Juurnal of Experiential Education· 2005. Volull1f' 2B. No.2 1'1'.123-146Journal uf Experienlial Education • 2005. Volume 28, No. 2 pp, 123-146

Outcomes from the Components ofOutcomes from the Components of an Outward Bound Experiencean Outward Bound Experience MarniMami Goldenberg,Goldenberg, LeoLeo McAvoy,McAvoy, andand DavidDavid B.B. KlenoskyKlenosky

Means-end theory provides approach characterizing rela­Aleam-end theOI}' pro,'ides aa usefuluseful approuch forfor charocterizing thethe rela­attribates an educationtionshiptionship amongamong thethe al/ributes oror componentscomponents ofofon experientialexperiential educution

course "means"), benefits,cour.•e (the(the ··means"). thethe benefits. oror thethe outcomesoutcomes associatedassociated withwith thesethese attributes/course components, values "ends")al/ributes/course components. andand thethe personalpersonal I'Olues (the(the "end.") thesethese

participants.outcomesoutcomes helphelp toto reinforcereinforce forfor coursecourse parlicipants. TheThe purposepurpose ofof thisthis article show how "means-end" perspectivearlicle isis toto shall' hall' thisthis "meaas-end" perspecti"e cancan enhanceenhance ourour understanding pro­undel:<tanding ofof thethe outcomesoutcomes associatedassociated withwith outdooroutdoor adventureadventure pro­gramming.8r0111111ing. AA self-administeredself-administered questionnairequestionnaire designeddesigned toto identifyidentify thethe

attributes (i.e.. out-linkageslinkages amongamong programprogram al/ributes (i.e .. coursecourse components),components), coursecourse out­comes, samplecomes. andand personalpersonal valuesvalues waswas administeredadministered toto aa swnple ofof 216216 OutwardOutward

usefulBoundBound coursecourse participants.participants. AnalysisAnalysis ofof thethe datadata providedprovided lIseful insightsinsights Outward courseintointo thethe outcomesoutcomes associatedassociated withwith Outu'ord BoundBound course experiencesexperiences

with course components. canandand tFith specificspecific course compol1pnls. TheThe resultsresults can assistassist experientialexperiential in adventure course outcomes to course com­educatorseducators ill linkinglinking outdooroutdoor adt'ellture course outconles to course com­

ponents, course topOl1pnts. andand inin marketingmarketing course programsprograms to potentialpotential clients.clients.

Keywords: Outdoor Adventure, Outward Bound, Course Components,Keywords: Outdoor Advcnture, Outward Bound. Course Componcnts, Means-End TheoryMeans-End Theory

MarniMarni Goldcnhf'rg. Ph.D.. isis anan Assistant ProfessorProfessor atat CaliforniaCalifornia Polyt('chnicColdcnberg. Ph.D.. Assisttmt Polytechnic University, San Obispo. has worked outdoor/experi-StateState Unil-ersity, San LuisLuis Ol,ispn. SheShe hns lI'orkf'd inin thethe fieldfield ofof outdoorll!xperi­

ential mguldenb@calpuly.edu('ntial educationeducation forfor thethe pastpast 1212 years.years. E-mail:E-mail: mgoldcnb@calpoly.edu

LCD McA\'oy. Professor,Professor, SchoolSchool of Kinesiology. Univrrsity of Minnf'sota,Leo McAvoy. of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Mi1l1wapolis. E-mail:E-mail: mcovo001@umn.cduMinneapolis. mcavo001@umn.edu

Dr R. Klenoskv is RecreationDr. DavidDavid B. Klenosky ;s anan AssociateAssociate ProfessorProfessor ofof Rf'crua!ion andand SportSport University Lafayette, HisManagementManagement atat PurduePurdue UniVf'rsity inin WestWest Lafayettf'. Indiana.Indiana. 1lis e-maile-mail addressaddress

klenosky@purdue.eduis:is: Idenosky@purdue.edu

124 Journal of Experiential Education124 Juurna! of Experiential Education

RResearchers have been particularly interested in exploring the bene­esearchers have heen particularly interested in exploring the hene­fits and outcomes associated with participating in outdoor activi­fits and outcomes associated with participating in outdoor activi­ties (Driver, Nash, & Haas, 1987: Roggenbuck & Driver, 2000) andties (Driver. ash. & Haas. 1987; Roggenbuck & Driver. 2000) and

outdoor adventure education programs (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000). The pres-outdoor adventure education programs (Ewert & McAvoy, 2000). The pres­ent research builds on this base by examining the outcomes of outdoorent research builds on this base by examining the outcomes of outdoor adventure education programs using an approach known as means-endadventure education programs lIsing an approach known as moans-end analysis. Moans-end theory provides a framework and methodology foranalysis. Means-end theory provides a framework and methodology for identifying the important attributes of particular product or service, theidentifying the important attributes of aa particular product or service. the consequences (i.e.. benefits and outcomes) associated with those attrib­consequences (i.e.. benefits and outcomes) associated with those attrib­utes, and the personal those consequences help reinforce for theutes. and the personal valuesvalues those consequences help reinforce for the individual (Cutman, 1982; Klonosky, Cengler, & Mulvey, 1993).individual (Gutman. 1982: Klenosky. Gengler. & Mulvey. 1993).

Applications of means-end theory have typically focused on explor­Applications of means-end theory have typically focused on explor­ing the decision-making behavior of consumers. For instance, means-ending the decision-making behavior of consumers. For instance, means-end studies were conducted to investigate the factors involved in purchasing aastudies were conducted to investigate the factors involved in purchasing greeting card (Walker & Olson. 1991). selecting a ski destination (Klenoskygreeting card (Walker & Olson, 1991), selecting a ski destination (Klenosky et al., 1993), choosing among interpretive services and programset al.. 1993). choosing among interpretive services and programs (Klenosky. Frauman. Norman, & Gengler, 1998), and exploring the factors(Klenosky. Frauman. Norman. & Gengler. 1998). and exploring the factors influencing greenway/trail use (Frauman & Cunningham, 2001).influencing greenway/trail use (Frauman & Cunningham, 2001).

Means-end analysis was recently applied to examine the benefitsMeans-end analysis was recently applied to examine the benefits and outcomes associated with ropes course programming (Goldenberg,and outcomes associated with ropes course programming (Goldenherg, Klenosky, O'Leary, & Templin, 2000), This study was unique because itKlenosky. O·Leary. & Templin. 2000). This study was unique because it was the first to apply means-end theory to examine the factors associatedwas the first to apply means-end theory to examine the faclors associated with participation in activity, as opposed to those involved inwith participation in aa recreationrecreation activity. as opposed to those involved in product or service decision-making. It was also the first means-end studyproduct or service decision-making. It was also the first means-end study involving both an experiential education activity and an outdoor adven­involving both an experiential education activity alld an outdoor adven­ture education setting. Although the Goidenberg et al. study provided use­ture education setting. Although the Goldenberg et al. study provided use­ful insights about the means-end relationships among the outcomes andful insights about the means-end relationships among the outcomes and

associated with completing ropes course program, the adventurevaluesvalues associated with completing aa ropes course program. the adventure education setting involved in the study was narrow in both scope andeducation setting involved in the study was narrow in both scope and duration. Most of the respondents in the Goldenberg et al. study partici­duration. Most of the respondents in the Goldenberg et al. study partici­pated in half-day program involving a portable low-elements ropespated in aa half-day program involving a portable low-elements ropes course, while other respondents participated in a similar, but full-day pro-course. wbile other respondents participated in a similar. but full-day pro­gram, that also included a small number of high-elements. Both coursesgram. that also included a small number of high-elements. Both courses were conducted in university-hased, non-wilderness settings.wore conducted in university-based. non-wilderness settings. Consequently, researchers have yet to apply the means-end approach toConsequently, researchers have yet to apply the means-end approach to examine the outcomes associated with a more comprehensive multi-dayexamine the outcomcs associated with a morc comprehensivc multi-day outdoor adventure experience conducted in a wilderness setting, such asoutdoor adventure experience conducted in a wilderness setting. such as an Outward Bound course.an Outward Bound course.

1252005. Vulume 28.2005. Volume 28, No. 2No.2 125

In sum. the presenl research huilds on the foundation provided byIn sum, the present research builds on the foundation provided by the earlier ropes course study (Goldenberg et al .. 2000) by cxamining aathe earlier ropes course study (Goldenberg et al., 2000) by examining broader experiential education experience. The specific research objectivebroader experiential education experience. The specific research objective was to use the means-end approach to better undersland the outcomes andwas to use the means-end approach to better understand the outcomes and related meanings :lSSociflted with completing an OutwardOutward Bound course.related meanings asso[:iated with completing an Bound course, as wellwell as to explore differences in the outcomes and Ilwans·rnd linkagesas as to explore differences in the outcomes and means-end linkages for five key course components: rock climbing. interactions. e'\pcdition­for five key course components: rock climbing, interactions, expedition­ing, campcraft skills, and the solo experience.ing. campcraft skills. and the solo experience.

This article begins by providing background on the OutwardOutward BoundThis article begins by providing background on the Bound program. aa review of prior research examining Ihe outcomes of outdoorprogram, review of prior research examining the outcomes of outdoor adventure education programming, and an overview of the means-endadventure education programming. and an overview of the means-end approach. Next, the findings from the present study are described. Theapproach. Next. the findings from the present study are described. The final section summarizes the study's contributions to the experiential edu­final section summarizes the study's contributions to the experiential edu­cation literature, discusses implications lor experiential education practi­cation literature. discusses implications for experiential education practi­tioners, and outlines future research directions.tioners. and outlines future research directions.

BackgroundBackground OutwardOutword BoundBound

Founded in 1941, OutwardOutward Bound WflS deSigned for menFounded in 1941, Boimd was designed for men to gainto gain physical fitness, craftsmanship, self-reliance, and compassion. These fourphysical fitness. craftsmanship. self-reliance. and compassion. These fouf core are still pillars of Outward Bound programs today. Hattie,core valuesvalues are still pillars of Outward Bound programs today. lIattie, Marsh, Neill, and Richards (1997) reported that in 1994 over 40,000 indi-Marsh, Neill. and Richards (1997) reported that in 1994 over 40,000 indi­viduals participated in Bound programs worldwide. Over theviduals participated in OutwardOutward Bound programs worldwide. Over Ihe years. Bound has offered courses for women, youth, co-edyears, OutwardOutward Bound has offered COlll'ses for women, youth, co-cd groups, and variety of specialized groups. Outward Bound has played agroups. and aa variely of specialized groups, Oulward Bound has played a key role in the outdoor education movement in North America, and haskey role in Ihe outdoor education movement in North America. and has helped set standards for adventure programming in terms of safety, pro-helped sci standards for adventure programming in tcrms of safety, pro­gram design, and leadership (Hirsch. 1999).gram design, and leadership (Hirsch, 1999).

ResearchPreviousPrevious lleseorch onon OutdoorOutdoor AdventureAdventure ExperiencesExperiences

Prior research confirms that outdoor adventure experiences typical-Prior research confirms that ouldoor adventure experiences Iypical­ly involve elements of uncertainty, perceived risk, excitement, interactionly involve clements of uncertainty. perceived risk. excitement. interaction with nature, and effort (Bunting, 1990: Fwert, 1989; Priest. 1990: Raiola &with nature, and effort (Bunting. 1990: Ewert. 1989: Priest. 1990: Raiola & O'Keele, 1999). Research has also illustrated that outdoor adventure pro-O·Keefe. 1999). Research has also illustrated that outdoor adventure 1'1'0­

grams influence participants' awareness of themselves and others (HattiegralTIS innucnce participants' awareness of thclllseh"cs and others (Hattie et al., 1997). Other research has examined issues related to group dynam­et al.. 1997). Other research has examined issues related to group dynam­ics and development, and found that outdoor adventure programs haveics and development. and found that outdoor adventure programs have positive effects on groups (Ewert & Heywood, 1991: Fielding & Hogg,positive effects on groups (Ewert & Heywood, 1991: Fielding & Hogg, 1997). Sibthorp's (2003) study included an analysis of the learning that1997). Sibthorp's (2003) studv included an analysis of the learning that was transferable from the program outcomes for 18 adolest:ents who com­was transferable from tho progrmn outcomes for 18 adolescents who com­pleted a wilderness-based course. He concluded that students learnpleted a wilderness-based course. He concluded that students diddid learn "both hard and life skills by watching others succeed and fail, and from"both hard and life skills by watching others succeed and fail, and from

Journal of Experiential Education126126 lournal of Experiential Education

verbal feedback by staff and peers" (Sibthorp, p. 154). Todd, Anderson,verbal feedback by staff and peers" (Sibthorp, p. 154). Todd, Anderson, Young. and Anderson (2002) examined the changes in motivations for out­Young, and Anderson (2002) examined the changes in motivations for out­door adventure recreation activities over time for participants with vary­door adventure recreation activities over time for participants with vary­ing levels of development. They concluded that. "beginners struggle toing levels of development. They concluded that, "beginners struggle to achieve, intermediates are drawn Illorc by excitement and risk, advancedachieve, intermediates are drawn more by excitement and risk, advanced participants focus on self-actualization. and experts seek new challengesparticipants focus on self-actualization, and experts seek new challenges to stay involved" [Todd ct aI., p. 2). Neill and Richards (1998) did aa sum­to stay involved" (Todd et al., p. 2). Neill and Richards (1998) did sum-mar\' of three different meta-analyses that represented over 12,000 partic­mary of three different meta-analyses that represented over 12.000 partic­ipants. Their study showed that outdoor education programs did haveipants. Their study showed that outdoor education programs did have aa small to medium impact on outcomes that are typically measured, such assmall to medium impact on outcomes that arc typically measured. such as locus of control, self-confidence, and self-concept.locus of control, self-confidence, and self-concept.

Hattie et al. (1997) examined the effects of adventure programs,Hattie et al. (1997) examined the effects of adventure programs, specifically Outward Bound, and concluded that Outward Bound pro­specifically Outward Bound, and concluded that Outward Bound pro­grams can have positive effect on participants' self-esteem. Mtutin (2001)grams can have aa positive effect on participants' self-esteem. Martin (2001) indicated that the main outcomes for participants, relative to the courseindicated that the main outcomes for participants. relative to the course objectives of an Outward Bound course, were personal and interpersonalobjectives of an Outward Bound course. were personal and interpersonal development, specially improved self-confidence, and better interperson­development. specially improved self-confidence. and better interperson­al relationships. one of the few investigations relating specific Outwardal relationships. InIn one of the few investigations relating specific Outward Bound course components to program outcomes, Estes (1994) askedBound course components to program outcomes. Estes (1994) asked Outward Bound course instructors and participants to indicate the con-Outward Bound course instructors and participants to indicate the con­gruence between course components and eleven core values or principles.gruence between course components and cleven core values or principles. Her results showed that some course components (specifically those asso-Her results showed that some course components (specifically those asso­ciated with daily activities, such as food preparation, setting up camp,ciated with daily activities, such as food preparation, setting up camp, etc., as well as group expeditions, and final expedition) were useful foretc.. as well as group expeditions, and final expedition) were useful for conveying all eleven principles, while other components (rock climbing,conveying all cleven principles. while other components [rock climbing. rappelling, and ropes courses) tended to emphasize a more specific subsetrappelling. and ropes courses) tended to emphasize a more specific subset of principles. While Estes' study provides a usefid foundation, severalof principles. While Estes' study provides a useful foundation. several have noted that additional research is needed to refine our understandinghave noted that additional research is needed to refine our understandingabout how and why program elements contribute towards specific pro-about how and why program elements contribute towards specific pro­gram outcomes (Ewert, 1987; Hattie et ai., 1997). As noted by Ewert,gram outcomes (Ewert, 1987; Hattie et aI., 1997). As noted by Ewert, research is needed to provide "an understanding as to why (specific out-research is needed to provide "an understanding as to why (specific out­comes) happened and how (these outcomes) can be made to happencomes) happened and how (these outcomes) can be made to happenagain" (p. 5). The means-end approach, outlined in the following section,again" [p. 5). The means-end approach. outlined in the following section,has proven useful for examining the "how and why" issues in the context has proven useful for examining the "how and why" issues in the context of outdoor adventure programming. of outdoor adventure programming.

Means-End Theory, Concepts and RelationshipsMeans-End Theory, Concepts and Relationships Means-end theory was originally developed to better understandMeans-end theory was originally developed to better understand

how consumers or participants feel about particular product or servicehow consumers or participants feel about aa particular product or service (Gutman. 1982: Reynolds & Gutman, 1988), The theory focuses on the(Gutman. 1982; Reynolds & Gutman, 1988). The theory focuses on the interrelationship among product-meaning at three levels of abstraction:interrelationship among product-meaning at three levels of abstraction: attributes, consequences, and values (Goldenberg et al., 2000).attributes, consequences, and values [Goldenberg et aI., 2000). Attributes,Attributes,

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which refer to the characteristics or features of the product, object or activ­which refer to the characteristics or features of the product. object or activ­ity in question, are viewed as being relatively concrete. Examples of keyity in question. arc viewed as being relatively concrete. Examples of key "product" attributes for an outdoor adventure experience would include"product" attributes for an outdonr adventure experience would include the length of the course, location of the course, activities done while onthe length of the course. location of the course. activities done while on course, the instructor(s), and the number and nature of individuals in thecourse. the instructor(s). and the number and nature of individuals in the group. Consequences, which refer to outcomes associated with particulargroup. Consequences. which refer to outcomes associated with particular attributes, are viewed as being more abstract. Gonsequences can refer toattributes. arc viewed as being more abstract. Consequences can refer to desired outcomes, more commonly called benefits, and also to undesir­desired outcomes. more commonly called benefits. and also to undesir­able outcomps. such as costs and percei"ed risks. Some examples of posi­able outcomes, such as costs and perceived risks. Some examples of posi­tive consequences/henefits for participants completing an outdoor ach'en­tive consequences/benefits for participants completing an outdoor adven­ture experience may include learning to work together with others in aature experience may include learning to work together with others in group. acquiring skills needed to function in outdnor settings. or learninggroup, acquiring skills needed to function in outdoor settings, or learning one's limitations and strengths as an individual or group member.member. I'ahlesone's limitations and strengths as an individual or group Values summarize desired end-states of being and are viewed as being highlysummarize desired end-states of heing and are viewed as being highly abstract (Goldenberg et al.. 2000). Examples of values for participating inabstract (Goldenberg et al,. 2000). Examples of values for participating in an outdoor adventure experience include transference. self-esteem. warman outdoor adventure experience include transference, self-esteem, warm relationships with others. and aa sense of accomplishment.relationships with others, and sense of accomplishment.

Instead of treating the tluee elements (attributes. consequences. andInstead of treating the three elements (attributes, consequences, and values) independent of each other. means-end theory views thpm as hlll­values) independent of each other, means-end theory views them as fim­damentally interrelated. According to the theory, product/service attrib­damentally interrelated. According to the theory, product/service attrib­utes represent the "means"utes represent the "means" hy whichby which consumers obtain desired conse­consumers obtain desired conse­quences/benefits (as well as avoid undesired consequences/costs) andconsequences/costs) andquences/benefits (as well as avoid undesiredachieve important personal values or "ends" (Gutman, 1982). Thisachieve important personal values or "ends" (Gutman, 1982). This sequence of relationships linking attributes with consequences, and con­sequence of relationships linking attributes with consequences. and con­sequences with personal values, is summarized in the form of a set of asso­sequences with personal values. is summariznd in the form of <l ~cl of asso­ciated meanings called "means-end chain." As an example, means-endciated meanings called aa "means-end chain." As an example. aa mcans·cnd

chainchain in an outdoor link the attributeattribute orin an outdoor adventure experience mightadventure experience might link the or

coursecourse component "whitewater canoeing" (canoeing),(canoeing), to tho conse­componenl "whitewater canoeing" to the conse­quence/outcome "learn important communicationcommunication (comrnunica­quel1Cf4oulcolJlP "learn important skills"skills" (communica­tion), and this consequence to the value, "now that learned how to com­tion), and this consequence to the value. "now lhat II learned how to com­municate better, can get my point across" (self-awareness).municate better. II can get my point across" (self-awareness).

MethodologyMethodology

DataMeasuringMeasuring andand CollectingCollecting Means-EndMeans-End Dolo

This study uses means-end anaiysis to examine the attributes, con-This study uses means-end analysis to examine the attributes. con­sequences, and values associated with participating in an Outward Boundsequences. and \'alues associated with participating in an Outward Bowld course. Means-end data is usually collected using qualitative researchcourse. Means-end data is usually collected using aa qualitative research technique known as "laddering" (Reynolds Gutman, 1988), Ladderingtechnique known as "laddering" (Reynolds && Gutman. 1988). Laddering involves asking series of open-ended Cjuestions that first ask the respon­invol\'es asking aa series of open-ended questions that first ask the respon­dent to identify the attributes of produi:t, or as in the present case, thedent to identify the attributes of aa product. or as in the present case. the outcomes that were important to them that they feel they receivedoutcomes that were important to them that they feel they received fromfrom

128128 lournal of Experiential EducationJournal or Experiential Education

participating in given activity. The respondent is then asked why aaparticipating in aa given activity. The respondent is then asked why particular outcome was important. The response given, which will typi­particular outcome was important. The response given, which will typi­cally refer to another, more abstract consequence will then be the focus ofcally refer to another, more abstract consequence will then be the focus of the next, "Why is that important?" question. This process of asking. "Whythe next. "Why is that important?" question, This process of asking, "Why is that important?" continues for each response given until the respondentis that important?" continues for each response given until the respondent can no longer provide a meaningful answer (e.g., the response is "I don'tcan no longer provide a meaninghd answer (e,g.. the response is "I don't know," or "It just is.,."). The procedure is called laddering because itknow." or .. It just is..... ). The procedure is called laddering because it forces the respondent up the "ladder of abstraction." hridging relativelyforces the respondent up the "ladder of abstraction," bridging relativelyconcrete concepts at the outcome or benefit level to more abstract con-concrete concepts at the outcome or benefit level to more abstract con­cepts at the value level (Klenosky et al., 1993).cepts at the value level (Klenosky et al.. 1993J.

While the use of interviews, either conducted in person (Hofstede.While the use of interviews, either conducted in person (Hofstede. Audenaert, Steenkamp.Steenkamp, Wedel.Wedel, 1998: Klenosky. 2002; Klenosky.Audenaert. && 1998: Klenosky, 2002: Klenosky, Templin, Troutman 2001: Reynolds & Rochon, 1991: Roth. 1994) or viaTemplin. && Troutman 2001: Reynolds & Rochon, 1991: Roth. 1994) or via phone (Bagozzi Dobholkar, 1994), has remained the preferred and mostphone IBagozzi && Dobholkar. 1994). has remained the preferred and most popular approach to collecting means-end data, number of other studiespopular approach to collecting means-end data. aa number of other studies have demonstrated that means-end data can also be collected using self-have demonstrated that means-end data can also be collected using self­administered questionnaires (Frauman Cunningham, 2001: Goldenbergadministered questionnaires (FraumaJl && Cunningham. 2001: Goldenberg et a l , 2000; Pieters, Bottschen, Thelen, 199H: Walker & Olson, 1991). Theet al.. 2000; Pieters. Bottschen. && Thelen, 1998: Walker & Olson. 1991). The useuse of questionnairesof questionnaires isis particularly helpful when working with largeparticularly helphd when working with large sample sizes and has proven to be useful, cost-effective approach forsample sizes and has proven to be aa useful. cost-effective approach for collecting laddering data.collecting laddering data,

Regardless of whether data are collected using interviews or qnes-Regardless of whether data arc collected using interviews or ques­tionnaires, the analysis of laddering data involves several basic steps (fur­tionnaires, the analysis of laddering data involves several basic steps (fur­ther details about the steps and considerations involved in analyzing lad­ther details about the steps and considerations involved in analyzing lad­dering data can be found in Klenosky et aL, 1993, and Reynolds anddering data can be found in Klenosky et al .. 1993, and Reynolds and Gutman, 1988). In the first step, the data are reviewed by the researcher(s),Gutman, 1988). In the first step, the data are reviewed hy the researcher(s), and content codes are developed based on participants' responses to theand con lent codes arc developed hased on participants' responses to the laddering process. The coded ladder elements are aggregated and used toladdering process. The coded ladder clements arc aggregated and used to develop an implication matrix—i.e.. an asymmetric matrix that summa-develop an implication matrix-i.e.. an asymmetric matrix that summa­rizes the number of times each concept was associated with each of therizes the number of times each concept was associated with each of the other concepts in respondents' ladders (Klenosky et al., 1998). Based onother concepts in respondents' ladders (Klenosky et aI., 1998J. Based on the relationships identified in the implication matrix, hierarchical valuethe relationships identified in the implication matrix. aa hierarchical valoe map (HVM) is created. The HVM provides graphical summary of themap (HVM) is created. The HVM provides aa graphical summary of the linkages that emerged across participants'participants' ladders. DependingDepending on thethelinkages that emerged across ladders. on study's objectives, the results of a means-end investigation may be sum­sludy's objectives, the results of a means-end investigation may he som­marized in a single HVM for the entire sample of respondents, or in amarized in a single IIVM for the entire sample of respondents, or in a series of HVMs focusing on specific study f:oncepts. The present studyseries of HVMs focusing on specific study concepts. The present study shows the utility of this latter approach by describing the means-end rela­shows the utility of this latter approach by describing the means-end rela­tions associated with selected Outward Bound course componentstions associated with selected Ootward Bound course componentsthrough a series of HVMs.through a series of HVMs.

SettingStudyStudy Selling

Participants for this research study attended an Outward Bound pro-Participants for this research study attended an Outward Bound pro­gram conducted at the North Carolina Outward Bound School (NCOBS)gram conducted at the North Carolina Outward Bound School ( COBS)

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during the summer of 2001. The NCOBS courses were based at three dif­during the summer of 2001. The NCOBS courses were based at three dif­ferent base camps. The courses offered during the time period of the pres­ferent base camps. The courses offered during the time period of thn pres­ent studystudy includedincluded rock skillsskills courses, aa rafting course. an educatorent rock courses. rafting course, an educator course, Girl Scout course, and public courses. Of the 30 courses offeredcourse. aa Girl Scout course. and public courses. Of the 30 courses offered during the study period, most (27) were public courses, while the remain-during the study period. most (27) were public courses. while the remain­ing three were contract courses (courses designed for a specific group).ing three were contract courses (courses designed for a specific group).

\vaswas customized to emphasize certain skills. ForEachEach contract coursecourse customized to emphasize certain skills.contract For example, the rock skills courses focused on rock climbing, whereas theexample. the rock skills courses focused on rock climbing. whereas the rafting courses specifically worked on the skills needed to raft on white-rafting courses specifically worked on the skills needed to raft on white­water rivers.waleI' ri vcrs.

Each study participant completed specific course components, suchEach study participant completed specific course components. such as backpacking, canoeing, rock climbing, solo, service project, and per-as hack packing. canoeing. rock climbing. solo. service project, and aa per­sonal challenge event. Most NCOBS courses included backpacking as onesonal challenge event. Most NCOBS courses included backpacking as one course component. Backpacking included basic campcraft skiils (such ascourse component. Backpacking included basic campcraft skills (such as tarp set-up, cooking, and leave-no-trace techniques) and navigation skillstarp set-up. cooking. and leave-no-trace techniques) and na\'igation skills (using map and compass). Ganoeing was conducted on fast-flowing.(using aa map and compass). Canoeing was conducted on fast-flowing, Class I-III. white-water rivers and was taught in three-day progression toClass )-111. while-water rivers and was taught in aa three-day progression to participants on courses lasting at least 21 days. Rock climbing was one-participants on courses lasting at least 21 days. Rock climbing was aa ane­to eight-day course component. Participants learned range of rock climb­ta eight-dav course component. Participants learned aa range of rock climb­ing skills that included tying knots, belaying (supporting the climber withing skills that included tying knots. beladng (supporting the climber with a safety rope), movement on rock, rappelling, and anchor placement. Soloa safet\ rope). movement on rock. rappelling. and anchor placement. Solo was a part ol most courses and was anywhere from a few hours to threewas a part of most courses and was all) where from a few hours to three days. It was designed to give participants a time to reflect, spend timedays. It was designed to give participants a lime to reflect, spend lime alone, and relaxrelax during theduring the course. Scrvico waswas into allService incorporatedalone, and course. incorporatod into all courses, but a formal service project was not necessarily included. Somecourses. but a formal service project was not necessarily included. Some formal service projects included working with a trail group to help main-formal service projects included working with a trail group to help main­tain a trail, or huilding a bridge over a small river. A personal challengetain a trail. or building a bridge over a slllall river. A personal challenge event (PCE) was the event, usually at the end of a course, where individ­event (peE) was the event. usuallv at the end of a course. where indi\id­uals had the opportunity to challenge themselves physically and mental­uals had the opportunity to challenge themselves phYSically and mental­ly. PGEs included a run, a high-impact rappel, or a navigationally chal­ly. PCEs included a run. a high-impact rappel. or a navigationally chal­lenging obstacle course.lenging obstacle course.

DataDolo CollectionCollection ProceduresProcedures

The self-administered questionnaire adopted from Goldenberg et al.The self-administered questionnaire adopted from Goldenberg et al. (2000), Walker and Olson (1991), Botschen and Hemetsberger (1998). and(2000). Walker and Olson (1991). Botschen and Ilemetsbergcr (199H). and Pieters et al. (1998) was used to collect data from the study participants inPieters et al. (1998) was used to collect data from the study participants in the summer of 2001. This method was used to obtain larger sample sizethe summer of 2001. This method was used to obtain aa larger sample size than could have been achieved from interviews, and there is indication inthan could have lwml achieved from intorviews, and there is indication in the literature that the self-administered approach can be used effectively.the literature Ulattho self-administered "pproach can be used effectively. The instrument consisted of two sections. The first section gathered dataThe instrument cunsisted of two sections. The first section gathered data on participant demographics and program experiences, and the secondon participant demographics ano program experiences, and the second section operationalized the laddering procedure. In the second section,section operationalized the laddering procedure. In the second section. participants were asked to list the key outcomes they obtained from theparticipants were asked to list the key outcomes they obtained from the

130130 lournal of Experientidl EducationJournal of Experiential Education

Outward Bound course they had jusl completed. Specifically, they were asked to "think"think aboutabout the things leamed andand theilie outcomesoutcomes youyou Outward Bound course they had just completed. Specifically, they were asked to the things youyou learnedreceived from participating in this course," and to list these outcomes inreceived from participating in Ulis course," and to list these outcomes in the space provided. They were then instructed to select their most impor­the space provided. They \<\'ere then instructed to select their most impor­tant outcome and explain why that outcome was important to them. Theytant outcome and explain why that outcome was importanl to them. They wrote their response in box to the right of that outcome. They were thenwrote their response in aa box to the right of that outcome. They were then asked to explain why that response was important ("and this is importantasked to explain why that response was important ("and iliis is important to you because,..") and instructed to enter their response in the next box.to you because... ") and instructed to enter tilCir response in the next box. This process was continued one more time. As final step, participantsThis process was continued one more time. As aa final step, participants were asked to indicate which part(s) of the course led them to learn thiswere asked to indicate which parl(s) of ti,e course led them to learn this specific outcome. The series of responses linking a particular course com­specific outcome. The series of responses Iioking a particular course com­ponent (attribute) to one or more outcomes (consequences), and these out­ponent (attribute) to one or more outcomes (consequences). and these out­comes to one or more personal values represented a means-end chain, orcomes to one or 1110re personal values represented a means-end chain, or ladder, of associated meanings.ladder. of associated meanings.

Questionnaires were distributed at the conclusion of each NGOBSQuestionnaires were distributed at the conclusion of each NCOBS course by the study's lead researcher. Participants completed the ques­course by tilC study's lead researcher. Participants completed ilie ques­tionnaires individually in group setting. No incentives for respondentstionnaires individually in aa group setting. No incentives for respondents were used. total of 294 questionnaires were distributed, and of these,were used. AA total of 294 questionnaires were distributed. and of these. 207 were returned, representing response rate of 70.4%. To explore the207 were returned. representing aa response rale of 70.4%. To explore the potential impact of non-response bias, phone interviews were conductedpotential impact of non-response bias. phone interviews were conducted with ninenine non-respondents. NoNo significant differencesdifferences were foundwith non-respondents. significant were foxnid between respondents and non-respondents regarding demographic char-between respondents and non-respondents reg"rding demographic char­acteristics, course satisfaction ratings, and the number and types of out­acteristics, course satisfaction ratings. and the number and types of out­comes obtained. The data from these nine respondents were combinedcomes obtained. The data from these nine respondents were combined with the respondent data yielding final sample of 216 study participants.with the respondent data vielding aa final sample of 216 study participants.

Analysis and ResultsAnalysis and Results

ParticipantParticipant DemographicsDemographics

Study participants ranged in age from 14-66 years old, with theStudy participants ranged in age from 14-66 years old, with the majority (90.3%) between 14 and 17 years old. Participants completedmajority (90.3%) between 14 and 17 years old. Participants completed courses ranging in length from to 21 days, with half (54.6%) lasting 21cOUl'ses ranging in length from 44 to 21 days. with half (54.6%) lasting 21

days. The majority were male (57.4%), white (84.3%), and high schooldays. The majority were male (57.4%), white (84.3%). and high school students (90.3%). One-fourth (25%) received some sort of scholarship tosludents (90.3%). One-fourth (25%) received some sort of scholarship to attend NGOBS.attend NCOBS.

OutcomeOutcome AnalysisAnalysis

Study participants were asked to list the outcomes they felt theyStudy participants were asked to list the outcomes they felt they received from their Outward Bound experience. total of 799 outcomesreceived from their Outward Bound experience. AA total of 799 outcomes werewere listed by the 21fi participants, with aa mean of 3.7 outcomes perlisted by ti,e 216 participants. with mean of 3.7 outcomes per respondent. Of these outcomes, those listed most includedrespondent. Of these outcomes. Ihose listed most frequentlyfrequently included physical fitness (listed by 34.7% of the study participants), followed byphysical fitness (listed by 34.7% of the study participants). followed by relationships with others (20.8%). self-confidence (19.9%). self-reliancerelatiooships with others (20.8%). self-confidence (19.9%). sell~reliance

2005. Volume 28.2005, Volumo 28, No, 2No.2 131131

(16.7%). appreciation (16.7%). teamwork/cooperation (15.7%). personal(16.7%), appreciation (16.7%), teamwork/cooperation (15.7%), personal growth/challenges (15.7%). and knowledge/awareness (15.3%).growth/challenges (15.7%), and knowledge/awareness (15.3%).

AnalysisAnalysis ofof LaddersLadders ObtainedObtained

The 216 study participants completed aa total of 711 ladders. repre­The 216 study participants completed total of 711 ladders, repre­senting aa mean of 3.3 ladders each. These laddprs consisted of aa total ofsenting mean of 3.3 ladders each. These ladders consisted of total of 2.645 concepts or links. with aa mean of 3.7 concepts. The concepts mak­ing up thethe respondents'respondents' ladders werewere by the aa 2,645 concepts or links, with mean of 3.7 concepts. The concepts mak­

ladders researcher and research assistant. and entered into LadderMap (Gengler & Reynolds, ing up codedcoded by the researcher and research assistant, and entered into LadderMap (Gengler & Reynnlds. 1995) computer program to facilitate data coding and analysis. As the con­1995) cnmputer program to facilitate data cuding and analysis. As the con­cepts were entered into the program, "content codes" were developedcepts were entered into the program. "content codes" were developed basedbased on phrases and keykey words thatthat emerged frDmfrom the data.data. ThisDn phrases and wDrds emerged the This approach is similar to the "cut-up-and-put-in-folders" approach (BogdanapprDach is similar tD the "cut-up-and-put-in-fDlders" approach (BDgdan & Bilken, 1982) which has been used successfully in prior recreation& Bilken. 1982) which has been used successfully in prior recreation (Hultsman. 1996), and means-end research (Goldenberg et al., 2000). The(Hultsman. 1996). and means-end research (Goldenberg et al .. 2000). The content codes were developed by two researchers working together,content cDdes were developed firstfirst by two researchers worl..ing together. then by an independent coder who agreed on approximately 7O'K» of thethen by an independent coder who agreed Dn approximately 70"0 of the original coding assignments. This level of intercoder agreement is similaroriginal coding assignments. This level of intcrcoder agreement is similar to that obtained in prior means-end research (Goldenberg et al. 2000:to that obtained in prior means-end research (Goldenberg et al .. 2000: Klenosky et al.. 1993). Coding disagreements were resolved based on dis-Klenosky et al.. 1993). Coding disagreements "ere resDlved based on dis­cussions with two other researchers.cussions with two other researchers.

Table 11 summarizes the 36 content codes that were generated usingTable summarizes the 36 content codes that were generated using this process. These codes consisted of 14 attributes. 14 consequences. andthis process. These codes consisted of 14 attributes, 14 consequences, and88 personal values. The allributcs that wore JlwJltiuned most often acrosspersonal values. The attributes that were mentioned most often across respondents' ladders included CDurse Dverall (mentiDned by 44.9% of therespondents' ladders included course overall (mentioned by 44.9% of the study participants and accDunting I'Dr 5.9% of the cDncepts mentiDned instudy participants and accounting for 5.9% of the concepts mentioned in participants' ladders). as well as more specific course components includ­participants' ladders), as well as more specific course components includ­ing: interactions (mentioned by 22.2%), rock climbing (20.8%), expedi­ing: interactions (mentionod by 22.2%). rock climbing (20.8%). oxpedi­tioning (19.4%), campcraft (13.4%), and the solo experience (13.0%).tioning (19.4%). campcraft (13.4%). and the solo experience (13.0%). interactions included any time participant mentioned some type of inter-Interactions included any I imc aa participant mentioned some type of inter­actionaction with anotherwith another individual. These interactions includedindividual. These interactions included crewcrew con-con­flicts, crew interactions, meals, crew tasks, free time, etc. Expeditioningnicts. crew interactions. moals. crew tasks. froo time. etc. Expoditioning included navigational skills,skills. hiking, andand backpacking. ExpeditioningExpoditioningincludod navigational hiking. backpacking. occurred any time group moved one area to another, and almostoccurred any time aa group moved fromfrom one arPCl to another. and almost always involved backpacking.always involved backpacking.

The consequences/outcomes mentioned most in partici-The consequcnccs/outr.omps mentioned most frequentlyfrequently in partici­pants' ladders included: relationships with others/teamwork (mentionedpants' ladders included: rolationships with Dthers/teamwork (mentioned by 51.9%), knowledge/awareness (63.0%). personal growth/challengesby 51.9%). knowledge/awareness (63.0%). personal growth/challenges (48.6%), andand determination/perseverance (26.9%). Relationships withwith(48.6%). determinatiDn/perseverance (26.9%). Relationships others/teamwork was very large category and included components suchothers/teamwork was aa very large category and included components such as building relationships, working as team, communicating with others,as huilding relationships. working as aa team. communicating with others. compassion,compassion. cooperation.cooperation, encouragement, bping positive. friendships,encouragement. being positive, friendships.

and Knowlcdgc/a\\'arencss gainingrespect,respect. teaching,teaching. and trust.trust. Knowledge/awareness includedincluded gaining

Journal of Experiential Education132132 lournal of Experiential Education

knowledge in general, learning about outdoor and backcountry survivalknowledge in general, learning about outdoor and backcountry survival skills, and learning abollt oneself. Personal growtil/challenges included developingdeveloping abilities,abilities, newnew opportunities, personal challenges, personal skills, and learning about oneself. Personal growth/challenges inckided

opportunities, personal challenges, personal growth, and problem-solving. Determination/perseverance included over­growth, and problem-solving, Determination/perseverance included over­coming fears, gelling motivated, and developing endurance,coming fears, getting motivated, and developing endurance.

Finally, of the eight values identified, those mentioned most fre­Finally, of the eight values identified, those mentioned most fre­quently included transference (mentioned by 58,3%), self-awareness/quently included transference (mentioned hy 58.3°/)). self-awareness/ improvement/fulfillment (49,5%), achievement of aa personal goal/value (39.8%), and self-confidence/esteem (34.3%).self-confidence/esteem (34.3%). Transference referred to improvement/fulfillment (49.5%), achievement of personal goal/value (39.8%), and Transference referred to transferring the skills and knowledge obtained through their experience totransferring the skills and knowledge obtained through their experience to work, school. other activities. and to IHe in general. Any tilne an individ­work, school, other activitios, and to life in general. Any time an individ­ual referred to being able to apply aa skill to one or more areas outside ofual referred to being able to apply skill to one or more areas outside of their Outward Bound experience, it was coded as form of transference.their Out\vard Bound experience, it was coded as aa form of transference. The other values mentioned were fairly self-explanatory.The other values mentioned were fairly self-explanatory.

Means-EndMeans-End RelationsRelations

InIn oreler to summarize the means-end relations among the attributes,order to summarize the moans-end relations among the attributes, consequences, Clnd values ielenl ifiecl, aa set of implication matrices and hier­consequences, and values identified, set of implication matrices and hier­archical value maps (II VMs)archical value maps (HVMs) werewere developed. The HVMs were createddeveloped. The HVMs were created based on the approach recommended by Gengler, Klenosky, and Mulveybased on the approach recommended by Gengler, Klenosky, and Mulvey (1995). Using this approach, the concepts in the HVM are represented as(1995). Using this approach, the concepts in the HVM are represented as circles. The size of the circle is set proportionally to the number of timescircles. The size of the circle is set proportionally to the number of times the concept was mentioned by study participants in the implicationsthe concept was mentioned by study participants in the implications matrix, and the thickness of the lines connecting circles proportional to thematrix. and the thickness orthe lines connecting circles proportional to the number of times concepts were linked together. Value-level concepts arenumber of times concepts were linked together. Value-level concepts are represented using hlack circles located near thothe toptop of ti,e HVM andandrepresented using black circles located near of the HVMlabeled using all upper-case letters. As noted by Klenosky et al. (1998). thislabeled using all upper-case leiters. As noted by Klenosky et al. (1998). this approach reflects the highly abstract role that values play in defining theapproach reflects the highly abstract role that values play in defining the meaning of the other, more concrete consequences/outcomes and attributemoaning or tho other. morc concrete consequences/outcomes and attribute concepts. Consequences are represented as grey circles positioned in theconcepts. Consequences are represented as grey circles positioned in the middle of the map and labeled using initial capitals only. Attributes/coursemiddle of the map and labeled using initial capitals only. Allributes/course components are represented as white circles positioned at the bottom of thecomponents are represented as white circles positioned at the bollom of ti,e map and labeled in all lower-case letters.map and labeled in all lower-case letters.

Figure summarizes the concepts and associations generatedFigure 11 summarizes the concepts and associations generated fromfrom all theall the respondents who participated in this study (nrespondents who participated in this study (n == 216). To simplify216). To simplify interpretation, only those associations mentioned by at least respon­interpretation, only those associations mentioned by at least ninenine respon­dentsdents areare represented inin this summary HVM. The predominantrepresented attrib­this sllmmary HVM. The predominant attrib­utes/course components illustrated on this map included the course over­utes/collrse components illustrated on this map included ti,e COllrse over­all. roc;k chmbing, expeditioning, and interactions. Other representedall. rock climbing. expeditioning. and interactions. Other represented course components included campcraft, solo. PCE. leadership opportuni­course components included campcraft. solo. peE. leadership opportuni­ties, and instruction. The consequences that were mentioned most fre­ties, and instruction. The consequences that were mentioned most fre­quently included knowledge/awareness, jjersonal growth/challenges, andquently included knowledge/awareness. personal growth/challenges. and relationships with others/teamwork. Other notable outcomes includedrelationships with others/teamwork. Other notahle outcomes included

2005. Volume 2M. No.2 1332005, Vohime 28, No. 2 133

Table 1.Table 1.NumberNumber oj TimesTimes ConceptsConcepts MentionedMentioned in Respondents'Respondents' LaddersLaddersof in

umber of Rcspondrnts Pern'nt of ({pspondentsNiiin ber of Rnspnndfjnis Ftjrcent of Respondents l\lentioning COIlO'pt l\.tcntioning Concept

ATTRIHUTllS MHNTIONEDTIONED Ml L(!iist atat Least Onc:oLeast Once Mentioning Cono^p! Mentioning Concfipl

ATIRlBl TTES ME O n c nat Least Once

Course Overall 44.9 Interactions 4848 22.2 Course Overall 9797 44.9 Interactions 22,2 Roc~Rock ClimhingClimbing 4545 20,820.8

19.4E\.pcditioningExpeditioning 4242 19,4 ~m~rnn 29 13,4 Solo 2828 13.0 Campcraft 29 1:1.4

Solo 13.0 Course Challenges 1717 7.9Course ChClIIl'nges 7.9

Instruction 1515 G.gInstruction 6 .9

NewNew ExperiencesE\.periem:es 1414 6,56.5 PCEPCE 1313 6,06.0

5.1

Canoeing 10 4.6 Leadership OpportunitiesLeadership Opportunities 1111 5,1

C..anoeing 10 4,6

Courso Begimiing/C^ompletion 88 3.7Course Beginning/Completion 3.7 Environment 3.7Environment 88 3.7

CONSEQtJENCES MENTIONEDCONSEQl E~CES MENTIONED

63.0

Relationships with Others/Teamwork 112 51.9 Knowledge/AwarenessKnow lodge/Awai'en ess 136136 63.0 Relationship:; with OtlH'rs/Tcalnwork 112 51.9 PersonalPersonal Crowth/ChallengesGrowth/Challpngcs lO.'J 48.6105 48.6

DetDetermination/Perseverancecrill illat ion/Pcrsc\'crn nco 5858 26.926.9 24.1

Appreciation 3838 17,6 PhysicHIPhvsical FitnessFitness 5252 24.1

Appreciatioll 17.6

independence 3636 16,7Independence 16.7 Nature Appreciation 28 13.0Natum Appn!ciation 28 13.0

1.f!adPl'shipLeadership 26 12.026 12.0

EffiricntEfficient 1717 7.97.9

Achic\'clllPntAchievement 1616 7.47.4 }{pnp(:tionketlection 1616 7.47.4

SurvivalSurvival 1515 6.96.9 5,BPatience 12 5.6Patience 12

VALUES MENTIONEDVAU'ES t-IE. TIONED

58,3 Self-Awarenes.s/Improvement/Fulfillment 107 49.5 Transference 126 58.3Trnnsrcrcnu' 126 Sci r-AwarcJ1l'ssJ JInpro\'C'llwnt/Fu Ifi II ment 107 49.5 Achievement of Personal Goal 39.886 39.8 Selt-Confidence/Esteem 74 34.3 Achie\"emcJ1t or aa Personal Goal 86 Self,ConfidPllce/Esleem 74 34.3 FunFun and Enjovmenland Enjoymcnt orof LifeLire 64 2').664 29.6

26.4 So If-Reliance 40 18.5

AA SenseSense of Accomplishmentor Accomplishment 5757 26.4

Self,Reliance 40 18.5 Warm Relalioiishlps with Others 30 13.9Warm Relationships \\"ith OthNS 30 13.9

Note, n =21b.216.\'otf'. 11 ""

Journal of Experiential Education134134 Joumal of Experiential Education

determination/perseverance and physical fitness. The value mentioneddetermination/perseverance and physical fitness. The value mentioned most frequently was transference. Additional values included self-aware­most frequently was transference. Additional values included sclf-aware­ness/improvement/fulfillment. achievement of aa personal goal/value. self­ness/improvement/fulfillment, achievement of personal goal/value, self­confidence/esteem. and sense of accomplishment. It is notable that severalconfidence/esteem, and sense of accomplishment. It is notable that several participants linked the overall course with physical fitness. relationshipsparticipants linked the overall course with physical fitness, relationships with others/teamwork, and nature appreciation.with otherslteamwork. and nature appreciation.

were associated linked to. conse­Several conceplsSeveral concepts were associated with,with, oror linked to, thethe conse­quence of relationships with others/teamwork. The attrihutes involved inquence of relationships with otllers/teamwork. The attributes involved in these linkages were the overall course experience. expeditioning. rock climhing, and interactions. Rock climbing was linkedlinked toto relationshipsrelationships these linkages were the overall course experience, expeditioning, rock climbing. and interactions. Rock climbing was withwith others/teamwork and also to determination/perseverance.others/teamwork and also to determination/perseverance. Relationships withRelationships with others/teamwork linked toto the outcome increasedothers/teamwork linked the outcome increased knowledge/awareness and to the value warm relationships with others.knowledge/awareness and to the value warm relationships with others. This suggests that working with others tliroughout the course, expedition-This suggests that working with others throughout the course. expedition­ing, rock climbing, and interactions, help participants learn to work asing. rock climbing. and interactions. belp participants learn to work as aa team. This helped them get along and develop "warm" relationships withteam. This helped them get along and develop "warm" relationships with others. Anotller strong link observedothers. Another strong link ohserved in the HVM involvedHVM the linksin the involved the links between personal growth/challenge and self-confidence/esteem, andbetween personal growth/challenge and self-confidence/esteem. and between self-confidence/esteem and sense of accomplishment. This setbetween self-confidence/esteem and aa sense of accomplishment. This sel of relations suggested that as individuals challenged themselves and grew,of relations suggested that as individuals challenged themselves and grew, they felt better about themselves, which was associated with the feeling ofthey felt better about themselves. which was associated with the feeling of accomplishment in life. Participants also appeared to appreciate the lead-accomplishment in life. Participants also appeared to appreciate tlw lead­ership opportunities they experienced on the course, that they apparentlyership opportunities they experienced on the course. that they apparently viewed as a skill that could potentially he transferred to other aspects ofviewed as a skill that could potentially be transferred to other aspects of their lives. Finally, the links involving the solo experience (i.e., beingtheir lives. Finally. the links involving the solo experience (i.e.. being alone outdoors for a given length of time) led the participants to feel morealone outdoors for a given length of time) led the participants to feel more independent and self-reliant, which was associated with gaining knowl­independent and self-reliant, which was associaled with gaining knowl­edge and enhancing personal awareness.edge and enhancing personal awareness.

addition to the snmmary HVM shown in Figure 1, separate HVMsInIn addition to the summary HVM shown in Figure 1. separate HVMs were developed to provide more refined view of the outcomes associat­were developed to provide aa more refined view of the outcomes associat­ed with five key Outward Bonnd conrse components: rock climbing, inter­ed witll five key Outward Bowld course components: rock climbing. inter­actions, expeditioning, campcraft, and the solo experience. These HVMsactions. expeditioning, campcraft. and the solo experience. These IIVMs can be found in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, and respectively. To simplify inter-can be found in Figures 2. 3. 4, 5. and 66 respectively. To simplify inter­pretation, only those associations mentioned by at least respondentspretalion. only those associations mentioned by at least twotwo respondents are represented in these HVMs.are represented in these HVMs.

The HVM for rock climbing, shown in Figure 2. had several associ-The HVM for rock climbing. shown in Figure 2. had several associ­ations that stood out. Determination/perseverance and relationships withations tI,at stood out. Determination/perseverance and relationships with others/teamwork were the strongest associations directly associated withothers/teamwork were the strongest associalions directly associated with rock climhing. This makes sense, as rock climbing leads to individualsrock climbing. This makes sense, as rock climbing leads to individuals working together, as well as individuals pushing themselves and showingworking together, as well as individuals pushing themselves and showing hoth determination and perseverance while climbing. Other consequencesboth determination and perseverance while climbing. Otl,er consequences linked either directly or indirectlyindirectly toto rock climbing included knowl­linked either directly or rock climbing included knowl­edge/awareness, personal growth/challenge, physical fitness, independ­edge/awareness. personal growth/challenge. physical fitness. independ­

2005, Volume 28, No. 1352005, Volume 28. Nu. 22 135

• VALUEFl!N AND VALUEACHIEVKMFNT OF A ENIOYMENTPERSONAI,

OF LIFE(iOAIA'Al.liE • ConsequenceConsequence

o attributeattribute

\\ARMWARMSELF AWARENKSS/ RELATII)'I,3HIPSRKI.ATIONSH1PS

IMPROVFMKNT/ WrrH OTHERSnmlOTIIERSnJLFIl.I.MENT

leadership opportunitie).

Hierarchjcal value map for Outward Bound course partici­FigureFigure 1.1. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course partici­pants: All respondents (n(n = 216).pants: All respondents ~ 216).

ence, appreciation, and achievement. The values that linked with theseence, appreciation, and achievement. Tbe values that linked with these outcomes, most frequently included self-awareness/improvement/fulfiU­outcomes, most frequently included self-awareness/improvement/fullill­ment, self-confidence/esteem, and transference. Taken together, the out­ment, self-conlidence/esteem. and transference. Taken togelher. the out­

and values associated with rock climbing are consistent with thecomescomes and values associated with rock climbing are consistent with the viewview ofof rockrock climbing asas being primarily anan individual oror growth-oriented form of experiential education.

climbing being primarily individual personalpersonal growth-oriented form of experiential education.

As would be expected, in the HVM for interactions shown in FigureAs would be expected, in the HVM for interactions shown in Figure 3, the most frequently mentioned concept was the consequence relation­3, the most frequently mentioned concept was the consequence relation­ships with others/teamwork. Other consequences linked with interactionsships with others/teamwork. Other consequences linked with interactions

136 Journal of Experielltial Educnlionlournal of Expf>riential Education

included personal growth/challenges. reflection, patience, appreciation, and leadership. Notable values that linked with included knowledge/awareness.knowledge/awareness, personal growth/challenges, renection. patience. appreciation. and leadership. otable values tllat linked wiili these outcomes included self-awareness/improvement/fulfillment, transfer-these outcomes included self-awareness/improvement/fulfillment. transfer­ence, fun and enjoyment in life, and warm relationships with Theence. fun and enjoyment in life. and warm relationships wiili others.others. The interrelationships involving these c:oncepts suggest that the interactionsinterrelationships involving iliese concepts suggest that the interactions experienced while on an Outward Bound course help participants learn toexperienced while on an Outward Bound course help participants learn to work with others to get tasks accomplished, as well as appreciate and developwork with others to get tasks accomplished. as well as appreciate and develop relationships with others that will extend heyond the course itself.relationships with others that will extend beyond the course itself.

TheThe HVM forfor expeditioning. shownshown in FigureFigure 4. showed thatHVM expeditioning. in 4. showed that enhanced physical fitness and leadership skills had the strongest directenhanced physical fitness and leadership skills had the strongest direct links for this course component. Other notable outcomes for expedition-links for this course component. Other notable outcomes for expedition­

appreciation. survival. patience.inging includedincluded appreciation, survival, independence,independence. andand patience. Transference was the most frequently mentioned value in this HVM. TheTransference was the most frequently mentioned value in this HVM. The outcomes and values depicted io this I tVM differ considerably from thoseoutcomes and values depicted in this HVM differ considerably from those shown in the rock climbing HVM, suggesting that expeditioning and rockshown in the rock climbing HVM, suggesting that expeditioning and rock climhing provide different types of experiences for Outward Bound courseclimbing provide different types of experiences for Outward Bound course participants.participants.

In the HVM for campcraft. shown in Figure 5. tile most prominentIn the HVM for campcraft, shown in Figure 5, the most prominent consequence was knowledge/awareness. This consequence was linked toconsequence was knowledge/awareness. This consequence was linked to campcraft through the outcomes efficient and nature appreciation. Thecampcraft through the outcomes efficient and nature appreciation. The most frequently mentioned value in this HVM was transference, The pat­most frequently mentioned value in this HVM was transference. The pat­tern of interrelationships depicted indicates that learning how to camp andtern of interrelationships depicted indicates that learning how to camp and survive in the outdoors was useful information that participants appreciated.survive in the outdoors was useful information that participants appreciated, and ,,"vanted to lise and share with others nftcr the course was OVCI'.and wanted to use and share with others after the course was over.

Finally. in the HVM for the solo experience. shown in Figure 6. the strongeststrongest associationassociation was between solosulu andand independence. ThisThis

Finally, in the HVM for the solo experience, shown in Figure 6. the was independence. linkbetween link

makes sense. because when participants were on solo, they were on theirmakes sense, because when participants wore on solo, they were on their own and needed to take care of their basic needs independently. Oilierown and needed to take care of their basic needs independently. Other consequences directly associated with solo included survival. natureconsequences directly associated with solo included survival, nature appreciation. reOcction. determination/persc\1erance. relationships withappreciation, reflection, determination/perseverance, relationships with others/teanl\vork. and physical fitness. The consequence-relationshipsothers/teamwork, and physical fitness. The consequence—relationships with others/teamwork. and the value-warm relationships with otbers.with others/teamwork, and the value—warm relationships with others, seemed unlikely to be associated with the solo. but iliey did appear on iliisseemed unlikely to he associated with the solo, but they did appear on this HVM. This suggests that the opportunity to be alone and on one's own inHVM. This suggests that the opportunity to he alone and on one's own in nature leads one to appreciate working with, and being with other people.nature leads one to appreciate working with, and being with other people. Other valuesvalues mentioned most frequeotly in this HVM depicted transfer­Other mentioned most frequently in this HVM depic:ted transfer­ence. self-reliance. and self-awareness. This set of outcomes and relatedence, self-reliance, and self-awareness. This set of outcomes and related meanings appears to renect the intended role of the solo experience in iliemeanings appears to reflect the intended role of the solo experience in theOutwardOutward Bound program.Bound program.

DiscussionDiscussion The overall goal of this research was to develop

standing of the outcomes associated with completing multi-day Outward The overall goal of this research was to develop aa betterbetter under­under­

standing of the outcomes associated with completing aa multi-day Outward

137 2005, VOlUlllll 28, No.22005, Volume 28, No. 2

AUIlt,\ t.\lt'"AflHIEVEMENT Ot' AA 1'1 RW'Al.

(;OAIJ'VAUtf• VALUE OF PERSONAL

SKI.F-AWARI:M:SS/ConsequenceConsequence IMPKOVKMI:NI7 FDLFII.LMKVro attribuleattribute

SELF-RELIANCE

FigureFigure 2.2. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­nenl:nent: Rock climbing (n 78).Rock climbing (n == 78).

Bound course. Using means-end theory and self-administered ladderingBound course. Using means-end theory and aa self-administered laddering approach, data collected from sample of Outward Bound conrse partici­approach. data collected from aa sample of Outward Bound course partici­pants provided useful insight into the outcomes associated with this formpants provided useful insight into the outcomes associated with this form of experiential education programming; and the means-end linkages thatof experiential education programming: and the means-end linkages that helped explain how and why these outcomes obtain their meaning in anhelped explain how and why these outcomes obtain their meaning in an Outward Bound course.Outward Bound course.

An analysis of the data across all respondents revealed number ofAn analysis of the data across all respondents revealed aa number of key outcomes and personal values that appear to be consistent with thosekey outcomes and personal values that appear to be consistent with those

138 13B Journal of Experiential EducationJournal of Experiential Education

reported in prior investigations in the outdoor adventure and experientialreported in prior investigations in the outdoor adventure and experiential educat ion literature. For instance, Hattie et ai. (1997) reported that out-education literature. For instance. Hattie et al. (1997] reported that out­door adventure programs have an impact on par t ic ipants ' awareness ofdoor adventure programs have an impact on participants' awareness of themselves and others. Solf-awareness/ improvement/fulf i l lment was thethemselves and others. Self-awareness/improvemenUfulfiliment was the second most frequently ment ioned value in the present study. Hattie et al.second most frequently mentioned value in the present study. Hattie et al. also stated that par t ic ipants ' awareness of others increased whi le theyalso stated tllat participants' awareness of others increased while they were involved with an outdoor adventure activity. Other researcherswere involved with an outdoor adventure activity. Other researchers (Ewert Heywood, 1991; Fielding Hogg, 1997) have found that outdoor(Ewert && Heywood, 1991: Fielding && Hogg, 1997) have found that outdoor adventure programs have posit ive impacts on group dynamics and devel­adventure programs have positive impacts on group dynamics and devel­opment . These findings were suppor ted in this s tudy as well , in that,opment. These findings were supported in this study as well, in tI,at, developing re la t ionships wi th others and working as a team emerged asdeveloping relationships with others and working as a team emerged as one of the most commonly ment ioned consequences ; and appeared to playone of the most commonly mentioned consequences; and appeared to play a key role w h e n par t ic ipants interacted and worked together to rock cl imh,a key role when par1icipants interacted and worked together to rock climb. canoe, or expedi t ion during the course. Prior research by Ptixton andcanoe. or expedition during the course. Prior research hy Paxton and McAvoy (2000) examined h o w self-efficacy from part icipat ing in an out-McAvoy (2000] examined how self-efficacy from participating in an out­door adventure activity is transferred to par t ic ipants ' daily lives. In thedoor adventure activity is transferred to participants' daily lives. In the current study, transference (i.e., the transference of skills and knowledgecurrent study. transference (i.e.. the transference of skills and knowledge to work, school, and life) was the most frequently men t ioned value, tmdto work. school, and life] was the most frequently mentioned value. and was frequently l inked to other values related to feelings of self-confidence,was frequently linked to other values related to feelings of self-confidence, accompl i shment , and self-fulfillment.accomplishment, and self-fulfillment.

The results of this research complement the findings reported hyThe results of this research complement the fmdings reported by EstesEstes (1994),(1994). w howho examinedexamined whe the rwhether thethe corecore valuesvalues oror pr inciplesprinciples espoused by Outward Bound were conveyed in general , as well as th roughespoused by Outward Bound were conveyed in general, as well as through specific course componen ts . Al though the course componen t s examinedspecific course components. Although the course components examined differed he tween the two studies , the findings of both s tudies had somediffered between the two studies, the findings of both studies had some interesting similarit ies. For instance, consistent wi th the Estes findings,interesting similarities. For instance, consistent with the Estes findings. the HVMs for general or frequently occurring course e lements , such as thethe HVMs for general or frequently occurring course elements. such as the course overall, interactions, and expedi t ioning, tended to involve largercourse overall. interactions, and expeditioning. tended to involve aa larger number of concepts and l inks compared to the HVMs for more specificnumber of concepts and links compared to the HVMs for more specific conrse componen t s , such as rock cl imbing and campcraft. In addi t ion, thecourse components. such as rock climbing and campcraft. In addition, the i tems rated as among the most important by course par t ic ipants in Estes'items rated as among the most important by course participants in Estes' s tudy involved the pr inciples cooperat ion, compass ion , and self-discov­study involved the principles cooperation. compassion. and self-disco\'­ery. Similar concepts that emerged as central in the present s tudy includ­ery. Similar concepts tllat emerged as central in the present study includ­ed outcomes and values, specifically the consequence re la t ionships wi thed outcomes and \'alues. specifically the consequence relationships with others / teamwork,others/teamwork. and the valuesvalues relat ionships and self-aware­and warm relationships and self-aware­the warm ness / improvement , that reflect s imilar under ly ing pr inciples .ness/improvement, that reflect similar underlying principles.

In sum, Ewert and McAvoy (2000) encouraged researchers to look atIn sum, Ewert and McAvoy (2000) encouraged researchers to look at the "how and w h y " of programming, versus only looking at the "what andthe "how and why" of programming, verSIiS only looking at the "what and w h e n " of the program. The present s tudy provided some of the answerswhen" of the program. The preseot study provided some of the answers that address how and why specific ou tcomes occur for indiv iduals fromthat address how and why specific outcomes occur for iodividuals from comple t ing an outdoor adventure experience. It also provided insight intocompleting an outdoor adventure experience. It also provided insight into h o w outdoor professionals can facilitate these outcomes by incorporat inghow outdoor professionals can facilitate these outcomes by incorporating specific conrse elements or exper iences into the programs they design.specific course elements or experiences into the programs they design.

2005. Volume 28. No.2 1392005, Volume 28, No, 2 139

FUN AND ENJOYMENT• VALUE R' .......» ENIOy\lF.:.',.VALUE OF LIFEOf IJFT.

SELF-AWARENKSS/• ConsequenceConsequence IMPROVEMENT/

FILKILLMENTo attributeattribute

WARM RtLATiONSHIPS W i n i OIHEKS

FigureFigure 3.3. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­nent: Interactions (n == 73).nent: Interactions (n 73).

140140 lournal of Experiential EducationJournal of Experiential Education

VALU.VAL EE SKNSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT

AA !'i[,,,t' 01 \aD.\II'L1SII\tr'\'T

ConsequenceConsequence SELF-AWARI-:\'ESS/Sl:.Lt'·A"ARI"E.<;SI

attributeoo atlribute IMPROVEMENT/ F111.FILLMHNT

.\II'KU\ I:.MI'J'\.'TI tlILHI.I.,\lt",VI'

WARM RELATIONSHIPSWARM Rt:l..J\TIO"lSIIII'S WITH OTHERSWnl-lIlTm:RS

Fl N ANDFl ~ ,\ND ACHIEVEMENT OF A liNJOYMENTE'lJIOY\It.N'I' PERSONAI.

OF I.IFKOF un; (.OAIA'ALL'E

..

I'XI)t~diliuning 1I.6!l

FigureFigure 4.4. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­nent: Expeditioning {n = 69j.neol: Expeditioniog (0 = 69).

2005. VOllllllO 2B. No.2 1412005, Volume 28, No. 2 141

.VAL EEVALU

ConsequenceConsequence

o allribuleattribute II"" 0\'0

r'lU\ \11 ,,. OF 11Ft'

.,~]_t·-U)'FII)I_'U) "ELt-·,\\\',\H.~.:'''SSELF AWARENESS/

IMPROVEMENT/ t::sn:1:\1 '\lPKO\'t:..\tE.'Ti

H UII.l...I\IF...'\'TFULFILLMENT

Surri...1 n.'

Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­FigureFigure 5.5. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­nenl: Campcraft (n ; 44).nent: Campcraft [n = 44).

142 Journal of Experiential Education142 Journal of Experiential Education

• VALUE

• Consequence

ACHIEVEMENT OF o attribute

Consequence

.-\OIlt.TE.\If1\;'T at' AA attribute,'tX';O\lAL GOALI\ALI IEPERSONAL GOALA'ALUE

SELf-CO'FlDE.'CEJ ES1lI..\l

WARM\\AIl'1 RfXATIONSIllPSRU.AllO'SIIIPS WiriimilKRSWmlOlllERS

Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo-FigureFigure 6.6. Hierarchical value map for Outward Bound course compo­nent: Solo (il = 37).nent: Solo (n = 37).

2005. Volume 28. No.2 1432005, Volume 28, No. 2 143

ImplicationsImplications The results of this study present several implications for practice inThe results of this study present several implications for practice in

Outward Bonnd and similar outdoor adventnre programs. Chief amongOutward Bound and similar outdoor adventure programs. Chief among these is using knowledge of the outcomes associated with specific coursethese is using knowledge of the outcomes associated with specific course elements during program design. Course components that are likely toclements during program design. Course components that arc likely to lead to specific outcomes and personal values can be targeted for specif­lead to specific outcomes and personal \alues can be targeted for aa specif­ic clientele.ic clientele.

Knowledge of potential coursecourse component outcomescomponent outcomes cancan also healso beKnowledge of potential used to market or "sell" certain typo of program. The ontnomes obtainedused to market or "sell" aa certain type of program. The outcomes obtained from conrse participation can bo printed on marketing matorial and sharedfrom course participation can be printed on marketing material and shared with potential participants as they learn about an outdoor adventure expe­with potential partici pants as they learn about an outdoor adventure expe­rience they may pursue in the future. Moreover, managers of Ontwardrience they may pursue in the future. Moreover. managers of Outward Bonnd and similar types of advontnre programs can also nso tho resultsBound and similar types of adventure programs can also usc the results from this stndy to better obtain grant funding and donations. Fundingfrom this study to better obtain grant funding and donations. Funding sources ofton seek research results to document or evaluate program out-sources often seek research results to document or evaluate program out­comes and conrse effectiveness. The data generated from this study couldcomes and course effectiveness. The data generated from this study could be nsed to provide such evidence. Finally, the results from this study canbe used to provide such evidence. Finally. the results from this stud~ can also help with the training of staff who instruct outdoor adventure pro-also help with the training of staff who instruct outdoor adventure pro­grams. Part of the training for instructors should inclnde developing angrams. Part of the training for instructors should include developing an awareness of the potential outcomes that participants may receive fromawareness of the potential outcomes that participants may receive from being part of a program, or from particular program elements. This knowl­being part of a program. or from particular program elements. This knowl­edge could be used hy instructors to design and shape program elementsedge could be used by instructors to design and shape program clements to meet specific outcomes.to meet specific outcomes.

In Hildition to these practical implications, thoro aro several inter-In Hddition to these practical implications. there arc scvornl inter­esting implications for future research in outdoor adventure programming.esting implications for future research in outdoor adventure programllling. Some of theso diroctly relate to the limitations of this research, while oth-Some of these directly relate to the limitations of this research. while oth­ers expand the application of means-end analysis in the outdoor adven­ers expand the application of means-end analysis in the outdoor adven­ture field. One key concern rolatos to the sample nsed for this stndy. Mostture field. One key concern relates to the sample used for this study. Most of the study participants were studonts botwoen 14-18 years old who wereof the study participants were students between 14-18 years old who were primarily Caucasian. Future research could be conducted using differentprimarily Caucasian. Future research could be conducted using different age groups, males compared to females, and different demographic popu­age groups. males compared to females. and different demographic popu­lations. Specific subgroups to explore may include yonth-at-risk, physicallations. Specific subgroups to explore may include youth-at-risk. phYSical or mental health patients, corporate groups, and young professionals inor mental health patients. corporate groups. and young profeSSionals in the ontdoor field. Ontward Bonnd also rnns courses for individuals thatthe outdoor field. Outward Bound also runs courses for individuals that know each other, such as school groups, parent/child courses, or coupleknow each other. such as school groups. parent/child courses. or couple courses versus open-enrollment courses where individuals do not knowcourses versus open-enrollment courses \.vhere individuals do not know each other. It wonld bo interesting to see if results from these pre-formedeach other. It would be interesting to sec if results from these pre-formed gronps would be similar to tho results from the current stndy.groups would be similar to the results from the current study.

follow-np study of multi-day experiences after given length ofAA follow-up study of multi-day experiences after aa given length of time is recommended. This research was collected immediately followingtime is recommended. This research was collected immediately following the participant'sthe participant's coursecourse and it would be interesting to compare theseand it would be interesting to compare these results with perceived outcomes within a five- to ten-year time period fol­results with perceived outcomes within a five- to ten-year time period fol­

144 Journal of ExpcrirlOtial Education144 Journal of Exporiential Education

lowing participation an program.program. For example, future research could be conducted to explore the issne of whether trans-lowing participation inin an outdoor adventureoutdoor adventnre For example. future research could be conducted to explore the issue of whether trans­ference. one of the major valuesvalues noted by participants in the present study.ference, one of the major noted by participants in the present stndy, did in fact occur.did in fact occur.

The outcomes of other outdoor adventure activities could also beTbe outcomes of other outdoor advontnre activities could also be examined lIsing means-end analysis. Examples of these activities includeexamined nsing moans-end analysis. Fxamples of these activitios include canoeing. kayaking. rafting. mountain biking. winter crunping, or down­canoeing, kayaking, rafting, mountain hiking, winter camping, or down­hill Skiing. The outcomes from these various outdoor adventure activitieshill skiing. The outcomes from these various outdoor adventnre activities may vary from this current study, and this would be useful contributionmay vary from this current study. and this would be aa usehJl contribution to the outdoor adventure literature.to the outdoor adventure literature.

In conclusion. this research revealed that outdoor adventure educa­In conclusion, this research revealed that outdoor adventnre educa­tion programs make an immediate impact in the lives of participants.tion programs make an immediate impact in the lives of participants. Through this study. it was possible to better understand the outcomes pro­Through this study, it was possible to bettor nnderstand tho outcomes pro­vided by Bonnd outdoor adventure experiences, and appreciatevided by OutwardOutward Bound outdoor adventure experiences. and appl'Cciate how these outcomes contribute to tho dovelopment and roinforcomont ofhow these outcomes contribute to the development and reinforcement of important personal values. These values are helieved to positively impactimportant personal values. These values are believed to positively impact participants' lives long after tho outdoor advontnre experience is over.participants' lives long after the outdoor adventure experience is over. Additional studies aro noeded to tako this research to tho noxt level andAdditional studies arc needed to take this research to the next level and examine the nature and significance of these longer term outcomes.examine the nature and significance of these longer term outcomes.

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