Upload
khairul-anwar
View
13
Download
3
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
Packaging in Food Technology
Citation preview
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD
1.1 Genetically Modified Food (GMF)
World Health Organisation defined Genetically Modified Foods (GMFs) as the foods that
produced from or using Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). Genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) referred as organisms such as animals, plants or microorganisms in
which the genetic material (DNA) has been artificially manipulated or altered in a way
that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The process which
involves laboratory works involves the knowledge of modern biotechnology, recombinant
DNA technology or genetic engineering. This technology allows selected individual genes
to be transferred from one organism into another, also between nonrelated species.
1.2 Purpose of GMFs
Genetically Modified Foods are developed and marketed as there is demand and some
perceived advantage to the food producer and also the consumer. GMF intended to
product a food product with a lower price but with greater benefit such as in the terms of
durability or nutritional value or both. GMF crops could decrease the cost of production
and have positive effects on the environment in both developed and developing countries.
The advancement of GMF also greatly contributed in agricultural industry. Some benefits
of genetic engineering in agriculture especially in plants are:
i. Increased crop yields
ii. Reduced costs for food or drug production
iii. Reduced need for pesticides
iv. Enhanced nutrient composition and food quality
v. Resistance to pests and disease
vi. Greater food security and medical benefits to the world's growing population.
vii. Developing crops that mature faster and tolerate extreme environmental condition,
allowing plants to grow in conditions where they might not otherwise flourish
A number of animals have also been genetically engineered to increase yield and decrease
susceptibility to disease. For example:
i. Cattle have been enhanced to exhibit resistance to mad cow disease. (United States
Department of Energy, 2007).
ii. Salmon have been engineered to grow larger and mature faster.
1.3 Method of GMFs Production
GMFs are made through a process known as genetic engineering. Genes of interest are
transferred from one organism to another. Two primary methods currently exist for
introducing transgenes into plant genomes.
i. The first involves a device called a ‘gene gun.’ The DNA to be introduced into the
plant cells is coated onto tiny particles. These particles are then physically shot
onto plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off and is incorporated into the DNA of
the recipient plant.
ii. The second method uses a bacterium to introduce the gene(s) of interest into the
plant DNA.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of how GMF are made
1.4 Example of GMF Application
Some example of GMF application are summarize in Table 1 below:
Table 1: Examples of GMOs Resulting from Agricultural Biotechnology (Adapted from Phillips, T., 2008)
Genetically
Conferred Trait
Organisms Genetic Altered
Insect resistance Corn Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally-occurring soil
borne bacterium that is found worldwide. There are
several strains of Bt, each with differing Cry proteins.
Proteins have been found with insecticidal activity
against the European corn borer (Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac,
Cry9C). Most of the Bt corn hybrids, targeted against
European corn borer, produce only the Cry1Ab
protein; a few produce the Cry1Ac protein or the
Cry9C protein. Modifying a corn plant to produce its
own Bt protein overcomes these problems. Plants
produce the protein in tissues where larvae feed.
Finally, the protein is present whenever newly-hatched
larvae try to feed, so the timing of Bt application is not
a problem. The result is an efficient and consistent
built-in system to deliver Bt proteins to the target pest.
Herbicide
tolerance
Soybean Glyphosate herbicide kills plants by blocking the
EPSPS enzyme, an enzyme involved in the
biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, vitamins and
many secondary plant metabolites. There are several
ways by which crops can be modified to be
glyphosate-tolerant. One strategy is to incorporate a
soil bacterium gene, Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
strain CP4 that produces a glyphosate-tolerant form of
EPSPS. Another way is to incorporate a different soil
bacterium gene that produces a glyphosate degrading
enzyme.
Vitamin
enrichment
Rice Golden rice is a variety of rice (Oryza sativa)
produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize
beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the edible
parts of rice. The research was conducted with the goal
of producing a fortified food to be grown and
consumed in areas with a shortage of dietary vitamin
A. A key breakthrough was the discovery that a single
phytoene desaturase gene (bacterial Crtl) can be used
to produce lycopene from phytoene in GM tomato,
rather than having to introduce the multiple carotene
desaturases that are normally used by higher plants.
Lycopene is then cyclized to beta-carotene by the
endogenous cyclase in Golden Rice.Golden rice was
created by transforming rice with only two beta-
carotene biosynthesis genes:
i. psy (phytoene synthase) from daffodil
(Narcissus pseudonarcissus)
ii. crtl (carotene desaturase) from the soil
bacterium Erwinia uredovora
Faster maturation Salmon A type 1 growth hormone gene injected into fertilized
fish eggs results in 6.2% retention of the vector at one
year of age, as well as significantly increased growth
rates. The GM eggs hatched two days earlier than the
non-GM cohort (4 versus 6 days). GM salmon had
reached a size more typical of two-year-old non-GM
salmon raised in the hatchery. The one-year-old GM
fish had also passed from the parr to smolt stage of
development, while this transformation took two years
for the non-GM salmon. The GM salmon became
sexually mature at two years of age, whereas the non-
GM salmon required three years to reach this stage of
development.
1.5 Debate on GMF
There are a number of ethical concerns over genetically modified (GM) foods and these have
all affected public support of the products. The issues have also triggered controversy and
regulations around GM foods and any company that produces these crops or products.
Concerns range from the environment to risks to our food web or issues concerning disease,
allergies and contamination.
1.5.1 Benefits: The Acceptance of GMF
i. Economical
Farmers were convinced that they stand to make enormous profits from growing GM
crops. Initially, the GM crops are verycostly but money can be saved on other
expenditure such as on pesticides. To produce the GM crops, modern biotechnology is
used which requires highly skilled people and sophisticated and expensive
equipment. Large companies need considerable investments in laboratories, equipment
and human resources, hence the reason why GM crops are more expensive for farmers
than traditional crops. However GM crops are a far better option as it takes a shorter
time to produce the desired product, it is precise and there are no unwanted genes.
ii. Herbicide-resistant crops
GM crops can be produced to be herbicide resistant. This means that farmers could
spray these crops with herbicide and kill the weeds, without affecting other the crops.
This can reduce the amount of herbicide used which subsequently reduce the costs for
farmers and consumers. Biotechnology companies are even experimenting with crops
that can be genetically modified to be drought and salt-tolerant, or less reliant on
fertilizer, opening up new areas to be farmed and leading to increased productivity.
iii. Better quality foods
Animals that genetically modified can be leaner, grow faster, and need less food. They
could also be modified to have special characteristics, such as greater milk production,
high nutritional content of vitamins, lower cholesterol level and suitable for people
with certain allergies. These modifications contribute to the improvement of
productivity for farmers and ultimately lower costs for the consumer. Modified crops
could perhaps prevent outbreaks such as foot and mouth disease, which has devastated
many farmers and local economies.
1.5.2 Risks: The Rejection of GMF
The major concerns of those who oppose GM foods focused on the:
i. Environmental damage
The problem with GM crops is that effect in the ecosystem is still unknown. The
genetic structure of any living organism is complex and GM crop tests focus on short-
term effects. Not all the effects of introducing a foreign gene into the intricate genetic
structure of an organism are tested. There is always the possibility that GM crops
might not be able to be destroyed once they spread into the natural ecosystem. In
Europe, for example, a strain of sugar beet that was genetically modified to be
resistant to a particular herbicide has accidently assimilated the genes to resist another.
This was discovered when farmers attempted to destroy the crop in Britain, France and
the Netherlands, where it was being tested, and 0.5% of the crop survived.
ii. Lack of biodiversity
When a GMF is first introduced, the seeds are usually derived from a single strain. If
this crop becomes greatly popular, it will result with multiple farmers planting one and
only one strain or variety of the crop, leaving all of the new crops exposed to disease.
For example, the Rainbow papaya, the strain chosen to receive the transgene for
ringspot-virus resistance turned out to be vulnerable to the blackspot fungus. The
problem can be avoided by breeding the GM trait into several varieties using
conventional methods. GMFs are not the only crops lacking biodiversity, nor are lack
of biodiversity a new concern. This would likely be less of a problem if more GMF
companies were able to enter into the market providing more variety of crops, or if the
GMF crops could be allowed to hybridize with other strains. In other words, it's a
problem caused by the restrictions on GMF crops.
What current health factors and concerns need to be considered when developing new
food products?
Genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) are a broad group of plants, animals, and
bacteria that are engineered for a wide variety of applications ranging from agricultural
production to scientific research. The types of potential hazards posed by GMO’s vary
according to the type of organism being modified and its intended application. Most of the
concern surrounding GMO’s relates to their potential for negative effects on the environment
and human health. Because GMO’s that could directly affect human health are primarily
products that can enter the human food supply, this website focuses on genetically modified
food. To date, the only types of products that have been approved for human consumption in
the U.S. are genetically modified plants (FDA website).
All genetically modified foods that have been approved are considered by the
government to be as safe as their traditional counterparts and are generally unregulated (FDA
website). However, there are several types of potential health effects that could result from the
insertion of a novel gene into an organism. Health effects of primary concern to safety
assessors are production of new allergens, increased toxicity, decreased nutrition, and
antibiotic resistance (Bernstein et al., 2003).
1. Food Allergy
Food Allergy affects approximately 5% of children and 2% of adults in the U.S. and is a
significant public health threat .Allergic reactions in humans occur when a normally harmless
protein enters the body and stimulates an immune response .If the novel protein in a GM food
comes from a source that is know to cause allergies in humans or a source that has never been
consumed as human food, the concern that the protein could elicit an immune response in
humans increases. Although no allergic reactions to GM food by consumers have been
confirmed, in vitro evidence suggesting that some GM products could cause an allergic
reaction has motivated biotechnology companies to discontinue their development.
2. Increased Toxicity
Most plants produce substances that are toxic to humans. Most of the plants that humans
consume produce toxins at levels low enough that they do not produce any adverse health
effects. There is concern that inserting an exotic gene into a plant could cause it to produce
toxins at higher levels that could be dangerous to humans. This could happen through the
process of inserting the gene into the plant. If other genes in the plant become damaged during
the insertion process it could cause the plant to alter its production of toxins. Alternatively, the
new gene could interfere with a metabolic pathway causing a stressed plant to produce more
toxins in response. Although these effects have not been observed in GM plants, they have
been observed through conventional breeding methods creating a safety concern for GM
plants. For example, potatoes conventionally bred for increased diseased resistance have
produced higher levels of glycoalkaloids.
3. Decreased Nutritional Value
A genetically modified plant could theoretically have lower nutritional quality than its
traditional counterpart by making nutrients unavailable or indigestible to humans. For
example, phytate is a compound common in seeds and grains that binds with minerals and
makes them unavailable to humans. An inserted gene could cause a plant to produce higher
levels of phytate decreasing the mineral nutritional value of the plant Another example comes
from a study showing that a strain of genetically modified soybean produced lower levels of
phytoestrogen compounds, believed to protect against heart disease and cancer, than
traditional soybeans.
4. Antibiotic resistance
In recent years health professionals have become alarmed by the increasing number of
bacterial strains that are showing resistance to antibiotics. Bacteria develop resistance to
antibiotics by creating antibiotic resistance genes through natural mutation. Biotechnologists
use antibiotic resistance genes as selectable markers when inserting new genes into plants. In
the early stages of the process scientists do not know if the target plant will incorporate the
new gene into its genome. By attaching the desired gene to an antibiotic resistance gene the
new GM plant can be tested by growing it in a solution containing the corresponding
antibiotic. If the plant survives scientists know that it has taken up the antibiotic resistance
gene along with the desired gene. There is concern that bacteria living in the guts of humans
and animals could pick up an antibiotic resistance gene from a GM plant before the DNA
becomes completely digested.
It is not clear what sort of risk the possibility of conferring antibiotic resistance to bacteria
presents. No one has ever observed bacteria incorporating new DNA from the digestive
system under controlled laboratory conditions. The two types of antibiotic resistance genes
used by biotechnologists are ones that already exist in bacteria in nature so the process would
not introduce new antibiotic resistance to bacteria. Never the less it is a concern and the FDA
is encouraging biotechnologists to phase out the practice of using antibiotic resistance genes.
Figure 1: Growing Evidence of Harm From GMO
Figure 2: Growing Evidence of Harm From GMO
Food Technology
Discuss the influence of changing consumer lifestyles on food product development.
Food product development needs to be based on consumers’ needs and wishes to be successful. Factors that have become relevant in respect to changing in consumer lifestyles in the world and their impacts upon worldwide food product development are presented discussed like:-
Cultural influences Aging and health issues Busy lifestyles Food safety and ethical issues Environmental issues
1. Cultural Influences
Culture has been defined by Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) as “the collective
programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of
people from another”. Harrison and Huntington also added to the culture definition that the
ideas that distinguish one group of people from another must be socially inherited and
customary; “and they must actually be constitutive of different ways of life”. Common
examples of factors that usually shape a culture include religion, behavior, relation with
nature, relation with other humans, and traditions. In short, cultural factors are coming
from the different components related to culture or cultural environment from which the
consumer belongs and influence the consumer’s behavior on food choices.
In respect to this factor, food industries have development various food products that
fit into consumer market from different parts of the world. For instance, McDonald’s is a
brilliant example of adaptation to the specificities of each culture and each market. Well
aware of the importance to have an offer with specific products to meet the needs and
tastes of consumers from different cultures, the fast-food giant has for example: a
McBaguette in France (with french baguette and Dijon mustard), a Chicken Maharaja Mac
and a Masala Grill Chicken in India (with Indian spices) as well as a Mega Teriyaki Burger
(with teriyaki sauce) or Gurakoro (with macaroni gratin and croquettes) in Japan. While all
the ingredients used by McDonald’s in arabic and muslim countries are certified halal. The
fast food chain is not offering, of course, any product with bacon or pork.
2. Aging and Health Issues
The number of older persons - defined as aged 60 and over is growing in virtually all
countries, and worldwide trends are likely to continue. In 2002 there were an estimated 605
million older persons in the world, nearly 400 million of whom were living in low-income
countries. According to WHO (2012), by 2025, the number of older persons worldwide is
expected to reach more than 1.2 billion, with about 840 million of these in low-income
countries. As populations in high-income countries age, it becomes more apparent that
investments in ageing and health, including nutrition are essential, ensuring that older
persons continue to contribute productively to society as workers, volunteers and providers
instead of being only recipients of care. Besides, many of the diseases suffered by older
persons are the result of dietary factors, some of which have been operating since infancy.
For example, osteoporosis and associated fractures are a major cause of illness, disability
and death, and are a huge medical expense.
In the last decades, consumer demands in the field of food production have changed
considerably. Consumers more and more believe that foods contribute directly to their
health (Mollet & Rowland, 2002; Young, 2000). Today foods are not intended to only
satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrition-
related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad,
2003 and Roberfroid, 2000b). In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role. A
food marketed as functional contains added, technologically developed ingredients with a
specific health benefit (Niva, 2007).
Most early developments of functional foods were those of fortified with vitamins
and/or minerals such as vitamin C, vitamin E, folic acid, zinc, iron, and calcium (Sloan,
2000). Subsequently, the focus shifted to foods fortified with various micronutrients such
as omega-3 fatty acid, phytosterol, and soluble fiber to promote good health or to prevent
diseases such as cancers (Sloan, 2002). More recently, food companies have taken further
steps to develop food products that offer multiple health benefits in a single food (Sloan,
2004). Functional foods have been developed in virtually all food categories such as
probiotics, prebiotics, functional meats, functional eggs and etc.
3. Busy Lifestyles
These changing consumer needs were a result of major macro-economic changes that
occurred worldwide in the last few decades. Increased female participation in the workforce,
increased incomes and general economic growth has resulted in many ‘cash rich, time poor’
consumers. Busy lifestyle encouraged the convenient food products. Forbairt (1998) defines
convenient foods as ‘all products which have undergone secondary processing including
ready meals, processed meats, pizzas, pies, savoury products, ice-cream and confectionery
products, dairy desserts, soups and other prepared consumer ready products. In a study of
Consumer Watch (2002), convenience was associated with reducing the input required from
consumers in either food shopping, preparation, cooking or cleaning after the meal.
A case study has been done in Ireland, between 1986 and 1996 the number of
couples where both partners worked increased from 108,000 to 226,900 (CSO, 1986 and
CSO, 1996). Dual-income households are busy families or couples with somewhat larger
disposable income; an implication of this has again increased the use of convenience foods.
Gofton (1995) suggests that in these households the family is often served convenience foods
when parents are too tired and/or do not have enough time to prepare a home cooked meal.
McKenzie (1986) reported that although working women enhance the financial circumstances
of a household, a situation of ‘time poverty’ may develop. This leads to less time available for
household chorus and meal preparation.
4. Food Safety and Ethical Issues
Henson and Traill (1993) define food safety as the inverse of food risk—the
probability of not suffering some hazard from consuming a specific food. Potential
undesirable residues in foods span a broad range, from natural (e.g. mycotoxins) and
environmental contaminants (e.g. dioxins) to agro-chemicals (e.g. nitrates and pesticides),
veterinary drugs, growth promoters, packaging components, and many more. Microbiological
considerations are an even greater challenge to safety of food because potentially harmful
microorganisms have the ability either to grow rapidly from very low numbers in food or to
proliferate in the human body once ingested (Tent, 1999).
Genetic food engineering makes foods tolerant to herbicides and resistant to insect
damage via the incorporation of bacterial genes. A large number of novel foods or food
ingredients, such as new-leaf potatoes, soya, mazine and oilseed rape have been derived
through genetic modifications (Moseley, 1999 and Robiston, 1997). At the ethical level, there
are concerns about scientists “playing God,” such that genetic manipulation breaches the
natural boundaries between species that nature has established through the process of
evolution. Moreover, there are considerations that genetic manipulation of the technology is
expensive and will not be available to “poor” farming communities and that this may even
distort the economies of third world countries (Moseley, 1999).
At the consumer level, the primary concern about genetically engineered foods is
their safety, even though novel foods undergo extensive assessment for safety before approval
is granted (Robiston, 1997). There are also worries about the future safety of the technology,
such as the creation of super-weeds and the development of serious illness. Thus far, there
have been no reports of illness from the consumption of genetically modified foods (Moseley,
1999). However, consumers around the world differ in their concerns about genetic food
engineering. Hence, food manufacturers are required to make a clear label on the GM (genetic
modified) food products for consumers’ recognition.
5. Environmental Issues
Environmental factors are things that help reduce the impact of food production on
the environment and might cause someone to choose to buy a product. For example, locally
produced food doesn't have to be transported as far, so less carbon dioxide gas, CO 2 is
produced. This means there is less of an impact on the environment. Contemporary food
production and consumption cannot be regarded as sustainable and raises problems with its
wide scope involving diverse actors.
Moreover, in the face of demographic change and a growing global population,
sustainability problems arising from food systems will likely become more serious in the
future. For example, agricultural production must deal with the impacts of climate change,
increasingly challenging land-use conflicts, and rising health and social costs on both
individual and societal levels. The unsustainability of current arrangements arises from the
industrialization and globalization of agriculture and food processing, the shift of
consumption patterns toward more dietary animal protein, the emergence of modern food
styles that entail heavily processed products, the growing gap on a global scale between rich
and poor, and the paradoxical lack of food security amid an abundance of food.
In regard to the above issues, the world have diverted to the practice of sustainable
food consumption and production. Sustainable consumption and production in food and
agriculture is a consumer-driven, holistic concept that refers to the integrated implementation
of sustainable patterns of food consumption and production, respecting the carrying capacities
of natural ecosystems. There are food-policy instruments available and currently in use in EU
member states to promote sustainable food systems as summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Framework of policy instruments to promote sustainable food systems.
As many consumers shifted to vegetarianism, this opens the market for vegan foods which
believe to help to reduce meat consumption and reduce environmental impacts. For example,
an article in Marketing Week (http://www.marketingweek.co.uk 2011) mentions that UK
consumers can relate to flexible vegetarianism or “Flexitarianism” and that it is a solution for
many who want to reduce their meat consumption without giving up meat totally. However,
around half of the consumers surveyed stated health and reducing their grocery bills as the
main reasons for buying meat free products, whereby only 4 % stated environmental reasons.
Quorn has positioned itself as a non - threatening alternative to meat, as it can easily be used
as a substitute for meat in everyday meals without too much trouble. It has a 22 % share of the
meat free market. Quorn (microbe-protein) shows a significant development of sustainable
food production by application of biotechnology and microbiology.
Besides, advances in food processing and packaging play a primary role in keeping
the food safe to be consumed. Packaging protects food between processing and usage by the
consumer. Following usage, food packaging must be removed in an environmentally
responsible manner. Packaging technology must therefore balance food protection with other
issues, including energy and material costs, heightened social and environmental
consciousness, and strict regulations on pollutants and disposal of municipal solid waste
(MSW).
References
1. Harrison, L.E, & Huntington, S.P. (2000). Culture matters how values shape human
progress. New York: Basic Books
2. WHO (2012) Nutrition for older persons. Ageing and nutrition: a growing global
challenge http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/ageing/en/index.html
3. Central Statistics Office (1986). Household budget survey. Cork, Ireland.
4. Central Statistics Office (1996). Household budget survey. Cork, Ireland.
5. L Gofton (1995). Convenience and the moral status of consumer practices
D.W Marshall (Ed.), Food choice and the consumer, Chapman and Hall, UK
6. J McKenzie (1996). An integrated approach—with special reference to the study of
changing food habits in the United Kingdom. C Ritson, L Gofton, J McKenzie (Eds.),
The food consumer, Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK (1996), pp. 155–167.
7. S Henson, B Traill (1993). Consumer perceptions of food safety and their impact on
food choice. G.G Birch, G Campbell-Platt (Eds.), Food safety—the challenge ahead,
Intercept, Andover , pp. 39–55
8. E.B Moseley (1999). The safety and social acceptance of novel foods. International
Journal of Food Microbiology, 50, pp. 25–31
9. C Robiston (1997). Genetically modified foods and consumer choice. Trends in
Food Science Technology, 8, pp. 84–88
10. H Tent (1999). Research on food safety in the 21st century. Food Control, 10, pp.
239–241
11.