
reta
tio
ns
in t
his
pap
er r
emai
n m
y ow
n.N
on
e, h
owev
er,
is r
esp
on
sib
le f
or a
ny
rem
ain
ing
erro
rs.
How
ever
, an
y m
ista
kes
th
at r
emai
n ar
e m
y ow
n.
4.
Oth
er v
ersi
on
s
An
earl
ier/
pre
lim
inar
y v
ersi
on
of t
his
pap
er w
as p
rese
nte
d a
t(c
onfe
renc
e o
r se
min
ar).
5.
So
urc
e
Th
is a
rtic
le i
s b
ased
on
th
e fi
rst
auth
or's
doc
tora
l d
isse
rtat
ion
.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 20
5
Th
is p
aper
is
bas
ed o
n re
sear
ch c
ompl
eted
as
par
tial
ful
fill-
men
t fo
r th
e P
h.D
. re
qu
irem
ents
at
(un
iver
sity
nam
e).
Not
es
1. W
e be
liev
e th
at,
if p
erm
itte
d,
Ack
no
wle
dg
men
ts s
ho
uld
be
wri
t-te
n in
th
e fi
rst
per
son
—/
for
a si
ng
le a
uth
or
and
We
for
coau
tho
rs.
Itis
pos
sibl
e to
fin
d p
hra
ses
lik
e "t
he
pre
sen
t au
tho
rs,"
bu
t w
e co
nsi
der
them
too
for
mal
for
th
is s
itu
atio
n.
2.
As
far
as w
e ca
n se
e, f
inan
cial
su
pp
ort
ten
ds
to c
ome
firs
t,fo
llow
ed b
y th
ank
s. D
iscl
aim
ers
seem
op
tio
nal
. M
enti
on
s of
oth
erv
ersi
on
s an
d so
urc
es (
if u
sed
) se
em t
o co
me
eith
er a
t th
e b
egin
nin
go
r at
th
e en
d.
(Bu
t n
ote
th
at,
in t
hes
es o
r d
isse
rtat
ion
s, i
t is
cu
sto
m-
ary
to
op
en
wit
h th
ank
s to
su
per
vis
ors
, ad
vis
ors
, co
mm
itte
e-m
emb
ers,
etc
.)
Tas
k E
ight
een
Wri
te a
su
itab
le A
ckn
ow
led
gm
ents
sec
tion
for
one
of
your
pie
ces
of
wor
k. I
f n
eces
sary
, in
ven
t so
me
form
s o
f as
sist
ance
to
exp
and
the
sect
ion.
Tit
les
Alt
ho
ug
h th
e ti
tle
com
es f
irst
in
an R
P,
it m
ay s
om
etim
es b
e w
ritt
enla
st.
Its
fin
al f
orm
may
be
lon
g de
laye
d an
d m
uch
th
ou
gh
t ab
ou
t an
dar
gu
ed o
ver.
Au
tho
rs k
now
th
at t
itle
s ar
e im
po
rtan
t, t
hey
kno
w t
hat
the
RP
wil
l b
e k
no
wn
by
its
titl
e, a
nd
they
kno
w t
hat
a s
ucce
ssfu
lti
tle
wil
l at
trac
t re
ader
s w
hil
e an
un
succ
essf
ul
one
wil
l d
isco
ura
ge
read
ers.
Wh
at t
hen
are
th
e re
qu
irem
ents
for
goo
d R
P t
itle
s? I
n g
ener
al,
we
sug
ges
t th
e fo
llow
ing
thre
e.
1.
Th
e ti
tle
sho
uld
in
dic
ate
the
topi
c o
f th
e st
ud
y.
2.
Th
e ti
tle
sho
uld
in
dic
ate
the
scop
e o
f th
e st
ud
y (i
.e.,
nei
ther
ov
erst
atin
g n
or
un
der
stat
ing
its
sign
ific
ance
).
3.
Th
e ti
tle
sho
uld
be
self
-ex
pla
nat
ory
to
read
ers
in t
he
chos
en
area
.
206
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
In s
ome
case
s it
may
be
help
ful
to a
lso
ind
icat
e th
e n
atu
re o
f th
est
ud
y (e
xp
erim
ent,
cas
e re
po
rt,
surv
ey,
etc.
), b
ut
this
is
no
t al
way
sre
qu
ired
.
Not
ice
that
we
hav
e so
far
no
t m
enti
on
ed t
he
len
gth
of
the
titl
e.T
he
exp
ecte
d le
ng
th o
f t
itle
s is
ver
y m
uch
a d
isci
pli
nar
y m
atte
r.In
som
e ar
eas,
su
ch a
s th
e li
fe s
cien
ces,
tit
les
are
beco
min
g lo
ng
eran
d lo
oki
ng
mo
re a
nd
mo
re l
ike
full
sen
ten
ces.
In
oth
ers,
th
e p
re-
ferr
ed s
tyle
is
for
sho
rt t
itle
s co
nta
inin
g m
ostl
y n
ou
ns
and
pre
po
si-
tio
ns.
Fin
ally
, at
th
is s
tag
e in
yo
ur
care
er,
we
adv
ise
agai
nst
"cl
ever
,""j
oke,
" or
"tr
ick
" ti
tles
. T
hes
e ca
n be
ver
y su
cces
sful
for
un
der
gra
du
-at
es a
nd
for
sen
ior
sch
ola
rs,
bu
t in
yo
ur
case
, su
ch t
itle
s m
ay s
imp
lyb
e in
terp
rete
d as
mis
tak
es.
Her
e is
an
exam
ple
of
such
a t
itle
. T
he
auth
or
of t
he
pap
er i
s P
rofe
ssor
Har
tley
, a
wel
l-kn
own
prof
esso
r of
psyc
holo
gy w
ho c
on
duc
ted
man
y ex
per
imen
ts o
n w
hat
mak
es E
n-
gli
sh t
exts
eas
y o
r di
ffic
ult
to r
ead
. In
th
is i
nst
ance
, h
e h
as b
een
com
par
ing
tex
ts t
hat
hav
e "r
agge
d ri
gh
t" a
t th
e en
d o
f th
e li
nes
wit
hth
ose
th
at a
re s
trai
gh
t o
r "j
usti
fied
." H
ere
is t
he
titl
e:
Un
just
ifie
d E
xp
erim
ents
in
Ty
po
gra
ph
ical
Res
earc
h an
d In
stru
c-ti
on
al
Des
ign
. (B
riti
sh
Jour
nal
of E
duca
tion
al
Tec
hnol
ogy
2[1
973]
: 1
20
-31
)
In t
his
cas
e, w
e ca
n as
sum
e th
at P
rofe
ssor
Har
tley
is
mak
ing
a jo
ke.
Bu
t if
you
wro
te i
t?
As
it h
app
ens,
we
hav
e in
th
is t
extb
oo
k al
read
y re
ferr
ed t
o a
fair
nu
mb
er o
f w
ritt
en t
exts
, so
me
wri
tten
by
our
stu
den
ts,
bu
t m
ost
from
pu
bli
shed
so
urc
es.
Loo
k at
th
e ti
tles
of
thir
teen
of
them
.A
re t
her
e an
y th
at a
pp
eal
to y
ou?
Why
?
1.
Glo
bal
Imp
lica
tio
ns
of P
aten
t L
aw V
aria
tion
(S
uzu
ki,
p.
110)
2.
Map
pin
g D
ark
Mat
ter
wit
h G
rav
itat
ion
al L
ense
s (T
yson
,p.
117
)
3.
Blu
e W
hal
e P
op
ula
tio
n M
ay B
e In
crea
sin
g of
f C
alif
orni
a (B
os-
kin
, p.
117
)
4.
Is T
her
e a
Fem
ale
Sty
le i
n S
cien
ce?
(Bar
inag
a, p
. 11
7)5.
R
edu
cin
g A
ir P
oll
uti
on
in U
rban
Are
as:
The
Rol
e of
Urb
anP
lan
ner
s p
. 12
4)
6.
ES
L S
pel
lin
g E
rro
rs (
Tes
dell
, p
. 13
8)
Co
nst
ruct
ing
a R
esea
rch
Pap
er I
I /
207
7.
Ch
ines
e E
FL
Stu
den
ts'
Lea
rnin
g S
trat
egie
s fo
r O
ral
Com
mu-
nic
atio
n (H
uan
g,
p.
142)
8.
Rh
eto
rica
l P
atte
rns
in E
ng
lish
an
d Ja
pan
ese
(Ko
bay
ashi
,p.
146
)9.
T
he
Po
siti
on
of S
ente
nce
Co
nn
ecto
rs i
n A
cade
mic
En
gli
sh(F
eak
and
Sw
ales
, p
. 17
5)10
. H
igh
Cal
cula
tio
ns
of t
he
Sub
-son
ic V
orte
xF
low
in
Sle
nd
er B
odie
s (A
lmos
ino,
p.
178)
11
. C
hil
dre
n's
Pu
nct
uat
ion
: A
n A
nal
ysi
s o
f E
rro
rs i
n P
erio
d P
lace
-m
ent
(Cor
deir
o, p
. 17
4)12
. O
n th
e U
se o
f th
e P
assi
ve
in T
wo
Ast
rop
hy
sics
Jo
urn
al P
aper
s(T
aron
e et
p.
161)
13.
Arg
uin
g fo
r E
xp
erim
enta
l "F
acts
" in
Sci
ence
: A
Stu
dy
of R
e-se
arch
Art
icle
Res
ult
s S
ecti
on
s in
Bio
chem
istr
y (T
hom
pson
,p.
157
)
Tas
k N
inet
een
Co
mp
lete
th
e an
aly
sis
of t
hes
e ti
tles
in
tab
le 2
3.
Can
you
det
erm
ine
the
syst
em o
f ca
pit
aliz
atio
n th
at h
as b
een
use
d in
th
ese
titl
es?
Is i
tth
e sa
me
as i
n y
ou
r fi
eld
? (C
han
ges
in
cap
ital
izat
ion
occu
r in
th
ere
fere
nce
list
; se
e th
e n
ote
s at
th
e b
egin
nin
g o
f o
ur
refe
ren
ces
on
p. 2
47.)
You
may
hav
e n
oti
ced
that
tit
les
do
no
t al
way
s fo
llow
th
e st
an-
dar
d ru
les
for
usi
ng
arti
cles
in
En
gli
sh.
Loo
k ag
ain
at t
itle
s 1
and
3.
Are
th
e ar
ticl
es s
om
etim
es o
mit
ted
in y
ou
r fi
eld
?A
s it
hap
pen
s, o
nly
two
of
the
13
titl
es u
se q
ual
ific
atio
ns:
Bo
skin
(3)
use
s m
ay a
nd
Tar
on
e et
al.
(12
) u
se o
n. W
hat
dif
fere
nces
do
you
see
bet
wee
n th
e fo
llow
ing
pai
rs o
f ti
tles
?
la.
On
the
Use
of
the
Pas
siv
e in
Jo
urn
al A
rtic
les
T
he
Use
of
the
Pas
siv
e in
Jo
urn
al A
rtic
les
2a.
A S
tud
y o
f R
esea
rch
Art
icle
Res
ult
s S
ecti
on
s2b
. A
Pre
lim
inar
y S
tud
y o
f R
esea
rch
Art
icle
Res
ult
s S
ecti
on
s
3a.
An
An
aly
sis
of
Err
ors
in
Per
iod
Pla
cem
ent
3b
. T
owar
d an
An
aly
sis
of
Err
ors
in
Per
iod
Pla
cem
ent
TA
BL
E 2
3.
Tit
le A
nal
ysi
s
Tit
le
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11
12 13
Nu
mb
er o
fw
ords
6
Any
ver
bs
no map
pin
g
Pu
nct
uat
ion
no
ne
Fie
ld
law
disc
ours
ean
aly
sis
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 20
9
T
he
Rol
e of
Urb
an P
lan
ner
s
Th
e P
ote
nti
al R
ole
of U
rban
Pla
nn
ers
4c
A P
ossi
ble
Rol
e fo
r U
rban
Pla
nn
ers
Dep
end
ing
on y
our
fiel
d, y
ou m
ay w
ish
to c
on
sid
er u
sin
g qu
alif
ica-
tio
ns
in y
ou
r ti
tles
. In
nea
rly
all
case
s, t
he
pro
cess
of
arri
vin
g at
th
efi
nal
form
of
a ti
tle
is o
ne o
f n
arro
win
g it
dow
n an
d m
akin
g m
ore
Qua
lifi
cati
ons
can
be
help
ful
in t
his
pro
cess
.T
able
23
in T
ask
Nin
etee
n re
vea
ls t
hat
th
ree
of t
he
13
titl
es u
se a
colo
n.
5.
Red
uci
ng
Air
Po
llu
tio
n in
Urb
an A
reas
: T
he
Rol
e o
f U
rban
Pla
nn
ers
11
. C
hil
dre
n's
Pu
nct
uat
ion
: A
n A
nal
ysi
s o
f E
rro
rs i
n P
erio
d P
lace
-
men
t13
. A
rgu
ing
for
Ex
per
imen
tal
"Fac
ts"
in S
cien
ce:
A S
tud
y of
Re-
sear
ch A
rtic
le R
esu
lts
Sec
tio
ns
in B
ioch
emis
try
Col
ons
are
wid
ely
use
d in
tit
les,
e.g
., in
th
e ti
tle
of
this
boo
k. O
ne
of
the
colo
n's
typ
ical
fu
nct
ion
s is
to
sep
arat
e id
eas
in s
uch
com
bina
-ti
on
s as
th
e fo
llow
ing:
Bef
ore
the
Col
on:
Aft
er t
he C
olon
Pro
blem
: S
olut
ion
Gen
eral
: S
peci
fic
Top
ic:
Met
hod
Maj
or:
Min
or
May
be y
ou c
an t
hin
k o
f ot
her
s.
Tas
k T
wen
ty
Ex
pan
d th
e fo
llow
ing
titl
es b
y ad
din
g a
seco
nd
ary
elem
ent
afte
r th
eco
lon.
Ch
eck
bac
k th
rou
gh
the
tex
t w
her
e n
eces
sary
(T
he p
age
nu
m-
ber
s ar
e gi
ven
in t
he
list
on
pp
. 2
06
-7.)
1.
Glo
bal
Imp
lica
tio
ns
of P
aten
t L
aw V
aria
tio
n:
6.
ES
L S
pel
lin
g E
rro
rs:
210
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
7.
Ch
ines
e E
FL
Stu
den
ts'
Lea
rnin
g S
trat
egie
s fo
r O
ral
Com
mun
i-ca
tio
n:
8.
Rh
eto
rica
l P
atte
rns
in E
ng
lish
an
d Ja
pan
ese:
9.
Th
e P
osi
tio
n of
Sen
ten
ce C
on
nec
tors
in
Aca
dem
ic E
ng
lish
:
Tas
k T
wen
ty-o
ne
Bri
ng
the
titl
e of
on
e of
yo
ur
pap
ers
to c
lass
an
d b
e p
rep
ared
to
dis
cuss
its
fin
al f
orm
an
d h
ow i
t go
t th
ere.
Ab
stra
cts
In t
his
fin
al s
ecti
on
, w
e w
ill
wor
k on
tw
o k
ind
s of
ab
stra
cts.
Fir
st,
we
wil
l w
ork
on
abst
ract
s to
be
plac
ed a
t th
e b
egin
nin
g o
f an
RP
. In
mo
st s
itu
atio
ns,
th
ese
wil
l b
e ab
stra
cts
bas
ed o
n te
xts
th
at y
ou h
ave
alre
ady
wri
tten
. S
econ
d, w
e w
ill
wor
k o
n th
e co
nfer
ence
ab
stra
ct.
Inth
is c
ase,
you
may
or
may
no
t h
ave
a te
xt
to w
ork
from
.T
her
e is
a
thir
d k
ind
of
k
ind
that
oc
curs
in
an
abst
ract
ing
jou
rnal
. S
uch
ab
stra
cts
ofte
n u
se
spec
ial
conv
enti
ons
and
are
typ
ical
ly w
ritt
en b
y pr
ofes
sion
al a
bst
ract
ors
. T
hey
wil
l no
tco
nce
rn u
s.
Res
earc
h P
aper
Ab
stra
cts
RP
ab
stra
cts
usu
ally
co
nsi
st o
f a
sin
gle
par
agra
ph
con
tain
ing
from
abo
ut
four
to
ten
full
sen
ten
ces.
Th
is k
ind
of a
bst
ract
is
mo
re i
mpo
r-ta
nt
for
the
read
er t
han
for
th
e w
rite
r. B
y th
is w
e m
ean
that
an
un
sati
sfac
tory
RP
ab
stra
ct i
s n
ot
lik
ely
to a
ffec
t w
het
her
th
e p
aper
is f
inal
ly a
ccep
ted
for
pu
bli
cati
on
(alt
ho
ug
h th
e ed
ito
rs m
ay s
ug
ges
tch
ang
es t
o it
).
It m
ay,
how
ever
, af
fect
how
man
y pe
ople
wil
l re
ady
ou
r p
aper
. W
e kn
ow f
rom
man
y st
ud
ies
that
rea
der
s of
aca
dem
icjo
urn
als
empl
oy a
vas
t am
ou
nt
of
skim
min
g an
d sc
ann
ing
. If
th
eyli
ke
yo
ur
abst
ract
, th
ey m
ay r
ead
yo
ur
pap
er,
or
at l
east
par
t o
f it
. If
the
do
no
t li
ke
it,
they
may
no
t.
Th
ere
are
two
mai
n ap
pro
ach
es t
o w
riti
ng
RP
ab
stra
cts.
On
e w
esh
all
call
th
e "r
esu
lts-
dri
ven
" ab
stra
ct,
bec
ause
it
con
cen
trat
es o
n
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/
the
rese
arch
fin
din
gs
and
wh
at m
igh
t b
e co
nclu
ded
from
th
em.
Th
eo
ther
ap
pro
ach
is t
o of
fer
an "
RP
su
mm
ary
" ab
stra
ct i
n w
hic
h yo
upr
ovid
e on
e- o
r tw
o-s
ente
nce
sy
no
pse
s of
eac
h of
the
four
sec
tio
ns.
In
both
cas
es,
the
abst
ract
s w
ill
be
eith
er i
nfor
mat
ive
or
indi
cati
ve (
see
81).
Mos
t R
P a
bst
ract
s sh
ou
ld a
im t
o b
e in
form
ativ
e (i
.e.,
they
shou
ld i
ncl
ud
e th
e m
ain
fin
din
gs)
. How
ever
, th
is m
ay n
ot
be
po
ssib
lew
ith
ver
y lo
ng
pap
ers
or
wit
h v
ery
theo
reti
cal
on
es (
as i
n m
ath
emat
-ic
s).
Tas
k T
wen
ty-t
wo
Rea
d th
e tw
o d
raft
s of
th
e ab
stra
cts
for
our
min
i-R
P.
Th
en a
nsw
er
the
qu
esti
on
s th
at f
ollo
w.
Ver
sion
A
A c
ou
nt
of s
ente
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs i
n 12
aca
dem
ic p
aper
s p
rod
uce
d 70
diff
eren
t co
nn
ecto
rs.
Th
ese
var
ied
in f
requ
ency
fro
m 6
2 to
ken
s(h
owev
er)
to s
ing
le o
ccu
rren
ces.
Sev
enty
-fiv
e p
erce
nt
of t
he
467
exam
ple
s ap
pea
red
in s
ente
nce
-in
itia
l p
osi
tio
n.
How
ever
, in
div
id-
ual
co
nn
ecto
rs v
arie
d co
nsi
der
ably
in
po
siti
on
pre
fere
nce
. S
ome
(e.g
., in
add
itio
n) a
lway
s o
ccu
rred
in
itia
lly
; in
oth
er c
ases
(e.
g.,
for
exam
ple,
the
refo
re),
wer
e pl
aced
aft
er t
he
subj
ect
mo
reth
an 5
0% o
f th
e ti
me.
Th
ese
fin
din
gs
sug
ges
t th
at a
sea
rch
for
gen
eral
ru
les
for
conn
ecto
r p
osi
tio
n m
ay n
ot
be
frui
tful
.
Ver
sion
B
Alt
ho
ug
h se
nte
nce
co
nn
ecto
rs
are
a w
ell-
reco
gniz
ed f
eatu
re
ofac
adem
ic w
riti
ng
, li
ttle
res
earc
h h
as b
een
un
der
tak
en o
n th
eir
po
siti
on
ing
. In
th
is s
tud
y,
we
anal
yze
th
e p
osi
tio
n o
f 46
7 co
n-n
ecto
rs f
ound
in
a
sam
ple
of
12
rese
arch
pap
ers.
S
even
ty-f
ive
per
cen
t o
f th
e co
nn
ecto
rs o
ccu
rred
at
the
beg
inn
ing
of
sen
ten
ces.
How
ever
, in
div
idu
al c
on
nec
tors
var
ied
gre
atly
in
po
siti
on
al p
ref-
eren
ce.
Som
e, s
uch
as
in a
ddit
ion,
onl
y oc
curr
ed i
nit
iall
y;
oth
ers,
such
as
th
eref
ore,
o
ccu
rred
in
itia
lly
in
only
40%
o
f th
e ca
ses.
Th
ese
pre
lim
inar
y fi
nd
ing
s su
gg
est
that
gen
eral
ru
les
for
con-
nec
tor
po
siti
on
wil
l pr
ove
elu
siv
e.
212
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
1.
Th
e jo
urn
al r
equ
irem
ents
sta
te t
hat
th
e ab
stra
cts
acco
mpa
ny-
ing
pap
ers
sho
uld
no
t ex
ceed
100
wor
ds.
Do
ver
sio
ns
A a
nd
qual
ify?
2.
Wh
ich
ver
sio
n is
"re
sult
s d
riv
en"
and
whi
ch i
s an
"R
P s
um
-m
ary
"?
3.
Co
mp
are
the
ten
se u
sag
e in
ver
sio
ns
A a
nd
B.
4.
Wh
ich
ver
sio
n do
you
pre
fer?
And
why
?
5.
Som
e jo
urn
als
also
ask
for
a l
ist
of k
ey w
ords
. C
hoos
e th
ree
orfo
ur s
uit
able
key
wo
rds.
Lan
guag
e F
ocu
s: L
ing
uis
tic
Fea
ture
s of
Ab
stra
cts
On
the
bas
is o
f h
er r
esea
rch
into
ab
stra
cts
from
a w
ide
ran
ge
offi
eld
s, N
aom
i G
raet
z (1
985)
giv
es t
hes
e li
ng
uis
tic
spec
ific
atio
ns a
sch
arac
teri
stic
of
abst
ract
s:
1.
the
use
of
full
sen
ten
ces
2.
the
use
of
the
pas
t te
nse
3.
the
use
of
imp
erso
nal
pas
siv
e4
. th
e ab
sen
ce o
f n
egat
ives
5.
the
avo
idan
ce o
f "a
bb
rev
iati
on
, ja
rgo
n,
sym
bols
an
d o
ther
lan
-g
uag
e sh
ort
cuts
th
at m
igh
t le
ad t
o co
nfus
ion.
"
Des
pit
e G
raet
z's
seco
nd c
oncl
usio
n (a
bst
ract
s u
se t
he
pas
t te
nse
), i
tse
ems
clea
r th
at t
ense
usa
ge
in a
bst
ract
s is
fai
rly
com
plic
ated
. F
irst
,th
e co
ncl
usi
on
s ar
e n
earl
y al
way
s in
th
e p
rese
nt.
Sec
ond,
RP
su
m-
mar
y ab
stra
cts
ofte
n u
se t
he
pre
sen
t o
r p
rese
nt
perf
ect
for
thei
ro
pen
ing
stat
emen
ts.
Th
ird
, th
ere
app
ears
to
be
con
sid
erab
le d
isci
-p
lin
ary
and
ind
ivid
ual
ten
se v
aria
tio
n w
ith
sen
ten
ces
dea
lin
g w
ith
resu
lts.
In t
he
ver
sio
ns
in T
ask
Tw
enty
-tw
o, t
he
resu
lts
wer
e al
l ex
pre
ssed
thro
ug
h th
e p
ast
ten
se.
Nev
erth
eles
s, i
t is
no
t di
ffic
ult
to f
ind
exce
p-ti
on
s to
th
is p
atte
rn.
Her
e is
a s
ho
rt a
bst
ract
fro
m t
he
Rap
id C
omm
u-n
icat
ion
s se
ctio
n of
th
e jo
urn
al P
hysi
cal
Rev
iew
A (
1993
).
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 21
3
Nuc
lear
-Str
uctu
re C
orre
ctio
n to
the
Lam
b Sh
ift
K.
Pac
hu
cki,
D.
Lei
bfri
ed,
and
T.
W.
Han
sch
th
is
pap
er t
he
seco
nd-o
rder
nu
clea
r-st
ruct
ure
co
rrec
tion
to
the
ener
gy
of
hy
dro
gen
-lik
e sy
stem
s is
est
imat
ed a
nd
pre
vio
us
resu
lts
are
corr
ecte
d.
deu
teri
um
an
d h
yd
rog
en a
re c
onsi
d-er
ed.
th
e ca
se o
f d
eute
riu
m t
he
corr
ecti
on
is p
rop
ort
ion
al t
oth
e n
ucl
ear
po
lari
zab
ilit
y an
d am
ou
nts
to
abo
ut
-19
kH
z fo
r th
e
stat
e.
hy
dro
gen
th
e re
sult
ing
ener
gy
shif
t is
ab
ou
t-6
0H
z.
Ou
r in
ves
tig
atio
ns
sug
ges
t th
at t
he
shif
t to
th
e p
rese
nt
ten
se i
sm
ore
like
ly t
o oc
cur
in p
hy
sica
l sc
ienc
es s
uch
as
ph
ysi
cs,
chem
istr
y,
and
astr
op
hy
sics
an
d le
ss li
kel
y to
occ
ur in
the
soci
al s
cien
ces.
We
also
foun
d th
at p
hy
sici
sts
and
chem
ists
mor
e li
kel
y to
ad
op
t a
per
son
al s
tan
ce.
Ind
eed
, w
e ha
ve f
ound
occ
a-si
onal
ab
stra
cts,
p
arti
cula
rly
in
astr
op
hy
sics
, w
hich
co
nta
in
se-
quen
ces
of s
ente
nce
op
enin
gs
lik
e th
e fo
llow
ing:
We
dis
cuss
. .
.W
e co
mp
ute
. .
.W
e sh
ow .
..W
e ar
gu
e .
. .W
e co
nclu
de .
. .
It w
ould
th
eref
ore
see
m t
hat
cho
ice
of
ten
se a
nd
per
son
may
ag
ain
be
par
tly
a st
rate
gic
mat
ter
in a
bst
ract
s. C
hoos
ing
the
pre
sen
t te
nse
pro
du
ce a
n ef
fect
of
liv
elin
ess
and
con-
tem
po
rary
rel
evan
ce.
Cho
osin
g w
e ca
n ad
d p
ace,
b
y m
akin
g th
eab
stra
ct a
lit
tle
sho
rter
.
Tas
k T
wen
ty-t
hree
Ana
lyze
fiv
e ab
stra
cts
from
a c
entr
al jo
urn
al i
n y
ou
r fi
eld
in t
erm
s o
fth
e fi
ve c
har
acte
rist
ics
prop
osed
by
Gra
etz.
To
wh
at e
xte
nt
do y
our
fin
din
gs
agre
e w
ith
her
s? B
e p
rep
ared
to
sum
mar
ize
your
fin
din
gs
incl
ass,
per
hap
s in
th
e fo
rm o
f a
tab
le.
214
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 21
5
Con
fere
nce
Ab
stra
cts
Th
is
seco
nd
typ
e of
ab
stra
ct
is
som
ewh
at
difl
Fer
ent
from
th
e R
Pab
stra
ct.
It i
s u
sual
ly m
uch
lon
ger;
mo
st o
f a
pag
e ra
ther
th
ansi
ng
le p
arag
rap
h (a
nd
can
be
even
lon
ger,
esp
ecia
lly
in e
ng
inee
rin
g).
It i
s in
dep
end
ent;
in
oth
er w
ord
s, w
het
her
you
are
acc
epte
d fo
r th
eco
nfer
ence
pro
gra
m d
epen
ds
enti
rely
on
how
yo
ur
conf
eren
ce a
b-st
ract
is
perc
eive
d b
y th
e re
vie
w p
anel
. Y
our
pri
mar
y au
die
nce
is,
ther
efo
re,
the
conf
eren
ce
rev
iew
ing
com
mit
tee.
A
pp
eali
ng
to
the
conf
eren
ce p
arti
cip
ants
is
a se
con
dar
y co
nsi
der
atio
n.
At
the
begi
n-n
ing
of
this
se
ctio
n,
we
men
tio
ned
an
oth
er d
iffe
renc
e:
it i
s ve
ryp
oss
ible
th
at y
ou d
o n
ot
yet
hav
e a
tex
t to
co
nst
ruct
you
r ab
stra
cto
ut
of.
Fin
ally
, it
is
also
po
ssib
le t
hat
you
hav
e n
ot
yet
com
plet
ed a
llth
e w
ork
for
yo
ur
RP
. F
or e
xam
ple
, yo
u m
igh
t h
ave
thre
e ex
peri
-m
ents
pla
nn
ed,
bu
t as
th
e d
ead
lin
e d
esce
nd
s o
n yo
u, y
ou h
ave
re-
sult
s fr
om o
nly
two
of t
hem
. In
eff
ect,
yo
ur
abst
ract
may
no
t be
enti
rely
in
form
ativ
e.
In c
on
seq
uen
ce o
f th
ese
and
oth
er f
acto
rs,
conf
eren
ce a
bst
ract
sar
e m
uch
mo
re o
f "a
sel
lin
g jo
b"
than
RP
ab
stra
cts.
As
a re
sult
, m
ost
conf
eren
ce a
bst
ract
s h
ave
an o
pen
ing
sect
ion
that
att
emp
ts t
o
• cr
eate
a r
esea
rch
spac
e,•
imp
ress
th
e re
vie
w c
om
mit
tee,
an
d•
app
eal
(if
acce
pte
d)
to a
s la
rge
an a
ud
ien
ce a
s p
ossi
ble
.
Tas
k T
wen
ty-f
our
Her
e ar
e tw
o su
cces
sful
con
fere
nce
abst
ract
s w
ritt
en b
y tw
o o
f o
ur
stu
den
ts.
Th
e v
ersi
on
s p
rese
nte
d ar
e at
lea
st t
hir
d d
raft
s. T
he
firs
tis
fro
m m
usi
c th
eory
an
d th
e se
cond
fro
m b
usi
nes
s m
anag
emen
t.R
ead
them
an
d ca
rry
ou
t th
e ta
sks
that
fol
low
.
Rhy
thm
, M
eter
, an
d th
e N
otat
ed M
eter
in
Web
ern'
sV
aria
tion
s fo
r P
iano
, O
p. 2
7
of t
he
pro
ble
mat
ic i
ssu
es i
n p
ost
-to
nal
mu
sic
is t
he
no
tio
n of
rhy
thm
an
d m
eter
. t
he
nu
mer
ou
s an
aly
ses
of
Web
ern'
s V
aria
-ti
on
s fo
r P
ian
o,
Op.
27
, an
aly
sts
have
fai
led
to a
gre
e ab
ou
t th
ero
le o
f th
e n
ota
ted
met
er i
n th
e rh
yth
mic
an
d m
etri
cal
stru
ctu
re
of
the
piec
e. c
laim
th
e n
ota
ted
met
er t
o b
e p
ure
ly c
onve
n-ti
on
al a
nd
no
t to
be
obse
rved
in
per
form
ance
, w
hil
e o
ther
s gi
ve a
nal
tern
ativ
e ch
ang
ing
met
er t
o th
e on
e n
ota
ted
. p
aper
see
ks
to i
llu
stra
te t
hat
th
e n
oti
on
of
rhy
thm
an
d m
eter
in
Web
ern'
s O
p.2
7 is
a d
elic
ate
and
, m
ore
sig
nifi
cant
ly,
an i
nte
nti
on
al i
nte
rpla
ybe
twee
n th
e n
ota
ted
met
er,
and
the
rhy
thm
an
d m
eter
ari
sin
gfr
om t
he
ph
rase
str
uct
ure
of
the
piec
e. o
rder
to
dem
on
stra
teth
is,
the
pap
er p
rese
nts
an
anal
ysi
s ex
amin
ing
the
ph
rase
str
uc-
ture
of t
he
piec
e, s
eein
g it
as
an i
nte
ract
ion
bet
wee
n th
e p
itch
an
dth
e rh
yth
mic
do
mai
n.
an
aly
sis
empl
oys
the
conc
ept
of
Gen
-er
aliz
ed M
usi
cal
Inte
rval
s d
evel
oped
by
Lew
in,
as w
ell
asap
pli
cati
on
s o
f th
e tr
adit
ion
al n
oti
on
of
ph
rase
rh
yth
m.
feat
ure
s ar
e th
en p
rese
nte
d in
in
tera
ctio
n w
ith
the
row
str
uct
ure
of
the
piec
e. p
aper
clo
ses
by
sug
ges
tin
g th
at a
n es
sen
tial
feat
ure
in
un
der
stan
din
g rh
yth
m a
nd
met
er i
n W
eber
n's
Op.
27
isth
e in
tera
ctio
n b
etw
een
the
var
iou
s la
yer
s o
f th
e m
usi
c: t
hat
is,
the
un
der
lyin
g ro
w s
tru
ctu
re,
the
surf
ace
inte
rpre
tati
on
of
the
row
st
ruct
ure
, th
e p
hra
se r
hy
thm
, th
e m
eter
, an
d th
e n
ota
ted
met
er.
(Tii
na
Koi
vist
o, v
ery
min
or
edit
ing
)
Spee
d an
d In
nova
tion
in
C
ross
-fun
ctio
nal
Tea
ms
co
mp
etit
ive
and
un
cert
ain
bu
sin
ess
env
iro
nm
ent
of
the
1990
s re
qu
ires
an
acce
lera
ted
pro
du
ct d
evel
opm
ent
proc
ess
wit
hg
reat
ly
impr
oved
co
ord
inat
ion
and
inte
gra
tio
n am
on
g cr
oss-
func
tion
al t
eam
s (D
enis
on,
Kah
n an
d H
art
1991
). s
ucce
ss-
ful
pro
du
ct d
evel
op
men
t ef
fort
su
gg
ests
th
at s
peed
an
d v
arie
ty i
np
ersp
ecti
ve
and
exp
erti
se a
re c
om
pat
ible
. p
rod
uct
de-
velo
pmen
t u
sin
g cr
oss
-fun
ctio
nal
team
s h
as b
een
dra
win
g m
uch
atte
nti
on
from
aca
dem
ics
as w
ell
as t
he
corp
ora
te w
orld
, re
sear
chin
to i
ts o
rgan
izat
ion
and
pro
cess
es i
s st
ill
un
der
dev
elo
ped
.de
fici
ency
is
si
gnif
ican
t b
ecau
se
the
trad
itio
nal
li
tera
ture
o
nde
cisi
on m
akin
g h
as a
ssu
med
th
at s
pee
d an
d v
arie
ty a
re,
in r
eal-
in
com
pat
ible
. p
aper
ela
bo
rate
s th
e pr
oces
s o
f cr
oss-
func
tion
al
team
ef
fort
s,
bas
ed
on
inte
rvie
ws
and
ob
serv
atio
ns
°ver
a t
wo
-yea
r p
erio
d.
mod
el i
s de
velo
ped
and
op
erat
ion
aliz
edw
ith
22
surv
ey m
easu
res
and
test
ed w
ith
dat
a fr
om 1
83 i
nd
ivid
-u
als
on
29
team
s. s
how
th
at p
rod
uct
dev
elo
pm
ent
usi
ng
216
/ A
cad
emic
Wri
tin
g fo
r G
rad
uat
e S
tud
ents
cro
ss-f
un
ctio
nal
te
ams
is
hig
hly
co
rrel
ated
wit
h ti
me
com
pres
-si
on,
crea
tiv
ity
, ca
pab
ilit
y im
prov
emen
t,
and
over
all
effe
ctiv
e-n
ess.
(Kaz
Ich
ijo,
ver
y m
ino
r ed
itin
g)
1.
Un
der
lin
e al
l in
stan
ces
in t
he
two
tex
ts w
her
e th
e au
tho
rs u
seev
alu
ativ
e la
ng
uag
e to
str
eng
then
th
eir
case
for
th
e ac
cep
tab
il-
ity
of
thei
r re
sear
ch.
2.
Cir
cle
all
inst
ance
s o
f m
etad
isco
urs
e (i
.e.,
wh
en t
he
auth
ors
talk
ab
ou
t th
eir
own
tex
ts).
Wh
at d
iffe
renc
e d
o yo
u se
e b
etw
een
the
two
auth
ors
?
3.
Wh
ere
are
the
div
isio
ns
bet
wee
n th
e "s
cene
set
tin
g"
and
the
actu
al s
tud
ies
in t
hes
e tw
o te
xts
? D
o th
e p
rop
ort
ion
s o
f ea
chsu
rpri
se y
ou?
4.
Wh
y d
o yo
u th
ink
the
two
abst
ract
s w
ere
acce
pted
? W
ere
the
reas
on
s si
mil
ar i
n ea
ch c
ase?
5.
Wh
ere
do
you
sup
po
se t
he
stu
den
ts w
ere
in t
hei
r st
ud
ies
wh
enth
ey w
rote
th
eir
conf
eren
ce a
bst
ract
s? C
ircl
e yo
ur g
ues
s.In
Tii
na'
s ca
se:
a.
All
th
e w
ork
had
bee
n co
mpl
eted
.b
. A
ll b
ut
par
t o
f th
e an
aly
sis
of
the
row
str
uct
ure
had
bee
ndo
ne.
c.
Sh
e h
ad s
tud
ied
bu
t h
ad o
nly
trie
d it
ou
t o
n sm
all
sam
ple
s.
In K
az's
cas
e:
a.
Alm
ost
ev
ery
thin
g h
ad b
een
done
.
b.
All
th
e d
ata
had
bee
n co
llec
ted
and
anal
yze
d,
bu
t th
e m
odel
was
no
t y
et d
evel
oped
.
c.
Th
e d
ata
had
bee
n co
llec
ted,
bu
t on
ly a
nal
yze
d in
a p
reli
mi-
nar
y w
ay i
n o
rder
to
get
a s
ense
of
wh
ere
it w
as g
oing
.
Con
stru
ctin
g a
Res
earc
h P
aper
II
/ 21
7
Cit
atio
ns
in C
onfe
renc
e A
bst
ract
s
man
y ca
ses,
a
conf
eren
ce
abst
ract
is
read
an
d as
sess
ed f
airl
y i
n on
ly a
few
min
ute
s. U
nd
er t
hes
e co
nd
itio
ns
itdo
es n
o h
arm
to
try
to i
nd
icat
e at
th
e b
egin
nin
g th
at y
ou u
nd
erst
and
wh
at i
s go
ing
on
in y
ou
r ow
n sp
ecia
lize
d ar
ea.
For
th
at r
easo
n,
man
yco
nfer
ence
ab
stra
cts
con
tain
one
or
two
care
full
y se
lect
ed r
efer
ence
sto
rec
ent
lite
ratu
re.
In t
his
way
, au
tho
rs c
an c
om
mu
nic
ate
that
th
eyar
e in
to
uch
wit
h th
e la
test
dev
elo
pm
ents
. H
owev
er,
as T
iin
a's
ab-
stra
ct s
how
s, i
t is
no
t al
way
s n
eces
sary
or
even
des
irab
le t
o gi
ve t
he
cita
tio
ns
in f
ull.
Tas
k T
wen
ty-f
ive
You
r ad
vis
or
con
tact
s yo
u ab
ou
t an
up
com
ing
smal
l re
gio
nal
con
fer-
ence
an
d su
gg
ests
th
at y
ou s
ub
mit
a c
onfe
renc
e ab
stra
ct b
ased
on
your
cu
rren
t w
ork.
T
he
dea
dli
ne
is t
en d
ays
away
. T
he
abst
ract
ssh
ould
be
ano
ny
mo
us
and
bet
wee
n 15
0 an
d 20
0 w
ords
. M
ake
sure
you
hav
e a
dra
ft r
ead
y fo
r y
ou
r n
ext
wri
tin
g cl
ass.
