PERSONALITY

Chapter 12

WHAT ABOUT YOUR PERSONALITY?

WHAT IS PERSONALITY?An individual’s unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations

It influences your preferences – for how you handle situations, your sense of humor, or your expectations of others

WHAT IS PERSONALITY?Personality is a complex combination of characteristics and the challenge in trying to understand another person, lies in identifying the unique combination of that individual’s personality characteristics

Words such as character, temperament and mood are ways of describing people and should not be used interchangeably with the term personality.

Personality – Comes from the Latin word persona meaning ‘masks’

Some personality theories focus on the mask while others focus on what is

behind the mask

ASSESSING YOUR OWN PERSONALITY

Complete LA 12.1 (pg 509) Questions 1 & 2

Should have a description of you personality!

WHAT DO OTHER PEOPLE THINK OF YOUR PERSONALITY?

Think about the personality of the person you are sitting next to

What personality characteristics do you associate with them?

Write down the first 5 that come to mind when you think of this person

NOTE: Try to be positive or at least neutral. Even if there are negative characteristics that are part of this person’s personality (and we definitely all have them!!) there is no need to write these ones down

AN OBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF OUR PERSONALITY

Dr Phil Personality Quiz

http://psychcentral.com/personquiz.htm

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Many different perspectives on personality and the study of personality psychology

Thus, many different theories have emerged, attempting to explain how personality develops, why personality varies between people and how best to measure and evaluate an individual’s personality

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY A personality theory is an approach to

describing and explaining the origins and development of personality.

Each perspective contains a set of theories that share certain assumptions about human nature – how personality forms and then develops; whether people are inherently good or bad, the relative importance of biological and environmental factors; and the question of stability and change

Each theory has its own strengths and weaknesses, which need to be assessed along with the theory itself

We will discuss three approaches to personality:

Psychodynamic Theories Trait Theories Humanistic Theories

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Basic understanding of a psychodynamic theory of

personality is that personality is a result of unconscious psychological conflicts and that these are effectively resolved by the individual

The origin of these conflicts are seen to be in childhood experiences, due to the fact that an individual’s instinctive urges often do not match up to what is viewed as ‘acceptable’ in society

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Freud’s psychodynamic theory is considered to be the

first developmental theory of psychology It attempts to explain how personality develops

throughout the lifespan In relation to his theory of personality Freud is known

for his use of The Iceberg Metaphor

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY The Iceberg Metaphor Freud believed that the

human mind is like an iceberg, where most of it is beneath the surface

3 different levels within the mind:

-- conscious-- pre-conscious-- unconscious

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY 3 different levels within the mind:

-- consciousEverything we are thinking, remembering, feeling,

sensing or aware of at this particular moment

-- pre-consciousContains information that lies in ‘the back of our mind’ –

can easily be brought into the conscious level merely by thinking about it

-- unconsciousStorage area for all the information about ourselves that is

not acceptable to the conscious mindMemories that emotionally painful, extremely frightening

and very difficult for us to bring into our conscious minds. Freud believed these memories have an influence over our conscious thoughts and behaviour, although we are not directly aware of them

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Personality is fully formed by age of 5 or 6 and is made up of 3 parts each pulling the individual in a different direction – the id, ego and superego

Freud believed that the conflict between these 3 parts and the manner in which it is resolved is the cause of a person’s behaviour and shapes an individual’s personality

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Id Represents innate, biological

needs which require fulfilment for our survival

Needs such as hunger, thirst, sleep and sex

It is not a structure, but a force which consists of a demanding, impulsive, illogical, irrational and relatively selfish part of our personality

The id operates on the Pleasure principle – its needs must be met to increase pleasure and avoid pain

I WANT IT NOW!!!!!!

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY The id seeks immediate

satisfaction, regardless of society’s rules or the rights or feelings of others

If our behaviour was completely driven by the id, we would demand to have our own way all the time

Good example is a new born baby!

I WANT IT NOW!!!!!!

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Ego Develops as child grows

and begins to understand how the world works – that their needs cannot always be satisfied immediately

Operates out of the Reality principle – deals with the Id’s demands by applying some logic and ‘real-life’ restrictions to it

Plays a mediating role, as it attempts to deal with id demands and superego demands

EXAMPLE

Suppose that you have decided you will complete your Psychology assessment task tonight, because it is due tomorrow. At 8:30 pm, you still have about an hour’s work left to complete the task. But a movie you really want to watch is just about to start.

Id: “Do the work later. Go relax and watch the movie.”

Superego: “If you leave it until later you won’t do it, forget about the movie and get your work done.”

Ego:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Superego Our conscience or judging

element of our personality, the superego weighs our thoughts, feelings and actions according to the morals and ideals of the society in which we live

Operates by the moral principle, informing our decisions with knowledge of what is right and wrong

Therefore, also the cause of our feelings of guilt – punishment to the ego when it does not make the ‘right’ decision

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

The superego always aims for perfection and is not satisfied with anything less than that

Main functions are to block the urges of the id, to persuade ego to be moralistic rather than realistic, and to strive for perfection – otherwise punishes in guilt

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY The id is impulsive,

the ego is realistic, and the superego is idealistic and judgemental

Freud suggested that these 3 forces are constantly in conflict and that all of our behaviour is produced as a result of this interaction

TASKS:

Role play in groups of 3 Use scenarios from LA 12.4 on page 515 Each member is assigned as the id, ego or

superego 1-2 min role play: think about how your structure

may act in this situation!

Learning Activity 12.3 Q4 & 5

Learning Activity 12.5 Q 1

Id Superego

Ego

OK.OK.

OK Guys – I’m in charge. Anything you want has to

go through me.

Healthy Psyche

Id

Superego

Ego

Listen up! I’m in charge, and you are not here to enjoy yourselves. Get ready for a double-size portion of anxiety with a side order of guilt!

>whimper<

No fun.

Neurotic

PSYCHOTIC

Id

Superego

Ego

Who turned out the lights?

Sex! Food! Drink! Drugs! NOW!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jfP9AIJA72E

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFNU-RHTMO0&feature=related

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Defence Mechanisms (Table 12.1) Thus, the ego is constantly playing the role of trying to

mediate between the id and the superego There are many instances when this conflict is not

effectively resolved and according to Freud, this results in individuals feeling anxiety

However, it is the ego’s role to protect us from such anxiety

The unconscious processes by which the ego attempts to protect us from the anxiety arising out of unresolved internal conflict are called defence mechanisms

By denying, falsifying or distorting reality at an unconscious level, our ego leads us to believe that there is no need to feel anxious

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false.

Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target.

Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to other people around.

Compensation: covering up weaknesses by emphasizing perceived strengths

Intellectualisation: Ignoring emotions and feelings by talking about painful events in a ‘cold’ way

FREUD’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY

Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications.

Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to your true feelings.

Regression: going back to acting as a child. Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts

into the subconscious. Sublimation: redirecting 'wrong' urges into

socially acceptable actions. Fantasy: Fulfilling unconscious wishes by

imagining them in activities

TASKS:

Complete the definition and matching activity worksheet

*note: there are three mechanisms that are not there so you have to add these, the definition and an example (using table on pg 517)

Complete the case study worksheet

Learning Activity 12.7 – choose two case studies

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Freud developed a theory of how our sexuality starts from

a very young age and develops through various stages. Freud used the word ‘sex’ broadly to describe anything

‘physically pleasurable’ within these stages. If these stages are not psychologically completed and

released, we can be trapped by them and they may lead to various fixations to avoid the anxiety produced from the conflict in leaving of the stage.

He suggested that we progress sequentially through 5 stages:

-- Oral Stage-- Anal Stage-- Phallic Stage-- Latency Stage-- Genital Stage

JIGSAW GROUP ACTIVITY

Find your ‘expert’ group – other people with the same picture card as you

Take your textbook and pen along to these groups Each group will present to the class and everyone

will need to take notes/ fill in table

Discuss answers to the following for your stage only:

--Stage name?--What age range are individuals in this range at?--What is termed as the ‘focus of pleasure’ in this

stage? --What fixations may develop at that stage?-- What are the characteristics of these fixations?

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral

pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an

Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities.

This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails.

Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Anal Stage (18 months to three years) The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is

on eliminating and retaining feaces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via

parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation.

In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Phallic Stage (ages three to six) The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that

during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes a rival with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection.

During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).

Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more recent psychoanalysts.

According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Latency Stage (age six to puberty) The stage begins around the time that children enter

into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

It is during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

The latent period/stage is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Genital Stage (puberty onwards) The final stage of psychosexual development begins at

the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened.

Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

FIXATIONS Fixation: Strong conflict within the progress of each stage can

fixate people at early stages.

Oral fixation: Oral fixation has two possible outcomes. The Oral receptive personality is preoccupied with eating/drinking

and reduces tension through oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails. They are generally passive, needy and sensitive to rejection. They will easily 'swallow' other people's ideas.

The Oral aggressive personality is hostile and verbally abusive to others, using mouth-based aggression.

Anal fixation Anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during

toilet training, has two possible outcomes. The Anal retentive personality is stingy, with a compulsive seeking

of order and tidiness. The person is generally stubborn and perfectionist.

The Anal expulsive personality is an opposite of the Anal retentive personality, and has a lack of self control, being generally messy and careless.

FIXATION Phallic fixation At the age of 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, boys

experience the Oedipus Complex whilst girls experience the Electra conflict, which is a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible.

Boys suffer a castration anxiety, where the son believes his father knows about his desire for his mother and hence fears his father will castrate him. He thus represses his desire and defensively identifies with his father.

Girls suffer a penis envy, where the daughter is initially attached to her mother, but then a shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires her father whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child). She then represses her desire for her father and incorporates the values of her mother and accepts her inherent 'inferiority' in society.

This is Freud, remember. He later also recanted, noting that perhaps he had placed too much emphasis on sexual connotations.

TASKS

Complete psychosexual case studies/ which psychosexual fixation? worksheet

Read 12. 3 Slips of the tongue – has this ever happened to you?

Summarise the strengths and weaknesses of psychodynamic theories (pg 521-22)

STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIESStrengths Weaknesses

Psychology development gained a great deal of insights into personality from some of his proposals

Freud’s theory attempted to explain how personality developed and why personalities were different

One of the first to suggest that various aspects of development proceed through a series of stages

Some psychologists believe that adult personality is significantly influenced by experiences early in life – and that feeding, toilet training and early sexual feelings are significant events in children’s lives and that they can affect personality development

Hard to believe his theory Focused too much on the role of sexuality in

personality development Based on a limited sample and his subjective

(that is personal) observations) – sample was limited consisting largely of wealthy Viennese women

Took no notes during the actual sessions and there was normally no one present but himself and the patient – biased perception and recall

Validity questioned Currently very few psychologists believe that

personality development proceeds in age related stages

View that personality development continues throughout the entire lifespan it does not ‘stop’ or ‘slow down’ at age five or six of age as Freud suggested.

Unscientific nature Central concepts difficult to define and

impossible to observe

TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

A personality trait is a personality characteristic that endures (lasts) over time and across situations

Trait theories of personality focus on measuring, identifying and describing individual differences in personality in terms of traits or characteristics

The trait approach emphasises differences between individuals rather than similarities

Most personality tests are based on the trait approach to personality

TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Trait approach based on 4 main assumptions:

1. personality traits are relatively stable and predictable over time

2. personality traits are stable across different situations

3. personality is made up of many different traits, individuals can have ‘more’ or ‘less’ of a particular characteristic

4. some personality traits are more closely interrelated than others and have a tendency to occur together

ALLPORT’S HIERARCHY OF TRAITS

Gordon Allport (1897 – 1967)

Widely recognized as the first trait approach to studying personality

Compiled a list of all the words that could be used to describe personality

~ 18000 words

ALLPORT’S HIERARCHY OF TRAITS Allport organised these traits

into 3 groups:

1. Cardinal traits: traits which are seen as motivators or a driving force in that person’s personality

Cardinal traits are very dominant, but extremely rare

Power could be seen as an example, for an individual such as Hitler

ALLPORT’S HIERARCHY OF TRAITS

2. Central traits: traits which are present to some degree in all individuals within a culture or society

Allport suggested that central traits are the basis of our personality and influence our behaviour to a large extent (independence, kindness, trustworthiness, sensitivity)

When we describe our own personality or have others attempt to do so, they often describe the person’s central traits

ALLPORT’S HIERARCHY OF TRAITS

3. Secondary Traits: like central traits these traits too are present to some degree in all individuals. However, they do not influence behaviour to the same degree

Examples of secondary traits include: Liking a particular style of clothing (bohemian) Liking a particular style of music (emo, country)

Secondary traits can change according to the situation, thus considered ‘superficial’ or ‘peripheral’ traits

TASK

Complete LA 12.11 and develop a personality profile using Allport’s trait theory for yourself or someone you know

Use the example given on pg 526 as a guide!

CATTELL’S 16 PERSONALITY FACTOR MODEL (16PF)

Raymond Cattell (1905 – 1995) Dissatisfied with Allport’s qualitative measure Used statistical procedure called factor analysis to

reduce Allport’s list Factor analysis is when certain pieces of

information are seen to be highly related to each other and therefore are seen as a group (or a factor)

For example, words such as happy, talkative, friendly, outgoing correlated more with each other than with other words such as disciplined, anxious and rigid

Thus, those words were grouped together as the factor ‘extraversion’

CATTELL’S 16 PERSONALITY FACTOR MODEL (16PF)

Through factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 different factors or dimensions

Like all trait theories, an individual’s scores were placed on a continuum for each factor, with opposites such as reserved and outgoing at each extreme

Intelligence:

Less Intelligent More intelligent

CATTELL’S 16 PERSONALITY FACTOR MODEL (16PF)

Cattell identified 2 levels of traits:

1. Surface trait: lies beneath the ‘surface’ of your personality, can be observed indirectly from your behaviour

2. Source trait: A group of surface traits that usually occur together are considered together as a source trait. Thus, a source trait is a ‘factor’ or dimension of personality

Cattell’s model used 16 different factors or source traits to describe an individual’s personality

EYSENCK’S PEN MODEL Hans Eysenck (1916 – 1997) Reduced Cattell’s 16 personality factors to 3 and called

them ‘dimensions of personality’

These dimensions were called:1. introversion – extraversion2. neuroticism – emotional stability3. psychoticism (present to some degree in all of individuals)

Measured these dimensions using the EPQ (160 items) Scores indicate ‘how much’ of each dimension the person

displays

Pg.530 LA 12.16 Q4 LA 12.17

EYSENCK’S PEN MODEL

EYSENCK’S PEN MODEL

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

Similar methods (factor analysis) have been used to identify five groups of personality traits that statistical analysis has shown occur together often

Five Factor Model includes: Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Costa and McCrae combined Allport’s word list and Cattell’s statistical analysis to determine the 5 factors

To remember these, think of...OCEAN!

Ofte

n ca

lled

the B

IG 5

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL Openness to

experience: includes traits such as imaginative, curious, artistic, excitable, insightful and unconventional

What type of people would score highly on this factor?

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

Conscientiousness:Includes traits such as being

organised, thorough, efficient, reliable, self-disciplined, dutiful and deliberate

Can you think of any characters from fiction who are given a conscientious personality?

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

Extraversion: Includes traits such as

being outgoing, sociable, talkative, energetic, assertive and adventurous – can lead to a tendency for risk-taking behaviour

What kinds of jobs would these people have?

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

Agreeableness:Includes traits such as being

cooperative, compliant, sympathetic, kind, affectionate, forgiving, modest and straightforwardness

Are those with an agreeableness personality likely to stand up for themselves?

COSTA AND MCCRAE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

Neuroticism: Includes traits

such as being tense, anxious, moody, irritable, impulsive, self-conscious and vulnerability

REMEMBER....

Was developed to show the structure and to describe personality...it does not explain personality or predict behaviour

The BIG FIVE are broad topics

TASK:

Log onto JacPlus and complete the Online Big Five Personality Test

Summarise the strengths and weaknesses of trait theories

HUMANISTIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Humanistic theories of personality emphasize: uniqueness of the individual

the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfill their lives

These theories are based on the assumptions that:

All people are born good

All people want to strive to reach their full potential

HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Therefore, according to these theories a healthy

personality is the result of a person achieving their full

potential

An individual’s personality is viewed as the total of all

experiences and choices they have had to make up to

that point in time

Thus, to completely understand someone’s personality you

need to try to understand all the problems they have had to

deal with in their lives up to that point

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Carl Rogers

Person-centred theory developed from clinical work with his clients

He believed that all people have the potential to grow and develop through their lives, unless some event prevents this growth (eg: a death in the family)

But can be overcome with support and guidance

What other events could cause changes in the development of an individual’s personality?

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Central to his theory is each individual’s self-concept. Self concept refers tot all the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themselves including their nature, unique qualities and their typical behaviour

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

- Whether a person achieves their full potential depends three key factors:

- the self-image (person you think you are)

- the ideal self (person you want to be)

- the true self (person you actually are)

- Roger’s believed that all 3 need to be fairly similar for a healthy, well-adjusted personality to develop

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

There is a close connection between a person’s mental health and the extent to which their ideal self, true self and self-image match

A person who sees themselves as considerate will generally act in a way that suggests they are considerate

However, problems may occur when you think you are kind (self-image), but in reality you do not demonstrate this behaviour (true self)

Your mind may choose to block out these negative ideas, therefore it gets harder for your self-image to match your true self

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Another consideration for developing a healthy, well-adjusted personality is the people around us:

They must be: Genuine (be honest and open about their

feelings)

Accepting (value us, regardless of our faults so we experience unconditional positive regard)

Empathy (put themselves in our position, to better understand how we feel)

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Client Centred Therapy

Rogerian Client Centred Therapy (CCT) is non-directive.

Unlike most other therapies it does not involve the therapist telling the client what to do or think.

It is more to do with creating a relationship that allows the client to solve their own problems. An important part of this is that the client feels as if they are listened to and understood.

Active listening is an important skill in CCT.

ROGER’S PERSON-CENTRED HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Roger’s theory is based around the understanding that any individual can have a healthy, fulfilled personality .

We have the power to make our own changes and can choose to be happy

Thus, Rogers asks why, when we live in a society that is in so many respects immeasurably rich, so many of us are so unhappy?

The answer, in Rogers’ view, is at least partly that the things to which we attach value are not the things that are necessarily good for our psychological well-being.

TASK:

Summarise the strengths and limitations of humanistic theories

INFLUENCE OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

INFLUENCE OF GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Longitudinal studies Twin studies Adoption studies Neurobiological factors and personality

Read pg.539-545 and Complete LA 12.26 (on next page) Q 1-3

MEASURING PERSONALITY•Inventories•Projective tests

PG 547

Measuring personality provides useful information about an individuals personality

Organizational psych – assess personality to determine suitability in workplace

Educational – assist with student suitability in school or special school

Clinical – assess personality to assist in diagnosis of mental illness

Sport – maximize performance

MEASURING PERSONALITY

Personality test – an assessment device used to evaluate or measure aspects of personality

First developed in America with onset of WWI – with people enlisting in armed forces

A measure of emotional functioning was needed to screen the applicants

INVENTORIES Personality inventory – a self report – paper

and pencil or online test which has a list of questions designed to assess various aspects of personality

Eg 16PF, EPQ and NEO-PI-R (Costa and Macrae) are all examples of personality inventories

Considered to be objective – as person administering the test does not personally interpret what the test taker means by their response to each question

Answers given are compared with the answers of other individuals with known personality traits who have taken the test

Questions include: interests, emotional functioning, sociability, attitudes and values

PERSONALITY PROFILE

Overall pictorial representation and summary of personality – based on individuals responses to specific questions

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Used by clinical psychologists to assist in the

diagnosis of mental illness (identifies characteristic patterns of responses associated with abnormal personality)

Answer true false or cannot say See pg 548 for example Police use as part of recruitment selection Can also be used to assess the usefulness of

psychological treatment or therapy used with a client

Refer to Table 12.6

MMPI - NEO-PI-R, 16 PF and EPQ – (designed to

measure traits in normal populations) MMPI - identifies characteristic patterns of

responses associated with abnormal personality

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI) Developed by Katherine Briggs and her

daughter Isabel Myers Categorises an individual into one of 16

personality types depending on their preferences for how they perceive the world

Based on psychodynamic theory of JUNG Used in many workplace settings

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR

It states that there are four categories of temperament, which describe how an individual is likely to behave in a given situation or generally

However few psychologists use it b/c its lacking in validity, reliability and scientific research evidence

THE MYERS-BRIGGS PERSONALITY TYPE INDICATOR – THE FOUR CATEGORIES

INTROVERTED (I) AND EXTROVERTED (E) Whether you feel energised by interacting with people or feeling

uncomfortable in a crowd

INTUITION (N) AND SENSATION (S) Intuitive people are generally innovative and are often dreamers

whereas sensation-oriented people tend to be practical, factual and grounded. They value the wisdom of the past and realism

THINKING (T) AND FEELING (F) Thinking people prefer to make choices based on impersonal,

objective criteria. Feeling people prefer to base their decisions on personal and value judgements

JUDGING (J) AND PERCEIVING (P) Judging people tend to be logical. They prefer to have everything

settled and tend to make a decision and stick to it. Perceiving people will ‘um and ah’ over making a decision, then question their judgement when the decision has been made

Look at Box 12.10 pg 553

HOLLAND’S SELF DIRECTED SPEECH Career counselling inventory Enables person to identify personality type

and match it with career preferences which suit their personality type

Used by psychologists and career counsellors to help people make career choices

Believed our career success and satisfaction based on how similar our personality type is to the environment win which the work is performed

Look at figure pg 554 and 556

HOLLAND’S SELF DIRECTED SPEECH According to Holland (1997), all people fit

into one or more six personality types: Realistic (R) Investigative (I) Artistic (A) Social (S) Enterprising (E) Conventional (C)

Read pg.554-555 for more information

STRENGTH AND LIMITATIONS OF INVENTORIES

List the strengths and limitations of inventories Pg. 558-559

Read box 12.11 – internet tests can be

harmful

PROJECTIVE TESTS

Attempts to uncover an individuals unconscious wishes, desires, fears, thoughts, needs and other hidden aspects of personality by asking them to describe what they see or to make up a story from an ambiguous stimulus

The two most widely used are : The Rorschach inkblot test The Thematic Apperception Test

WHAT DO YOU SEE?

RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST Consists of 10 stimulus cards Some cards are black and grey, others black

and red Rarely used in contemporary psychology If used, it is administered individually and no

restriction is placed on the type of response made and no clues are given regarding the type of response expected

Scoring responses is detailed and involves making subjective (personal) interpretations

Computer generated interpretations of the stimulus cards are now available making the interpretation of responses more objective

TAT (THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST) Not designed to diagnose mental illness (like

Rorschach) But based on a theory of needs of

achievements (so how our needs influence behaviour)

30 stimulus cards which contain drawings of various situations

Test taker needs to tell a story about each picture by describing what character is thinking, feeling etc

Test taker’s response is recorded word for word Assumed that in creating these stories

individuals reveal the conflicts, moods or themes which dominate their lives and underlie their personality

See pg 560 for examples and box 12.35 pg 561

TAT

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF PROJECTIVE TESTS List the strengths and limitations of

projective tests (Pg 562)

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF PERSONALITY TESTS

TEST VALIDITY

Test must be valid – it must actually measure what it is supposed to measure

Content validity – the content of the test (including all its subtests and items) adequately measures what it is designed to measure

Criterion related validity – test can adequately predict certain personality traits and dimensions (or factors) from answers given by the test taker

Construct validity – test provides a good reflection of the personality theory or model on which it is based and that there is empirical evidence supporting the theory or model

TEST RELIABILITY Refers to the ability of a test to consistently

measure what it is supposed to measure each time it is given

A personality test is not reliable if it does not consistently produce similar personality profiles when the same test is given to the same individual on different occasions

Test –retest reliability – giving the personality test to the same group of people on two different occasions and then comparing the two sets of scores

If the test is reliable then each person should achieve similar scores in the test each time they do it.

TEST RELIABILITY

Parallel-forms reliability - Getting another version of the same test instead of using exactly the same test twice

If scores on the two test are similar it suggests that they measure the same thing

Split half reliability – dividing the original test into two halves examining the relationship between scores on each half.

TEST RELIABILITY

Internal consistency – using correlations between different items in the same test to determine whether the items produce similar results

Inter-rater reliability – involves checking that different test administers get similar results from it

A personality test has a high inter-rater reliability if different judges independently agree on the score and how to interpret it.

ETHICAL GUIDELINES

List the 6 ethical guidelines