Pakistan Through the AgesZahir-ud-din Muhammad BaburWhen Babur swept down out of the valleys ofCentral Asiato conquer India, he was only one of a long line of such conquerors through history. However, his descendants, the Mughal emperors, built a long-lasting empire that ruled much of the subcontinent until 1868, and that continues to impact the culture of India to this day.It seems appropriate that the founder of such a mighty dynasty would himself be descended from great bloodlines. Babur's pedigree seems to have been specifically designed for the job. On his father's side, he was a Timurid, a Persianized Turk descended fromTimur the Lame. On his mother's side, Babur was descended from Genghis Khan.Childhood:Zahir-ud-din Muhammad, nicknamed "Babur" or "Lion," was born into the Timurid royal family in Andijan, now inUzbekistan, on February 23, 1483. His father, Umar Sheikh Mirza, was the Emir of Ferghana; his mother, Qutlaq Nigar Khanum, was the Moghuli king Yunus Khan's daughter.By the time of Babur's birth, the remaining Mongol descendants in western Central Asia had intermarried with Turkic and Persian peoples, and assimilated into local culture. They were strongly influenced byPersia(using Farsi as their official court language), and they had converted to Islam. Most favored the mysticSufism-infused style ofSunni Islam.Babur Takes the Throne:In 1494, the Emir of Ferghana died suddenly, and 11-year-old Babur ascended his father's throne. His seat was anything but secure, however, with numerous uncles and cousins plotting to replace him.Evidently aware that a good offense is the best defense, the young emir set out to expand his holdings. By 1497, he had conquered the famousSilk Roadoasis city of Samarkand. While he was thus engaged, however, his uncles and other nobles rose in rebellion back in Andijan. When Babur turned to defend his base, he once again lost control of Samarkand.The determined young emir had regained both cities by 1501, but the Uzbek ruler Shaibani Khan challenged him over Samarkand, and dealt Babur's forces a crushing defeat. This marked the end of Babur's rule in what is now Uzbekistan.Exile in Afghanistan:For three years, the homeless prince wandered Central Asia, trying to attract followers to help him retake his father's throne. Finally, in 1504, he and his small army looked to the southeast instead, marching over the snow-bound Hindu Kush mountains into Afghanistan. Babur, now 21 years old, besieged and conquered Kabul, creating a base for his new kingdom.Ever optimistic, Babur would ally himself with the rulers of Herat and Persia, and try to take back Fergana in 1510-1511. Once more, however, the Uzbeks utterly defeated the Moghul army, driving them back to Afghanistan. Thwarted, Babur began to look south once more.Invitation to Replace Lodi:In 1521, a perfect opportunity for southern expansion presented itself to Babur. Thesultanof theDelhi Sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi, was hated and reviled by his ordinary citizens and the nobility alike. He had shaken up the military and court ranks, installing his own followers in place of the old guard, and ruled the lower classes with an arbitrary and tyrannical style. After just four years of Lodi's rule, the Afghan nobility were so fed up with him that they invited the Timurid Babur to come to the Delhi Sultanate and depose Ibrahim Lodi.Naturally, Babur was quite happy to comply. He gathered an army, and launched a siege on Kandahar. The Kandahar Citadel, however, held out for much longer than Babur had anticipated. As the siege dragged on, however, important nobles and military men from the Delhi Sultanate such as Ibrahim Lodi's uncle, Alam Khan, and the governor ofPunjaballied themselves with Babur.First Battle of Panipat:Five years after his initial invitation into the subcontinent, Babur finally launched an all-out assault on the Delhi Sultanate and Ibrahim Lodi in April of 1526. On the plains of Punjab, Babur's army of 24,000, mostly horse cavalry, rode out against Sultan Ibrahim, who had 100,000 men and 1,000 war-elephants. Although Babur appeared to be terribly outmatched, he had a far more cohesive command... and guns. Ibrahim Lodi had none.The battle that followed, now called theFirst Battle of Panipat, marked the fall of the Delhi Sultanate. With superior tactics and firepower, Babur crushed Lodi's army, killing the sultan and 20,000 of his men. Lodi's fall signalled the beginning of theMughal Empire(also known as the Timurid Empire) in India.Rajput Wars:Babur had overcome his fellow Muslims in the Delhi Sultanate (and of course, most were happy to acknowledge his rule), but the mainly-HinduRajputprinces were not so easily conquered. Unlike his ancestor, Timur, Babur was dedicated to the idea of building a permanent empire in India - he was no mere raider. He decided to build his capital at Agra. The Rajputs, however, put up a spirited defense against this new, Muslim, would-be overlord from the north.Knowing that the Mughal army was weakened after the Battle of Panipat, the princes of Rajputana gathered an army even larger than Lodi's had been, and went to war behind Rana Sangam of Mewar. In March of 1527, at the Battle of Khanwa, Babur's army managed to deal the Rajputs a huge defeat. The Rajputs were undaunted, however, and battles and skirmishes continued all over the northern and eastern sections of Babur's empire for the next several years.Death of Babur:In the autumn of 1530, Babur fell ill. His brother-in-law conspired with some of the Mughal court nobles to seize the throne after Babur's death, by-passing Humayun, Babur's eldest son and appointed heir. Humayun hurried to Agra to defend his claim to the throne, but soon fell gravely ill himself. According to legend, Babur cried out to God to spare Humayun's life, offering his own in return. Soon, the emperor once more grew weak.On January 5, 1531, Babur died at the age of just 47. Humayun, 22 years old, inherited a rickety empire, beset by internal and external enemies. Like his father, Humayun would lose power and be forced into exile, only to return and restake his claim to India. By the end of his life, he had consolidated and expanded the empire, which would reach its height under his son,Akbar the Great.Babur lived a difficult life, always battling to make a place for himself. In the end, however, he planted the seed on one of theworld's great empires. Himself a devotee of poetry and gardens, Babur's descendants would raise all kinds of arts to their apogee during their long reign. TheMughal Empirelasted until 1868, when it fell to the colonialBritish Raj.Nsir al-Din Muhammad HumayunHumayun(7 March 1508 27 January 1556) was the secondMughal Emperorwho ruled over territory in what is now Afghanistan,Pakistan, and parts of northernIndiafrom 15311540 and again from 15551556. Like his father,Babur, he lost his kingdom early, but regained it with the aid of theSafavid dynastyof Persia, with additional territory. At the time of his death in 1556, theMughal Empirespanned almost one million square kilometers.Humayun succeeded his father in 1531, as ruler of the Mughal territories in India. At the age of 23, Humayun was an inexperienced ruler when he came to power. His half-brotherKamran MirzainheritedKabulandLahore, the more northern parts of their father's empire. Mirza was to become a bitter rival of Humayun.Humayun lostMughalterritories to thePashtunnoble,Sher Shah Suri, and, with Persian (Safavid) aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia was accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and signaled an important change in Mughal court culture. TheCentral Asian originsof the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences ofPersian art, architecture,languageandliterature. There are many stone carvings and thousands ofPersianmanuscripts inIndiadating from the time of Humayun.Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further, leaving a substantial legacy for his son,Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the titleInsn-i-Kamil(Perfect Man), among theMughals.BackgroundBabur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India although it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time ofGenghis Khan. Unlike most monarchies which practisedprimogeniture, the Timurids, following Genghis Khan's example, did not leave an entire kingdom to the eldest son. Although under that system only aChingissidcould claim sovereignty and khanal authority, any male Chinggisid within a given sub-branch (such as the Timurids) had an equal right to the throne.[2]While Genghis Khan's Empire had been peacefully divided between his sons upon his death, almost every Chinggisid succession since had resulted in fratricide.[3][full citation needed]Timur himself had divided his territories betweenPir Muhammad,Miran Shah,Khalil SultanandShah Rukh, which resulted in inter-family warfare.[2][full citation needed]Upon Babur's death, Humayun's territories were the least secure. He had ruled only four years, and not allumarah(nobles) viewed Humayun as the rightful ruler. Indeed earlier, when Babur had become ill, some of the nobles had tried to install his uncle, Mahdi Khwaja, as ruler. Although this attempt failed, it was a sign of problems to come.Early ReignUpon his succession to the throne, Humayun had two major rivals interested in acquiring his lands Sultan Bahadurof Gujarat to the south west and Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) currently settled along theriver GangesinBiharto the east. Humayuns first campaign was to confront Sher Khan Suri. Halfway through the counter offensive Humayun had to abandon it and concentrate on Gujarat, where a threat from Ahmed Shah had to be squelched. In this he succeeded and annexed Gujarat and Malwa. Champaner and the great fort of Mandu followed next.During the first five years of Humayun's reign, these two rulers were quietly extending their rule, although Sultan Bahadur faced pressure in the east from sporadic conflicts with thePortuguese. While the Mughals had obtained firearms via theOttoman Empire, Bahadur's Gujarat had acquired them through a series of contracts drawn up with the Portuguese, allowing the Portuguese to establish a strategic foothold in north western India.[5]Humayun was made aware that the Sultan of Gujarat was planning an assault on the Mughal territories with Portuguese aid. Showing an unusual resolve, Humayun gathered an army and marched on Bahadur. His assault was spectacular and within a month he had captured the forts ofManduandChampaner. However, instead of pressing his attack and going after the enemy, Humayun ceased the campaign and began to enjoy life in his new forts. Sultan Bahadur, meanwhile escaped and took up refuge with the Portuguese.[6]Sher Shah SuriShortly after Humayun had marched on Gujarat,Sher Shahsaw an opportunity to wrest control of Agra from the Mughals. He began to gather his army together hoping for a rapid and decisive siege of the Mughal capital. Upon hearing this alarming news, Humayun quickly marched his troops back to Agra allowing Bahadur to easily regain control of the territories Humayun had recently taken. A few months later, however, Bahadur was dead, killed when a botched plan to kidnap the Portuguese viceroy ended in a fire-fight which the Sultan lost.Whilst Humayun succeeded in protecting Agra from Sher Shah, the second city of the Empire,Gaurthe capital of thevilayatof Bengal, was sacked. Humayun's troops had been delayed while trying to takeChunar, a fort occupied by Sher Shah's son, in order to protect his troops from an attack from the rear. The stores of grain at Gauri, the largest in the empire, were emptied and Humayun arrived to see corpses littering the roads.[7]The vast wealth of Bengal was depleted and brought East giving Sher Shah a substantial war chest.[5]Sher Shah withdrew to the east, but Humayun did not follow: instead he "shut himself up for a considerable time in his Harem, and indulged himself in every kind of luxury."[7][full citation needed]Hindal, Humayun's 19-year old brother, had agreed to aid him in this battle and protect the rear from attack but abandoned his position and withdrew to Agra where he decreed himself acting emperor. When Humayun sent the grandMufti, Sheikh Buhlul, to reason with him, the Sheikh was killed. Further provoking the rebellion, Hindal ordered that theKhutbaor sermon in the main mosque at Agra be read in his name, a sign of assumption of sovereignty.[6][full citation needed]When Hindal withdrew from protecting the rear of Humayun's troops, Sher Shah's troop quickly reclaimed these positions, leaving Humayun surrounded.[8]Humayun's other brother, Kamran, marched from his territories in the Punjab, ostensibly to aid Humayun. However, his return home had treacherous motives as he intended to stake a claim for Humayun's apparently collapsing empire. He brokered a deal with Hindal which provided that his brother would cease all acts of disloyalty in return for a share in the new empire which Kamran would create once Humayun was deposed.[8]Sher Shah met Humayun in battle on the banks of the Ganges, nearBenares, in Chausa. This was to become an entrenched battle in which both sides spent a lot of time digging themselves into positions. The major part of the Mughal army, the artillery, was now immobile, and Humayun decided to engage in some diplomacy using Muhammad Aziz as ambassador. Humayun agreed to allow Sher Shah to rule over Bengal and Bihar, but only as provinces granted to him by his Emperor, Humayun, falling short of outright sovereignty. The two rulers also struck a bargain in order to save face: Humayun's troops would charge those of Sher Shah whose forces then retreat in feigned fear. Thus honour would, supposedly, be satisfied.[9]Once the Army of Humayun had made its charge and Sher Shah's troops made their agreed-upon retreat, the Mughal troops relaxed their defensive preparations and returned to their entrenchments without posting a proper guard. Observing the Mughals' vulnerability, Sher Shah reneged on his earlier agreement. That very night, his army approached the Mughal camp and finding the Mughal troops unprepared with a majority asleep, they advanced and killed most of them. The Emperor survived by swimming the Ganges using an air filled "water skin," and quietly returned to Agra. In AgraWhen Humayun returned to Agra, he found that all three of his brothers were present. Humayun once again not only pardoned his brothers for plotting against him, but even forgave Hindal for his outright betrayal. With his armies travelling at a leisurely pace, Sher Shah was gradually drawing closer and closer to Agra. This was a serious threat to the entire family, but Humayun and Kamran squabbled over how to proceed. Kamran withdrew after Humayun refused to make a quick attack on the approaching enemy, instead opting to build a larger army under his own name. When Kamran returned toLahore, his troops followed him shortly afterwards, and Humayun, with his other brothers Askari and Hindal, marched to meet Sher Shah just 240 kilometres (150mi) east of Agra at theBattle of Kanaujon 17 May 1540. The battle once again saw Humayun make some tactical errors, and his army was soundly defeated. He and his brothers quickly retreated back to Agra, humiliated and mocked along the way by peasants and villagers. They chose not to stay in Agra, and retreated to Lahore, though Sher Shah followed them, founding the short-livedSur Dynastyof northern India with its capital atDelhi.In LahoreThe four brothers were united inLahore, but every day they were informed that Sher Shah was getting closer and closer. When he reachedSirhind, Humayun sent an ambassador carrying the message "I have left you the whole of Hindustan (i.e.the lands to the East of Punjab, comprising most of the Ganges Valley). Leave Lahore alone, and let Sirhind be a boundary between you and me." Sher Shah, however, replied "I have left you Kabul. You should go there."Kabulwas the capital of the empire of Humayun's brotherKamran Mirza, who was far from willing to hand over any of his territories to his brother. Instead, Kamran approached Sher Shah, and proposed that he actually revolt against his brother and side with Sher Shah in return for most of thePunjab. Sher Shah dismissed his help, believing it not to be required, though word soon spread to Lahore about the treacherous proposal and Humayun was urged to make an example of Kamran and kill him. Humayun refused, citing the last words of his father,Babur"Do nothing against your brothers, even though they may deserve it."[10]Withdrawing furtherHumayun decided that it would be wise to withdraw still further, Humayun and his army rode out through and across theThar Desert, when theHindurulerRao Maldeo Rathoreallied himself withSher Shah Suriagainst theMughal Empire. In many accounts Humayun mentions how he and his heavily pregnant wife, had to trace their steps through the desert at the hottest time of year. All the wells had been filled with sand by the nearbyHinduinhabitants in order to starve and exhaust theMughalsfurther, leaving them with nothing but berries to eat. When Hamida's horse died,no one would lend the Queen (who was now eight months pregnant) a horse, so Humayun did so himself, resulting in him riding a camel for six kilometeres (four miles), although Khaled Beg then offered him his mount. Humayun was later to describe this incident as the lowest point in his life.[11][full citation needed]He asked that his brothers join him as he fell back intoSindh. While the previously rebellious Hindal Mirza remained loyal and was ordered to join his brothers inKandahar. Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza instead decided to head to the relative peace ofKabul. This was to be a definitive schism in the family.Humayun expected aid from theEmirofSindh, Hussein Umrani, whom he had appointed and who owed him his allegiance. The Emir Hussein Umrani welcomed Humayun's presence and was loyal to Humayun just as he had been loyal toBaburagainst the renegadeArghuns. Whilst in theoasisgarrison ofUmerkotinSindh, Hamida daughter of noble Sindhi, gave birth toAkbaron 25 October 1542, the heir-apparent to the 34-year old Humayun. The date was special because Humayun consulted his Astronomer to utilize theastrolabeand check the location of the planets.While in Sindh, Humayun alongside Emir Hussein Umrani, gathered horses and weapons and formed new alliances that helped regain lost territories. Until finally Humayun had gathered hundreds ofSindhiandBalochtribesmen alongside his Mughalsand then marched towardsKandaharand laterKabul, thousands more gathered by his side as Humayun continually declared himself the rightfulTimurid heir of the firstMughal EmperorBabur.Retreat to KabulAfter Humayun set out from his expedition inSindh, along with 300 camels (mostly wild) and 2000 loads of grain, he set off to join his brothers in Kandahar after crossing theIndus Riveron 11 July 1543 along with the ambition to regain theMughal Empireand overthrow theSuri dynasty. Among the tribes that had sworn allegiance to Humayun were theMagsi,Rindand many others.In Kamran Mirza's territory, Hindal Mirza had been placed underhouse arrestinKabulafter refusing to have theKhutb are cited in Kamran Mirza's name. His other brother Askari Mirza was now ordered to gather an army and march on Humayun. When Humayun received word of the approaching hostile army he decided against facing them, and instead sought refuge elsewhere. Akbar was left behind in camp close to Kandahar for, as it was December it would have been too cold and dangerous to include the 14-month-old toddler in the forthcoming march through the dangerous and snowy mountains of theHindu Kush. Askari Mirza found Akbar in the camp, and embraced him, and allowed his own wife to parent him, she apparently started treating him as her own.Once again Humayun turned towardKandaharwhere his brother Kamran Mirza was in power, but he received no help and had to seek refuge with theShahofPersia.Refuge in PersiaHumayun fled to the refuge of theSafavid Empirein Iran, marching with 40 men and his wife and her companion through mountains and valleys. Amongst other trials the Imperial party were forced to live on horse meat boiled in the soldiers' helmets. These indignities continued during the month it took them to reachHerat, however after their arrival they were reintroduced to the finer things in life. Upon entering the city his army was greeted with an armed escort, and they were treated to lavish food and clothing. They were given fine accommodations and the roads were cleared and cleaned before them.Shah Tahmasp, unlike Humayun's own family, actually welcomed the Mughal, and treated him as a royal visitor. Here Humayun went sightseeing and was amazed at the Persian artwork and architecture he saw: much of this was the work of the Timurid SultanHusayn Bayqarahand his ancestor, princessGauhar Shad, thus he was able to admire the work of his relatives and ancestors at first hand. He was introduced to the work of the Persian miniaturists, andKamaleddin Behzadhad two of his pupils join Humayun in his court. Humayun was amazed at their work and asked if they would work for him if he were to regain the sovereignty of Hindustan: they agreed. With so much going on Humayun did not even meet the Shah until July, some six months after his arrival in Persia. After a lengthy journey from Herat the two met inQazvinwhere a large feast and parties were held for the event. The meeting of the two monarchs is depicted in a famous wall-painting in theChehel Sotoun(Forty Columns) palace inEsfahan.The Shah urged that Humayun convert fromSunnitoShia Islam, and Humayun eventually and reluctantly accepted, in order to keep himself and several hundred followers alive.[12]Although theMughalsinitially disagreed to their conversion they knew that with this outward acceptance of Shi'ism,Shah Tahmaspwas eventually prepared to offer Humayun more substantial support.[12]When Humayun's brother, Kamran Mirza, offered to cedeKandaharto the Persians in exchange for Humayun, dead or alive,Shah Tahmasprefused. Instead the Shah staged a celebration for Humayun, with 300 tents, an imperial Persian carpet, 12 musical bands and "meat of all kinds". Here the Shah announced that all this, and 12,000 elite cavalry were his to lead an attack on his brother Kamran. All thatShah Tahmaspasked for was that, if Humayun's forces were victorious, Kandahar would be his.Kandahar and onwardsWith this PersianSafavidaid Humayun tookKandaharfrom Askari Mirza after a two-week siege. He noted how the nobles who had served Askari Mirza quickly flocked to serve him, "in very truth the greater part of the inhabitants of the world are like a flock of sheep, wherever one goes the others immediately follow". Kandahar was, as agreed, given to the Shah of Persia who sent his infant son, Murad, as the Viceroy. However, the baby soon died and Humayun thought himself strong enough to assume power.Humayun now prepared to take Kabul, ruled by his brother Kamran Mirza. In the end, there was no actual siege. Kamran Mirza was detested as a leader and as Humayun's Persian army approached the city hundreds of Kamran Mirza's troops changed sides, flocking to join Humayun and swelling his ranks. Kamran Mirza absconded and began building an army outside the city. In November 1545, Hamida and Humayun were reunited with their sonAkbar, and held a huge feast. They also held another, larger, feast in the childs' honour when he wascircumcised.However, while Humayun had a larger army than his brother and had the upper hand, on two occasions his poor military judgement allowed Kamran Mirza to retake Kabul and Kandahar, forcing Humayun to mount further campaigns for their recapture. He may have been aided in this by his reputation for leniency towards the troops who had defended the cities against him, as opposed to Kamran Mirza, whose brief periods of possession were marked by atrocities against the inhabitants who, he supposed, had helped his brother.His youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, formerly the most disloyal of his siblings, died fighting on his behalf. His brother Askari Mirza was shackled in chains at the behest of his nobles and aides. He was allowed go onHajj, and died en route in the desert outsideDamascus.Humayun's other brother, Kamran Mirza, had repeatedly sought to have Humayun killed. In 1552 Kamran Mirza attempted to make a pact withIslam Shah,Sher Shah'ssuccessor, but was apprehended by aGakhar. The Gakhars were one of the minority of tribal groups who had consistently remained loyal to their oath to the Mughals. Sultan Adam of the Gakhars handed Kamran Mirza over to Humayun. Humayun was inclined to forgive his brother. However he was warned that allowing Kamran Mirza's repeated acts of treachery to go unpunished could foment rebellion amongst his own supporters. So, instead of killing his brother, Humayun had Kamran Mirza blinded which would end any claim by the latter to the throne. Humayun sent Kamran Mirza onHajj, as he hoped to see his brother thereby absolved of his offences. However Kamran Mirza died close toMeccain theArabian Peninsulain 1557.Restoration of the Mughal Empire Sher Shah Surihad died in 1545; his son and successorIslam Shahdied too, in 1554. These two deaths left the dynasty reeling and disintegrating. Three rivals for the throne all marched on Delhi, while in many cities leaders tried to stake a claim for independence. This was a perfect opportunity for the Mughals to march back to India.TheMughal EmperorHumayun, gathered a vast army and attempted the challenging task of retaking the throne inDelhi. Humayun placed the army under the able leadership ofBairam Khan. This was a wise move given Humayun's own record of military ineptitude, and turned out to be prescient, as Bairam was to prove himself a great tactician.Marriage relations with the KhanzadasTheGazetteer of Ulwurstates:Soon after Babur's death, his successor, Humayun, was in AD 1540 supplanted by the Pathan Sher Shah, who, in AD 1545, was followed by Islam Shah. During the reign of the latter a battle was fought and lost by the Emperor's troops at Firozpur Jhirka, in Mewat, on which, however, Islam Shah did not loose his hold. Adil Shah, the third of the Pathan interlopers, who succeeded in AD 1552, had to contend for the Empire with the returned Humaiyun.[13]In these struggles for the restoration of Babar's dynasty Khanzadas apparently do not figure at all. Humaiyun seems to have conciliated them by marrying the elder daughter of Jamal Khan, nephew of Babar's opponent, Hasan Khan, and by causing his great minister, Bairam Khan, to marry a younger daughter of the same Mewatti.Bairam Khan led the army through the Punjab virtually unopposed. The fort ofRohtas, which was built in 154143 by Sher Shah Suri to crush theGakharswho were loyal to Humayun, was surrendered without a shot by a treacherous commander. The walls of the Rohtas Fort measure up to 12.5 meters in thickness and up to 18.28 meters in height. They extend for 4km and feature 68 semi-circular bastions. Its sandstone gates, both massive and ornate, are thought to have exerted a profound influence onMughalmilitary architecture.The only major battle faced by Humayun's armies was against Sikander Suri inSirhind, where Bairam Khan employed a tactic whereby he engaged his enemy in open battle, but then retreated quickly in apparent fear. When the enemy followed after them they were surprised by entrenched defensive positions and were easily annihilated.From here on most towns and villages chose to welcome the invading army as it made its way to the capital. On 23 July 1555, Humayun once again sat on Babur's throne in Delhi.Ruling KashmirWith all of Humayun's brothers now dead, there was no fear of another usurping his throne during his military campaigns. He was also now an established leader, and could trust his generals. With this new-found strength Humayun embarked on a series of military campaigns aimed at extending his reign over areas in eastern and western India. His sojourn in exile seems to have reduced Humayun's reliance on astrology, and his military leadership came to imitate the more effective methods that he had observed in Persia.In the year 1540, theMughal EmperorHumayun met theOttomanAdmiralSeydi Ali Reis. During their discussions in theDurbar, Humayun asked which of the two empires was bigger and Seydi Ali Reis, stated that the Ottoman Empire was "ten times bigger", Humayun was very inspired and he turned towards his nobles and remarked without resentment: "IndeedSuleiman the Magnificent, deserves to be called the onlyPadshahon Earth".[14]Humayun returned from exile inPersiawith thousands ofPersianssoldiers and nobles. This influx increased the cultural and political influences of thePersians in Mughal Empire. It also applied to the administration of the empire. Persian methods of governance were imported into Kashmir during the remainder of Humayun's reign. The system of revenue collection was improved by following both the Persian model and that of theDelhi Sultanate. The Persian arts became very influential, and Persian-style miniatures were produced at Mughal (and subsequently Rajput) courts. TheChaghatai language, in which Babur had written his memoirs, disappeared almost entirely from use by of the courtly elite, and Akbar could not speak it. Later in life, Humayun himself is said to have frequently used quotations from Persian verse.Trusted GeneralsAfter defeating Bahadur Shah's confederacy in Gujarat, Humayun placed the following Generals in Gujarat:1. Mirza Askurry2. Yadgar Nasir3. Kasim Hussein Sultan4. Hindu Beg5. Tardy Beg KhanDeath and LegacyOn 27 January 1556, Humayun, with his arms full of books, was descending the staircase from his library when themuezzinannounced theAdhan(the call to prayer). It was his habit, wherever he heard the summons, to bow his knee in holy reverence. Trying to kneel, he caught his foot in his robe, tumbled down several steps and hit his temple on a rugged stone edge. He died three days later. His body was laid to rest inPurana Quilainitially, but because of attack byHemuon Delhi and capture of Purana Qila, Humayun's body was exhumed by the fleeing army and transferred to Kalanaur in Punjab where Akbar was coronated.His tombstands in Delhi, where he was later buried in a grand way.His full title as Emperor of the Mughal Empire was:Al-Sultan al-'Azamwal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Jam-i-Sultanat-i-haqiqi wa Majazi, Sayyid al-Salatin, Abu'l Muzaffar Nasir ud-din Muhammad HumayunPadshah Ghazi,Zillu'llah.In ShortBabur's eldest son and successor,Humayun, was 22 years old when his father passed away. Humayun lacked the experience and the tough fiber necessary to consolidate a new dynasty. the first decade of his rule brought a steady erosion of Mughal authority in northern India. In particular, Humayun had to deal with the determined hostility of the Afghans who were still allied with the dispossessed Lodi regime.Humayun was defeated by insurrections of nobles from the old Lodi regime. In 1540, the Mughal domain came under the control of one of those nobles,Farid Khan Sur, who assumed the regional name ofSher Shah Sur. Humayun would spend the next 15 years in exile in Sind, Iran, and then Afghanistan. During this exile, Humayun's Persian wife,Hamida Begum, a native ofTurbat-I Shaykh Jamin Khurasan, gave birth to the future emperorAkbar.Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. He had three younger brothers,Kamran, Askari and Hindal.Born on March 6, 1508, at Kabul, he learntTurkish, Arabic and Persianat a very young age. He assisted his father in the governance of the country. In 1520, he was appointed theGovernor of Badakshanat the age of 12 years. When Babur invaded India in 1526, Humayun joined him. Humayun won a maiden victory in this campaign. He also participating in thebattle of Kanwaha. After Babur's death in 1530, he was chosen as his successor. Humayun ascended the throne at Agra on December 30, 1530, at the age of 23, four days after his father's death.Humayuninherited an empire barely held together by force of arms. It lacked a consolidated civil administration. He faced numerous problems right from the start. He faced troubles from the Afghan nobles, the Rajputs, and most of all from his brothers who were mean and disloyal to him. Unable to judge the growing power ofSher Shah, Humayun was defeated in the battle ofKanauj in 1540.He became a fugitive and escaped towards Iran via Sindh.While in Sindh, he married a young Persian girl,Hamida Bano, who joined him in his wanderings. A year later in Umerkot in upper Sindh, his first son Akbar was born. Legend has it that Humayun had nothing to give to his followers at this happy occasion except some musk. The musk was broken into pieces and passed among his men. He is reported to have said that one day the fame of the prince would spread like the smell of the musk.For a period of 15 years, the Mughal Empire lay dormant and Sher Shah founded theSuri Dynasty.in 1555 Humayun returned once again, and by his sheer perseverance, was able to recover his kingdom.Although lacking his father's abilities, Humayun was a cultivated gentleman. He was unrivalled in the science of astrology and mathematics. he was very kind towards his brothers; and despite their treachery, forgave them again and again. He possessed a very charitable and magnificent personality.Although Humayun had recovered his kingdom, he was not destined to rule it for long. In January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known asDin Panah.Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad AkbarAbu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar, known popularly asAkbar(IPA:[kbr], literally "the great"; 15 October 1542[a] 27 October 1605), also known asAkbar the GreatorAkbar I,[5][6]wasMughal Emperorfrom 1556 until his death. He was the third and one of the greatest rulers of theMughal Dynastyin India. Akbar succeeded his father,Humayun, under a regent,Bairam Khan, who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in India. A strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of theIndian Subcontinentnorth of theGodavaririver. His power and influence, however, extended over the entire country because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a centralised system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. In order to preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects. Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic state identity, Akbar strived to unite far-flung lands of his realm through loyalty, expressed through aPersianisedculture, to himself as an emperor who had near-divine status.Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture. He was fond of literature, and created a library of over 24,000 volumes written inSanskrit,Hindustani,Persian,Greek,Latin,ArabicandKashmiri, staffed by many scholars, translators, artists,calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders and readers. Holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbar's courts atDelhi,Agra, andFatehpur Sikribecame centers of the arts, letters, and learning. Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinctIndo-Persian cultureemerged characterised by Mughal style arts,painting, andarchitecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgatedDin-i-Ilahi, a syncretic creed derived from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centered on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of theulemaand orthodox Muslims.Akbar's reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history. During his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a powerful military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing thesectarian taxon non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust and loyalty of the native subjects. He hadSanskrit literaturetranslated, participated in native festivals, realizing that a stable empire depended on the co-operation and good-will of his subjects. Thus, the foundations for a multicultural empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by hisEarly YearsDefeated in battles atChausaandKannaujin 1539-40 by the forces ofSher Shah SuriMughal emperorHumayunfled westward toSindh.[7]There he met and married the then 14 year oldHamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyun's younger brotherHindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the next year on 15 October 1542[a](the fourth day ofRajab, 949AH) at theRajput FortressofUmerkotinSindh(in modern day Pakistan), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad.[9]During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by the extended family of his paternal uncles,Kamran MirzaandAskari Mirza, and his aunts, in particular Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, made him a daring, powerful and a brave warrior, but he never learned to read or write. This, however, did not hinder his search for knowledge as it is said always when he retired in the evening he would have someone read.[10][bettersourceneeded]In November of 1551, Akbar married hisfirst cousin,Ruqaiya Sultan Begumat Kabul.[11]Princess Ruqaiya was the only daughter of his paternal uncle,Hindal Mirza, and was his first wife and chief consort.[12]The marriage was arranged by Akbar's father and Ruqaiya's uncle, Emperor Humayun, and took place soon after the untimely death of Hindal Mirza, who died in a battle.[13]Following the chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's sonIslam Shah, Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian allyTahmasp I. A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian,Bairam Khanconcealed the death in order to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556, while in the midst of a war againstSikandar Shahto reclaim the Mughal throne. InKalanaur, Punjab, the 13-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform, which still stands.[14][15]He was proclaimedShahanshah(Persianfor "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age.Military Campaigns Military innovations: Akbar was accorded the epithet "the Great" due to his many accomplishments,[17]among which was his record of unbeaten military campaigns that both established and consolidated Mughal rule in theIndian subcontinent. The basis of this military prowess and authority was Akbar's skillful structural and organisational calibration of theMughal army.[18]TheMansabdarisystem in particular has been acclaimed for its role in upholding Mughal power in the time of Akbar. The system persisted with few changes down to the end of the Mughal Empire, but was progressively weakened under his successors.[18]Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations incannons,fortifications, and theuse of elephants.[17]Akbar also took an interest inmatchlocksand effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help ofOttomans, and also increasingly ofEuropeans, especiallyPortugueseandItalians, in procuring firearms and artillery.[19]Mughal firearms in the time of Akbar came to be far superior to anything that could be deployed by regional rulers, tributaries, or by zamindars.[20]Such was the impact of these weapons that Akbar'sVizier,Abul Fazl, once declared that "with the exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]."[21]The term "Gunpower Empire" has thus often been used by scholars and historians in analysing the success of the Mughals in India. Mughal power has been seen as owing to their mastery of the techniques of warfare, especially the use of firearms encouraged by Akbar.[22]Struggle for North India: Akbar, who had been born in 1542 while his father,Humayun, was in flight from the victoriousSurs, was only thirteen when he was proclaimed emperor in 1556. His father had succeeded in regaining control of thePunjab,Delhi, andAgrawithSafavidsupport, but even in these areas Mughal rule was precarious, and when the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, the fate of the boy emperor seemed uncertain. Akbar's minority and the lack of any possibility of militiary assistance from the Mughal stronghold ofKabul, that was at this time in the throes of an invasion by the ruler ofBadakhshan, Prince Mirza Suleiman, aggravated the situation.[23]When his regent,Bairam Khan, called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved of it. However, Bairam Khan was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers,Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency ofTardi Baig Khan.[23]Sikandar Shah Suri, however, presented no major concern for Akbar, and avoided giving battle as the Mughal army approached.[24]The gravest threat came fromHemu, a minister and general of one of the Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from theIndo-Gangetic plains.[23]Urged byBairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it.[25]Akbar's army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at theSecond Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80km) north of Delhi.[26]Soon after the battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab, to deal with Sikandar Shah, who had become active again.[27]In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander Shah Suri, who then fled east toBengal. Akbar and his forces occupiedLahoreand then seizedMultanin the Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession ofAjmer, the aperture toRajputana, after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler.[27]The Mughals had also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control ofGwalior Fort, the greatest stronghold north of theNarmadariver.[27]Royal begums, along with the families of Mughal amirs, were finally brought over from Kabul to India at the timeaccording to Akbar's vizier, Abul Fazl, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to a country to which they were accustomed.[23]Akbar had firmly declared his intentions that the Mughals were in India to stay. This was a far cry from the political settlements by his grandfather, Babur, and by his father, Humayun, both of whom had done little to indicate that they were anything but transient rulers. Expansion into Central India: By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana andMalwa.[28]However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to the expansion.[28]The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing affairs. Urged on by his foster mother,Maham Anga, and his relatives, Akbar decided to dispense with the services of Bairam Khan. After yet another dispute at court, Akbar finally dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave onHajjtoMecca.[29]Bairam Khan left for Mecca, but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel.[26]He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar, however forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage, of which Bairam chose the latter.[30]Bairam Khan was later assassinated on his way to Mecca, allegedly by an Afghan with a personal vendetta.[28]In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations.[28]A Mughal army under the command of his foster brother,Adham Khan, and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, invaded Malwa. The Afghan ruler,Baz Bahadur, was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur, and fled toKhandeshfor refuge leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants.[28]Despite initial success, the campaign proved a disaster from Akbar's point of view. His foster brother retained all the spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were the descendants ofMuhammad.[28]Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh andBerar.[28]Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in the next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annex the kingdom.[28]Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts untils until, eight years later, in 1570, he took service under Akbar.[28]Despite ultimate success in Malwa, the conflict however, exposed cracks in Akbar's personal relationships with his relatives and Mughal nobles. When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in 1562, he was struck down by the emperor and thrown from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death. Akbar now sought to eliminate the threat of over-mighty subjects.[28]He created specialized ministerial posts relating to imperial governance. No member of the Mughal nobility was to have unquestioned pre-eminence.[28]When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar decisively defeated and routed them in Malwa and thenBihar.[31]He pardoned the rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them. But they rebelled again, so Akbar had to quell their uprising a second time. Following a third revolt with the proclamation ofMirza Muhammad Hakim, Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul, as emperor, his patience was finally exhausted. Several Uzbek chieftains were subsequently slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants.[31]Simultaneously the Mirza's, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, had also risen up in rebellion. They, too were slain and driven out of the empire.[31]In 1566, Akbar moved to meet the forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with dreams of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confontration, however, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul.[31]In 1564, Mughal forces conquered theGondwanakingdom. Gondwana, a thinly populated hilly area in central India was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants.[32]The territory was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother,Durgavati, aRajputwarrior queen of the Gonds.[31]Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, but left the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara.[31][33]Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh, the mountain fortress of the Gonds.[33]The Mughals seized immense wealth, an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels and 1000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem.[33]The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region.[33]Like in Malwa, however, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana.[33]Asaf Khan was accused of keeping most of the treasures, and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position. Conquest of Rajputana: Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest ofRajputana. No imperial power in India based on the Indo-Gangetic plains could be secure if a rival centre of power existed on its flank in Rajputana.[33]The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana inMewar,Ajmer, and Nagor.[27][31]Now, however, Akbar was determined to drive into the heartlands of theRajputkings that had never previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of theDelhi Sultanate. Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy.[32]Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; the ruler of Mewar,Udai Singh, however, remained outside the imperial fold.[31]Raja Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler,Rana Sanga, who had died fighting Babur at theBattle of Khanwain 1527.[31]As the head of the Sisodia clan, he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India. Unless Udai Singh was reduced to submission, the imperial authority of the Mughals would be lessened in Rajput eyes.[31]Furthermore, Akbar, at this early period, was still enthusiastically devoted to the cause of Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over the most prestigious warriors in Brahminical Hinduism.[31]In 1567, Akbar moved to reduce theChittorgarh Fortin Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of great strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra toGujaratand was also considered a key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retired to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors,Jaimal and Patta, in charge of the defense of his capital.[34]Chittorgarh fell on February 1568 after asiege of four months. Akbar had the surviving defenders massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region, in order to demonstrate his authority.[35][36]The total loot that fell into the hands of the Mughals was distributed throughout the empire.[37]He remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where to commemorate the victory, he set up, at the gates of his fort, statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants.[38]Udai Singh's power and influence was broken. He never again ventured out his mountain refuge in Mewar and Akbar was content to let him be.[39]The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on theRanthambore Fortin 1568. Ranthambore was held by theHadaRajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India.[39]However, it fell only after a couple of months.[39]Akbar was now the master of almost the whole of Rajputana. Most of the Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals.[39]Only the clans of Mewar continued to resist.[39]Udai Singh's son and successor,Pratap Singh, was later defeated by the Mughals at theBattle of Haldighatiin 1576.[39]He spent the remainder of his life in exile in theAravallihills. Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, 23 miles (37km) W.S.W of Agra in 1569. It was calledFatehpur Sikri("the city of victory").[40]Annexation of Western and Eastern IndiaAkbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through theArabian Seaand theBay of Bengalrespectively.[39]Furthermore, Gujarat had been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles, while in Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler,Sulaiman Khan Karrani. Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in the crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa.[39]Gujarat, with its coastal regions, possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain; an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India.[39][41]Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains.[42]However, the ostensible casus belli was that the rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Morever, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which served as justification for his military expedition.[39]In 1572, he moved to occupyAhmedabad, the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out the Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in theDeccan.Surat, the commercial capital of the region and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals.[39]The king, Muzaffar Shah III, was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance.[39]Having established his authority over Gujarat, Akbar returned to Fatephur Sikiri, where he built theBuland Darwazato commemorate his victories, but a rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler ofIdar, and the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas forced his return to Gujarat.[42]Akbar crossed the Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in eleven days - a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army then won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads.[39]The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for the Mughals; the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury, after expenses.[39]Akbar had now defeated most of the Afghan remnants in India. The only centre of Afghan power was now in Bengal, where Sulaiman Khan Karrani, an Afghan chieftain whose family had served under Sher Shah Suri, was reigning in power. While Sulaiman Khan scrupulously avoided giving offence to Akbar, his son,Daud Khan, who had succeeded him in 1572, decided otherwise.[43]Whereas Sulaiman Khan had thekhutbaread in Akbar's name and acknowledged Mughal supremacy, Daud Khan assumed the insignia of royalty and ordered the khutba to be proclaimed in his own name in defiance of Akbar.Munim Khan, the Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Duad Khan, but later, Akbar himself set out to Bengal.[43]This was an opportunity to bring the trade in the east under Mughal control.[44]In 1574, the Mughals seizedPatnafrom Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal.[43]Akbar returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at theBattle of Tukaroiin 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under the dominion of Daud Khan. OnlyOrissawas left in the hands of theKarrani dynastyas a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general,Khan Jahan Quli, and had to flee into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibetted at Tandah, the Mughal capital in Bengal.[43]Campaigns in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when the Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim.[43]Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and this time pressed on, determined to end the threat from Muhammad Hakim once and for all.[43]In contrast to the problem that his predecessors once had in getting Mughal nobles to stay on in India, the problem now was to get them to leave India.[43]They were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan."[43]The Hindu officers, in turn, were additionally inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus. Akbar, however, spurred them on. The soldiers were provided with pay eight months in advance.[43]In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at Babur's old citadel. He stayed there for three weeks, in the absence of his brother, who had fled into the mountains.[43]Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nisa Begum, and returned to India. He pardoned his brother, who took up de facto charge of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nis continued to be the official governor. A few years later, in 1585, Muhammad Hakim died and Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar once again. It was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire.[43]The Kabul expedition was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire.[45]For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore in the Punjab while dealing with challenges from beyond the Khyber Pass.[45]The gravest threat came from theUzbeks, the tribe that had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia.[43]They had been organized underAbdullah Khan Shaybanid, a capable military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose Uzbek troops now posed a serious challenge to the northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.[43][46]The Afghan tribes on the border were also restless, partly on account of the hostility of theYusufzaiofBajaurandSwat, and partly owing to the activity of a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of theRoshaniyyasect.[45]The Uzbeks were also known to be subsidizing Afghans.[47]In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid heldKhorasan.[47]In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidizing, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Thus freed, Akbar began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels.[47]Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes.Raja Birbal, a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition turned out to be a disaster, and on its retreat from the mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by the Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586.[47]Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command ofRaja Todar Mal. Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, and forced the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur.[47]Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure the region. Akbar's response demonstrated his ability to clamp firm military control over the Afghan tribes.[47]Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia from Afghanistan.[48]However, Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominions. There was only a transient occupation of the two provinces by the Mughals under his grandson,Shah Jahan, in the mid-17th century.[46]Nevertheless, Akbar's stay in the northern frontiers was highly fruitful. The last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600.[46]The Roshaniyya movement was firmly suppressed. TheAfridiandOrakzaitribes, which had risen up under the Roshaniyyas, had been subjugated.[46]The leaders of the movement were captured and driven into exile.[46]Jalaluddin, the son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops nearGhazni.[46]Mughal rule over Afghanistan was finally secure, particularly after the passing of the Uzbek threat with the death of Abdullah Khan in 1598.[47]Conquests in the Indus Valley: While in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, Akbar had sought to subjugate theIndus valleyto secure the frontier provinces.[47]He sent an army to conquerKashmirin the upper Indus basin when, in 1585, Ali Shah, the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty, refused to send his son as a hostage to the Mughal court. Ali Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub, crowned himself as king, and led a stubborn resistance to Mughal armies. Finally, in June, 1589, Akbar himself travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces.[47]BaltistanandLadakh, which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar.[49]The Mughals also moved to conquerSindhin the lower Indus valley. Since 1574, the northern fortress ofBhakkarhad remained under imperial control. Now, in 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg, the independent ruler ofThattain southern Sindh.[47]Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiegeSehwan, the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet the Mughals.[47]The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore.[49]Subjugation of Baluchistan. As early as 1586, about half a dozenBaluchichiefs had been persuaded to attend the imperial court and acknowledge the vassalage of Akbar. In preparations to takeKandaharfrom the Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest ofBaluchistanin 1595.[49][50]The Mughal general,Mir Masum, led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, situated to the northwest ofQuettaand defeated a coalition of local chieftains in a pitched battle.[50]They were made to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the whole of Baluchistan, including the strategic region ofMakran, the coastal strip running from India to Iran, became a part of the Mughal Empire.[50]The Mughals now frontiered Persian ruled Kandahar from three sides.[50]Safavids and Kandahar: Kandahar was the name given by Arab historians to the ancient Indian kingdom ofGandhara.[51]It was intimately connected with the Mughals since the time of their ancestor,Timur, the warlord who had conquered much of South, Central, and Western Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it as an appanage of the Persian ruled territory ofKhorasanand declared its association with the Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, the Safavid emperor,Tahmasp I, had seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. For the next thirty years, it remained under Persian rule.[49]The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his prolonged military activity in the northern frontiers, a move to restore Mughal rule over the region became desirable.[49]The conquests of Sindh, Kashmir and Baluchisan, and the ongoing consolidation of Mughal power over Afghanistan had added to Akbar's confidence.[49]Furthermore, Kandahar was at this time under threat from the Uzbeks, but the Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send any reinforcements. Circumstances favoured the Mughals.[49]In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza, after he had quarrelled with his family.[52]Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of commander of 5000 men and received Multan as a jagir.[52]Beleaguered by constant Uzbek raids, and seeing the reception of Rostom Mirza at the Mughal court, the Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Mozaffar Hosayn, who was in any case in an adversary relationship with his overlord,Shah Abbas, was granted a rank of 5000 men, and his daughterKandahari Begumwas married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince,Khurram.[49][52]Kandahar was finally secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan.[52]The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb the Mughal-Persian relationship.[49]Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However, the power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals.[49]Akbar had built a large and secure empire for himself, while Persian power had declined.Administration:Introduction

A simple military victory is like erecting an edifice without a foundation. Such a structure collapses with the first blow. Military forces under Baburs command did succeed in achieving significant victories, first against the most prominent political power in north India under the Lodis, followed by others. Yet he could find no time for organizing administrative structures or institutions to consolidate the gains. Humayun struggled and failed to hold this structure. However, the Mughal forces regrouped themselves, and with the assistance provided by the Safavid ruler of Persia, they recaptured the Delhi throne in July 1555. Accidental death of Humayun within a few months of this success did not allow him any time for the designing and development of political institutions or administrative structures suitable for resource mobilisation and evolution of a cohesive social structure, if he at all had any such plan. His successor, Akbar was only about fourteen years old when he was entrusted with works for which he was yet not adequately prepared and trained, that too in somewhat an alien land. But within four-five years time he appears to have acquired remarkable maturity. Gradually he not only extracted himself from endless intrigues of his nobility but also initiated steps towards maximisation of resource potential and a standardised distribution mechanism for the officials of the state. Simultaneously, he worked towards securing territorial integrity and organising nobility that was fully under his command and represented cohesiveness amidst heterogeneous social structure. To achieve these multifarious objectives he successfully carried out measures that constituted his administrative system andinstitutions. The accidental death of Humayun placed Akbar on quite an insecure throne at a tender age (born in October 1542, accession in February 1556). Around next four years were spent under an over-arching personality of Bairam Khan. This period was witness to contestations between different groups of kinsmen of Turani background for control over greater share of revenue from large contiguous areas, possibly for carving out an independent principality at some future date.Removal of Bairam KhanRemoval of Bairam Khan, as wakil-us saltanate, and appointment of Munim Khan(September 1560November 1561) in his place had apparently made no visible improvement in the administration or income of the state. Rather, the situation had worsened. Around November 1561 Akbar revied upon Shamsuddin Atka and entrusted him with certain responsibilities. Soon it was followed by his formal appointment as wakil-us saltanate (November 1561June 1562). From this time onwards some clarity of thought and approach towards governance comes into view. Such persons who had established their reputation as professional in approach and competent in their work were appointed in the revenue department irrespective of their past association with discredited nobles or officials. The revenue department initiated scrutiny of records to ascertain the value of nobles land assignments (jagirs). Apparently some corrective steps were also initiated, leading to resentment.Execution of Adham KhanAdded to this, the recall of Adham Khan from Malwa at this juncture precipitated the matter. Adham Khan who could not hold himself any longer engineered the assassination of Shamsuddin Atka (June, 1562) while the latter was in his office. Without loss of any time Adham Khan was executed at the express orders of Akbar. Munim Khan and Shihabuddin Ahmed Khan fled from Agra. It clearly demonstrated that Akbar would not hesitate to take severest action against any person, even if that person was considered to be close to the ruler and thereby above law, if he interfered in discharge of duties assigned by the ruler.New Hierarchical Order/The Mansab System(MANSABDARI SYSTEMM OF MUGHALS)Mughal mansabdari system was modeled on the Mongol yassa(decrees of Chengiz Khan). The Mongol tribes were led by Khans (chiefs). The Mongol aristocracy was based on heredity and noble birth and the council which elected the chiefs was composed of the direct descendants of Chengiz. These nobles were commanders of men (Ulus-tribal units) and they obtained tribute from the territories for sustenance and were not a permanent landed aristocracy since the assigned territories held by them could be transferred.Akbar had inherited a system in which there does not appear to be much clarity on the hierarchy of the Mughal nobles and the size and salary at which they maintained armed contingents under their command. Remuneration and expenditure on these two entailed huge financial liability on the State. Right from the time of the establishment of the Sultanate, payments for these two were made through alienation of state revenue from assigned territory to individuals. The Mughals too followed the same practice. Arrangement appears to have been very flexible.In 1573-4 an innovative scheme was introduced that streamlined the position of the nobles in the state hierarchy. The arrangement was called mansab system. Under the mansab system ranks were expressed in numerical terms. The Ain-i Akbari has listed 66 ranks, though in practice only 33 were utilized. The entire hierarchical ordering of the state officials, irrespective of office and their work, was covered under the scheme, starting with the lowest rank of 10 reaching the highest of 5,000. Above 5,000 and up to 7,000 were reserved for the princes of royal blood. Though reference about numerical ranks from earlier times could be found, nothing was as elaborate and comparable to the Mughal mansab system.Abul Fazl points out in the AinFor this cause( to help him) did His Majesty establish the ranks(mansabs) of mansabdars from the dahbashi (commander of ten) to thedahhazari (commander of ten thousand), limiting however, all commands above five thousand to his august sons.. The number of mansabs is sixtysix ,the same as the value of letters in the name of Allah which is an announcement of the eternal bliss ..

During the Sultanate period ranking was expressed by designations that were separate for the military and civil personnel; lower rank commanders along with their contingents were integral to the contingent of a higher ranked commander. Under the Mughals, each mansabdar (holder of a rank) maintained sanctioned strength of contingent and account for it and each was paid separately in accordance with the schedule of pay. By now the earlier three rates of payment fixed (1566-67) for the contingents were abolished and each member of the contingent, irrespective of his being part of a higher ranked mansabdar or a lower mansabdar, received the same salary, fixed at 8,000 dams per annum (per unit of sawar rank). To strictly ensure that the mansabdars properly maintained the sanctioned size of their contingents they were required to regularly bring their contingents, with the equipage, for inspection. The office of bakshi maintained descriptive rolls (tashih) of individual trooper and separate branding mark (dagh) for the war and transport animals of each mansabdar. Badauni informs us how many masabdars cheated the exchequer by hiring untrained persons at the time of inspection and disbanding them once the inspection was over. Till about the 40th regnal year only one rank was used for the mansab which suggests that rank and size of contingent were the same.

The fraudulent practices noted by Badauni were perhaps also noticed by the Mughal administration. As a remedial step from the 40th regnal year onwards mansabs were expressed in dual terms, zat and sawar. While zat denoted the personal rank of an official, sawar indicated the sizes of contingents maintained by the mansabdars. Depending on the strength of the contingents mansabdars were placed in three categories: In the first, zat and sawar ranks were equal; in the second sawar rank was lower than the zat but stopped at half, or fifty percent, of the zat rank; under the third sawar rank was lower than fifty per cent of the zat rank. Salary for the zat rank varied accordingly.The schedule of pay for the mansabdars given in the Ain-i Akbari was obviously redrawn after these changes were introduced. The schedule of pay in the Ain also lists size of stables, specifying species and numbers of war and transport animals, to be maintained by the mansabdars. The expenditure on the maintenance of these was borne out by the mansabdars out of their zat salary.Though it cost about twenty five percent of the zat salary, the balance left with the mansabdars was still very substantial by any standard. The overall assignments given to mansabdars, around the year 1600, out of the total revenue of the Mughal empire is estimated at around seventy five per cent.

The obligations of the mansabdars underwent changes during the time of successors of Akbar. Jahangir had introduced a new provision in the sawar rank. According to it a part of sawar rank was termed du-aspa sih-aspa (currently written in its short form as 2-3h) in case of select mansabdars. For this part additional payment at the same rate of 8,000 dams per sawar was sanctioned. Thus, if the sawar rank was 4,000 out of which 1,000 was du-aspa sih-aspa, salary for this rank was calculated as 3,000 x 8,000 + (1,000 x 8,000 x 2) = 40,000,000 dams. Without du-aspa sih-aspa, salary for the same 4,000 sawar would have stood at (4,000 x 8,000) 32,000,000 dams only. The debilitation is more visible during the time of Shahjahan. The numbers of du-aspa sih-aspa awards are on a much larger scale. In addition, a still more serious step taken was, what could be termed as, the Rule of Proportion. The mansabdars were allowed to maintain 1/5, to 1/3 of the sanctioned strength of the sawar rank without any accompanying reduction in their claim on the maintenance amount for the sawar rank. While Aurangzeb continued with all these changes, an additional rank, called mashrut (conditional), was affixed. Apparently due to the Rule of Proportion the size of contingent available with a mansabdar was, at times, not considered adequate. Therefore, on appointment to qiladar or faujdar like positions the concerned official was given mashrut rank. It was withdrawn on removal from the office.Holders of Du-aspa sih-aspa ranks during Jahangirs reignTotal holders of du-aspa sih-aspa ranks10th year of the Reign 191 1220th year of the Reign 219 2330th year of the Reign 253 25( The Mughal Nobility Under Aurangzeb, M. Athar Ali.)Mansabdari and Jagirdari systems explain the organisation of the Mughal nobility. Mansabdars receive their pay either in cash or in the forms of Jagirs. However most of them were jagirdars. They raised the revenue from their jagirs and imperial officials were appointed to keep a check over them. It seems that zat rank was generally always higher than the sawar rank In the Mughal system the main distinction was not between civil and military as Athar Ali points out . there was no division between civil and military services as such. The main dividing line was between the executive and financial duties i.e Subedar and Diwan, Amil and Faujdar.

REORGANISING ADMINISTRATIONBy the year 1582 Akbar had not only developed two major tiers of governance, central, provincial and local, he had also given shape to various administrative offices for ensuring efficient and effective working of the state both at the central as well as provincial levels. In the division of authority proper safeguards were provided to ensure that supreme power would be vested in the ruler.Central Administrationseparation of revenue department from the control of the wakil.The office of wakil-us Saltanate had become most powerful during the period of Bairam Khans regency, enjoining both the important functions of administrative and revenue departments. The arrangements continued for another two years when Munim Khan and Shamsuddin Muhammad Atka were elevated to this position one after the other. However, after the assassination of Shamsuddin Atka, Munim Khan also came under suspicion for the conspiracy, Akbar took advantage of the situation and drastically curtailed the powers of the wakil. Munim Khan was reappointed as wakil without the revenue department. It was not before long that while the office of the wakil lost all all lustre, the office of diwani (revenue department), successively under the supervision of meritorious professional hands, emerged as one of the most important and powerful departments. However the emperor was the supreme head of the administration and the fountainhead of all powers. All the important appointments were made by the emperor.Office of the BakshiAnother important office at the centre was that of bakshi. The bakshi was responsible for keeping strict watch over proper maintenance of the sanctioned size of armed contingents and war equipage by the mansabdars.Restrictions on the authority of a sadrThe office of sadr had become very lucrative during the first twenty-five years of Akbars reign. In the eyes of a contemporary, the largess squandered by this office, from about 1556 till around the middle of the 1570s, was far larger than the total value of earlier three hundred years. In a way this office had started to become another power centre. However, the promulgation of mahzar (declaration according to which in case of conflicting views on religion Akbars view would prevail) in 1580 ended their domination inmatters of religion. It was followed by severe restrictions on the authority of a sadr for award of revenue-free grants etc.Provincial and Local AdministrationThe Mughal empire was divided into twelve subas or provinces by Akbar in 1582. These wee Allahabad, Agra, Awadh, Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Bihar, Bengal, Dilhi, Kabul, Lahore, Multan, Malwa.Later on three more added after the conquest of Deccan. These were Ahmednagar, Khandesh and Berar. Subedar, diwan, bakhshi, miradl (qazi), sadr, kotwal, mirbahr (incharge of port duties, customs etc.) and waqianavis were the key officials of suba.SubedarThe subedar(governor or sipahsalar) was the head of the suba administration. The governor was entrusted with wide range of powers relating to provincial administration. In 1586-87 as a part of new experiment two governors were appointed in each suba. According to Abul Fazl in the case of inability of one the other could take his place. But the experiment was abandoned after sometime.At provincial levels, separation and independence of authority of important officials was strictly enforced. Each province was provided with an administrative head, who was initially called Sipahsalar. Hakim, Nazim and Subedar were other designations. During course of time Subedar became a more common title used for this office. He, however, had no jurisdiction over the revenue department.DiwanNext in importance was the diwan. Like the central diwan (diwan-i kul) provincial diwan was in-charge of all matters relating to revenue affairs. The diwan had under him a number of subordinate and local officials, such as amin, qanungo, chaudhari and muqqddam who assisted him in the revenue administration of the parganas and villages. He directly reported to the diwan-i kul (central diwan). This position of diwan in the suba independent of the governor, sometimes created administrative problems. In case the diwan and governor of the suba did not work in harmony, the administration suffered.However, this separation prevented the governor from becoming very powerful.BakshiAnother suba level official was bakshi who carriedout the task assigned by Mir Bakshi, or central bakshi.SadrThe representative of the central sadr (Sadr us Sadr) at the provincial level was called sadr. He was responsible for the welfare of those engaged in religiousactivities and learning. As he was considered a learned person he was entrusted with the work of judiciary and in that capacity supervised the work of qazis appointed at lower level administrative divisions.FaujdarsIn every suba a number of faujdars were appointed. From the sources it does not appear very clear whether under normal circumstances faujdari jurisdiction corresponded to a sarkars territorial jurisdiction. There are instances when a faujdar was appointed to supervise over two adjoining sarkars even if these belonged to two different subas. they were, sometimes, also appointed over areas covering a number of parganas within a sarkar. They were not only responsible to maintain law and order; they also assisted in the timely collection of revenue from their jurisdictions. They were assisted by the amalguzar in performing the task of revenue administration. Faujdari was an administrative division whereas sarkar was a territorial and revenue division. Faujdars were appointed by imperial order.Amin Kotwals, qanungos, amils, shiqdarPenetration of the state authority reached to the lowest level of administrative units through various other officials, like the kotwals (incharge of law and order) who were appointed mainly in towns by the imperial government, qanungos, amils (revenue) etc. Even the services of the zamindars were utilized for the maintenance of law and order in their areas as well as in the collection of revenue. The shiqdar was responsible for the maintenance of law and order, administration of criminal justice and general administration of pargana. In Akbars period the office of Amin (dealt with religious grants) and sadar were combined. In the 17th century amin was placed under the provincial diwan as revenue assessment officer.The important officers of the province were appointed by imperial order. These were governor, diwan, sadr, qazi, bakshi and muhtasib. The subordinate officers in the diwani were also appointed by imperial order viz. daroga (superintendent of office), mushrif (head clerk), tahvildar-i-daftarkhana (treasurer of office). The waqianavis were posted in the provinces and kept the emperor informed of the happenings there.ConclusionSeen in its totality it comes out very clearly that Akbar undertook the onerous task of building an empire by engaging competent and experienced persons from various areas of specilisation to frame and execute innovative systems of governance. When needed, he did not hesitate to adopt measures initiated by earlier rulers. He, however, fine-tuned them through long surveys and deliberations to make them acceptable, transparent and effective instruments of administration. Thus, without resorting to coercive methods, he maximised the resource potential of the state. These were implemented, through a transparent hierarchical machinery, to organise a distinctly subordinate and cohesive nobility out of heterogeneous social groups to supervise and maintain the territorial integrity of the Mughal state. However, his successors do not seem to have had either his caliber or foresight. They did not to challenge the root cause and instead took recourse to such measures that at best could provide temporary relief to the ailing systems of governance. Din-e-ElahiTheDn-i Ilh(Persian: lit. "Religion of God")[1][2]was asyncreticreligion propounded by theMughal emperorAkbar the Greatin 1582 AD, intending to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire, and thereby reconcile the differences that divided his subjects.[2]The elements were primarily drawn fromIslamandHinduism, but some others were also taken fromChristianity,JainismandZoroastrianism.Akbar promoted tolerance of other faiths. In fact, not only did he tolerate them, he encouraged debate on philosophical and religious issues. This led to the creation of theIbdat Khna("House of Worship") atFatehpur Sikriin 1575. He had already repealed theJizya(tax on non-Muslims) in 1568. A religious experience while hunting in 1578 further increased his interest in the religious traditions of his empire.[3]From the discussions he led at the Ibdat Khna, Akbar concluded that no single religion could claim the monopoly of truth. This inspired him to create theDn-i Ilhin 1582. Various pious Muslims, among them theQadiofBengaland the seminalSufipersonality ShaykhAhmad Sirhindi, responded by declaring this to beblasphemyto Islam.Dn-i Ilhappears to have survived Akbar according to theDabestn-e MazhebofMubad Shah(Mohsin Fani). However, the movement never numbered more than 19 adherents.[4]Din-i-Ilahiprohibits lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues. The soul is encouraged to purify itself through yearning of God.[2]Celibacy is respected and the slaughter of animals is forbidden. There are neither sacred scriptures nor a priestly hierarchy in this religion.[5]He increased the marriage minimum age for boys to 16 and girls to 14.Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced bySufimysticism that was being preached in the country at that time, and moved away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several talented people with liberal ideas, including Abul Fazl,FaiziandBirbal. In 1575, he built a hall called theIbadat Khana("House of Worship") at Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics and selected courtiers renowned for their intellectual achievements and discussed matters ofspiritualitywith them.[116]These discussions, initially restricted to Muslims, were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at and abusing each other. Upset by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions as well as atheists, resulting in the scope of the discussions broadening and extending even into areas such as the validity of theQuranand the nature of God. This shocked the orthodox theologians, who sought to discredit Akbar by circulating rumours of his desire to forsake Islam.[123]Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not very successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. Meanwhile, the debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting to the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.[128]However, his interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known asDin-i-Ilahi.[129][130]However, some modern scholars claim that Akbar did not initiate a new religion and did not use the wordDin-i-Ilahi.[131]According to the contemporary events in the Mughal court Akbar was indeed angered by the acts of embezzlement of wealth by many high levelMuslimclerics.[132]The purported Din-i-Ilahi was more of an ethical system and is said to have prohibited lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues. The soul is encouraged to purify itself through yearning of God.[133]Celibacy was respected, chastity enforced, the slaughter of animals was forbidden and there were no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy.[134]However, a leading Noble of Akbar's court, Aziz Koka, wrote a letter to him from Mecca in 1594 arguing that the discipleship promoted by Akbar amounted to nothing more than a desire on Akbar's part to portray his superiority regarding religious matters.[135]To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, he changed the name ofPrayagtoAllahabad(pronounced asilahabad) in 1583.[136][137]It has been argued that the theory of Din-i-Ilahi being a new religion was a misconception which arose due to erroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.[138]However, it is also accepted that the policy ofsulh-e-kul, which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religious toleration.[139]At the time of Akbar's death in 1605 there were no signs of discontent amongst his Muslim subjects and the impression of even a theologian like Abdu'l Haq was that close ties remained.[140]New Article on Deen-e-ElahiAkbars Newly Created Brand New Religion Din-I-Ilahi (The Divine Faith):-He invented his newly created own concept which was associated with "rulership as being a divine illumination, which was reflected and also enshrined in his brand-new religion Din-i-Ilahi (The Divine Faith), he purely created this theory by accepting the teachings of all the Religions such Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. He was encouraged the remarriage of the women which had lost their Husbands. At his time in Hindustan there was a custom of marriage in a small age. Child marriages were harmful for both Females and Males. It also affects their family lives. Therefore, he strongly disc