OrganizatioOrganization of lifen of life

• Organisms Organisms need each other need each other for l.iving. They for l.iving. They are dependent are dependent on the other on the other organisms and organisms and the the environmentenvironment

• 30-65 desibel:30-65 desibel: Konforsuzluk, rahatsızlık, Konforsuzluk, rahatsızlık, sıkılma duygusu, kızgınlık, sıkılma duygusu, kızgınlık, konsantrasyon ve uyku konsantrasyon ve uyku bozukluğu.bozukluğu.65-90 desibel:65-90 desibel: Kalp Kalp atışının değişimi, solunum atışının değişimi, solunum hızlanması, beyin basıncın hızlanması, beyin basıncın azalması.azalması.

• 90-120 desibel: 90-120 desibel: Metabolizmada bozukluk, Metabolizmada bozukluk, baş ağrısı.baş ağrısı.

• 120-140 desibel:120-140 desibel: İç İç kulakta bozukluk.kulakta bozukluk.

• 140 desibel ve üzeri:140 desibel ve üzeri: Kulak zarının patlaması.Kulak zarının patlaması.

Otel yatak odası: 30, Hastaneler: 35, Yatak odası: 35, Oturma odası: 60, Mutfak, banyo: 70,  Motosiklet: 110, Kabare müziği: 100, Şehiriçi trafik: 65

There is a pathway of energy flow There is a pathway of energy flow between environment and between environment and

organisms.organisms.

Primary Primary consumerconsumer

(prey)(prey)

Secondary Secondary consumer consumer (predator)(predator)

Tertiary Tertiary consumerconsumer

DecomposersDecomposers

Page 200Page 200

• Autotrophs convert light energy into Autotrophs convert light energy into food(chemical energy), food(chemical energy),

• Consumers use this chemical energy. Consumers use this chemical energy. • Decomposers help matter to recycle in the Decomposers help matter to recycle in the

system.system.

ENERGY AND NUTRITIONAL ENERGY AND NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ORGANISMSRELATIONSHIPS AMONG ORGANISMS

• The major energy source of all living things is The major energy source of all living things is the sun. the sun.

• Organisms are divided into 3 groups according Organisms are divided into 3 groups according to how they get energy.to how they get energy.

• 1. Autotrophs: All green plants and some 1. Autotrophs: All green plants and some bacteria are autotrophs. They use CO2 and H2O bacteria are autotrophs. They use CO2 and H2O and make organic molecule(carbohydrate). and make organic molecule(carbohydrate). Autotrophs are also called as producers, Autotrophs are also called as producers, because they produce organic molecules from because they produce organic molecules from inorganic compounds. They can directly use sun inorganic compounds. They can directly use sun light to get their energy. They synthesize their light to get their energy. They synthesize their own food by photosynthesis. own food by photosynthesis.

•

• a. Photosynthetic autotrophs: Plants, bacteria and algae that use sunlight energy to use CO2 and H2O to produce glucose and O2. They have chlorophyll(prokaryotes) or chloroplasts(eukaryotes).

• b. Chemosynthetic autotrophs: They are all bacteria that live in soil, which use oxidation of inorganic compounds to get energy to make glucose from CO2. They don’t have chlorophyll.

They don’t use sun light. Nitrification bacteria.

• 2. Heterotrophs: They can not synthesize their own 2. Heterotrophs: They can not synthesize their own food. They take their food from other autotrophs or food. They take their food from other autotrophs or heterotrophs. They use this food to get energy. heterotrophs. They use this food to get energy. Heterotrophs are called consumers. Heterotrophs are called consumers.

HeterotrophsHeterotrophs are also classified according to are also classified according to their feeding habits.their feeding habits.

• A. Holozoic A. Holozoic animals take in solid food.animals take in solid food.• Herbivores: only eat plants. Rabbits, cattle, Herbivores: only eat plants. Rabbits, cattle,

elephants, sheep, horse are herbivores.elephants, sheep, horse are herbivores.• Carnivores: only eat animals. Lions, tigers, Carnivores: only eat animals. Lions, tigers,

hawks, wolves, vultures are carnivores.hawks, wolves, vultures are carnivores.• Omnivores: can eat animal and plants. Omnivores: can eat animal and plants.

Humans, bears and rats are omnivores.Humans, bears and rats are omnivores.• B. B. SaprophytesSaprophytes: obtain energy from dead bodies of : obtain energy from dead bodies of

organisms. They are also called decomposers. Many organisms. They are also called decomposers. Many bacteria, fungi are decomposers. They are very bacteria, fungi are decomposers. They are very important in ecosystem for the recycling of the matter. important in ecosystem for the recycling of the matter. With the help of the decomposers minerals recycled With the help of the decomposers minerals recycled back in the system.back in the system.

c.c. The permanent relationship between two The permanent relationship between two different organisms for the purpose of different organisms for the purpose of feeding, shelter or protection is called feeding, shelter or protection is called symbiosissymbiosis.. • 1. Mutualism: Both of the organisms benefit from each other. 1. Mutualism: Both of the organisms benefit from each other.

Lichens(algae and fungi live together)Lichens(algae and fungi live together), (N fixing bacteria and , (N fixing bacteria and leguminosae plant)leguminosae plant)

• numbernumber• of theof the• organismsorganisms•

2. Commensalism: One organism benefits, the other one 2. Commensalism: One organism benefits, the other one neither benefits nor is harmed. (shark and small fishes) neither benefits nor is harmed. (shark and small fishes)

• numbernumber• of theof the• organismsorganisms

• 3. Parasitism: One organism benefits, the other is 3. Parasitism: One organism benefits, the other is harmed. (tapeworms, lice)harmed. (tapeworms, lice)

• numbernumber

• of the of the • organismsorganisms

Plant parasitesPlant parasites• Holoparasites: they are completely Holoparasites: they are completely

dependent on the host plant. rafflesiadependent on the host plant. rafflesia• Hemiparasites: they are not completely Hemiparasites: they are not completely

dependent on the host, they can be dependent on the host, they can be dependent on their host for dependent on their host for nutrition(organic matter) or for water nutrition(organic matter) or for water needs. mistletoeneeds. mistletoeAnimal parasitesAnimal parasites

• Endoparasites: They live inside the Endoparasites: They live inside the body of the host. Most of their organ body of the host. Most of their organ systems degenerate.systems degenerate.

• Exoparasites: They live on the outer Exoparasites: They live on the outer layer(skin, fur, hair) of the host.layer(skin, fur, hair) of the host.

3. Both autotroph and heterotroph 3. Both autotroph and heterotroph organisms.organisms.

They live in soil that lack of They live in soil that lack of nitrogen and to get their nitrogen nitrogen and to get their nitrogen they kill flies and digest them they kill flies and digest them outside of their body then absorb the outside of their body then absorb the necessary materials. Venus fly trapnecessary materials. Venus fly trap

ECOLOGYECOLOGY

What is Ecology?What is Ecology?

• Ecology studies the relationships Ecology studies the relationships among organisms and the among organisms and the interactions between organisms and interactions between organisms and their environment.their environment.

• All organisms and their environment All organisms and their environment make up the ECOSYSTEM. Within make up the ECOSYSTEM. Within the ecosystem each organism has its the ecosystem each organism has its own life to live and role to play.own life to live and role to play.

ECOSYSTEMECOSYSTEM

• Ecosystem is a certain area in which Ecosystem is a certain area in which organisms interact with each other organisms interact with each other and their environment.and their environment.

• Within the Ecosystem, there are living Within the Ecosystem, there are living and nonliving factors. and nonliving factors. Page 191Page 191

• Biotic and abiotic factors effect:Biotic and abiotic factors effect:– Distribution of organismsDistribution of organisms– Size of the populationSize of the population– Ability to reproduceAbility to reproduce

ClimateClimate( temperature, water ( temperature, water amount, light)amount, light)

• Climate influences natural vegetation. It Climate influences natural vegetation. It determines the type of plants and animals determines the type of plants and animals which can live in that area.which can live in that area.

• Deserts, rain forests, temperate and arctic Deserts, rain forests, temperate and arctic regions.regions.

• Also some plants effect the climate of some Also some plants effect the climate of some area. In our Back sea region forest make this area. In our Back sea region forest make this area wetter. The increase in rainfall , increases area wetter. The increase in rainfall , increases the humidity of that area. the humidity of that area.

• Man also increases the temperature of the Man also increases the temperature of the world (global warming.)world (global warming.)

OxygenOxygen

• Oxygen determines the life in the ecosystem.Oxygen determines the life in the ecosystem.• Organisms need oxygen for respiration. If the Organisms need oxygen for respiration. If the

amount is insufficient, the organisms can die.amount is insufficient, the organisms can die.• Depth of the water,Depth of the water,• Height of the mountainHeight of the mountain• Pollution also effects the amount of available Pollution also effects the amount of available

oxygen.oxygen.• Also plants effect the oxygen amount of the Also plants effect the oxygen amount of the

systemsystem

CarbondioxideCarbondioxide

• Carbondioxide is important for Carbondioxide is important for plants for photosynthesis. plants for photosynthesis.

• It effects the plants directly and It effects the plants directly and animals indirectly.animals indirectly.

• Also we change the amount of Also we change the amount of carbondioxide by using fossil fuels.carbondioxide by using fossil fuels.

LightLight

• Plants directly need light for Plants directly need light for photosynthesis. photosynthesis.

• Light effects the rate of photosynthesis Light effects the rate of photosynthesis and indirectly it effects the animals.and indirectly it effects the animals.

• Also plants determine the amount of Also plants determine the amount of light within the ecosystem. Huge trees light within the ecosystem. Huge trees make shadows for small plants. They can make shadows for small plants. They can prevent small plants from taking direct prevent small plants from taking direct sun light.sun light.

• The plants that live in shade have large leaf surface The plants that live in shade have large leaf surface than the ones that live in light.than the ones that live in light.

SoilSoil

• It effects plants directly. Because It effects plants directly. Because plants need soil to take in minerals.plants need soil to take in minerals.

• It is important for anchorage, water, It is important for anchorage, water, minerals and air.minerals and air.

• Also plants help formation of soil. Plant Also plants help formation of soil. Plant roots help rocks to breakdown easily.roots help rocks to breakdown easily.

• And most of the minerals in the soil And most of the minerals in the soil come from the decaying of dead come from the decaying of dead organisms.organisms.

pHpH

• pH shows the acidity. H ion pH shows the acidity. H ion concentration.concentration.

• Organisms need to keep their body Organisms need to keep their body pH constant.pH constant.

If the pH increases in the outside, it If the pH increases in the outside, it effects the chemical reactions. For effects the chemical reactions. For example: Acid rainexample: Acid rain

Also Man increases the pH of the Also Man increases the pH of the environment as a result of industry.environment as a result of industry.

WaterWater

• Water is the major component of cells.Water is the major component of cells.• Animals that live in land try to decrease their Animals that live in land try to decrease their

water loss. They have furs,scales or water loss. They have furs,scales or protective layer (skin). Their respiratory protective layer (skin). Their respiratory organs are inside their body.organs are inside their body.

• Plants that live in dry lands also try to Plants that live in dry lands also try to decrease their water loss.They have small decrease their water loss.They have small leaves with cuticle, the number of stoma is leaves with cuticle, the number of stoma is decreased and they are embedded in the decreased and they are embedded in the deeper layers. Most of them have hairs in deeper layers. Most of them have hairs in leaves.leaves.

Predation:Predation:Predator: kill prey for food.Predator: kill prey for food.Prey : is the food of predators.Prey : is the food of predators.Their relationship determines the population size.Their relationship determines the population size.In these relationships organisms compete with In these relationships organisms compete with

each other. each other. In In CompetitionCompetition, organisms fight for the same , organisms fight for the same

thing(food or mate)thing(food or mate)If the competition is among the organisms of same If the competition is among the organisms of same

species , it is intraspecific competition.( foxes)species , it is intraspecific competition.( foxes)If the competition is among the organisms of If the competition is among the organisms of

different species, it is interspecific competition.different species, it is interspecific competition.(foxes and hawks)(foxes and hawks)

BIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBSWEBS

• Grass grasshopper frog snake hawkGrass grasshopper frog snake hawk• Producer consumer consumer consumer Producer consumer consumer consumer consumerconsumer• Primary secondary tertiary querternaryPrimary secondary tertiary querternary

The sequence by which energy, in the form of food, passes from a plant to an animal and then to other animals is called a food chain.

The Energy gets less toward the tertiary consumer level.

• In the food web there is a complex feeding In the food web there is a complex feeding relationship of organisms.relationship of organisms.

ENERGY PYRAMIDSENERGY PYRAMIDS

• Each time an Each time an organism feeds on organism feeds on the other, there is a the other, there is a transfer of materials transfer of materials and energy. But not and energy. But not all of the energy pass all of the energy pass to the other one, to the other one, Some of the Some of the energy energy is lostis lost as heat.(1/10) as heat.(1/10)

• Because of this loss, Because of this loss, the energy flow the energy flow within the system is within the system is shown by a shown by a pyramid. pyramid.

The energy available for the next trophic level.

Ecological EffeciencyEcological Effeciency•How much of energy is actually How much of energy is actually

available to the next trophic level?available to the next trophic level?•Usually around 10% is availableUsually around 10% is available•Why is it that we don’t see 6th Why is it that we don’t see 6th

order consumers?order consumers?•There is not enough energy There is not enough energy

available to support consumers at available to support consumers at this level.this level.

• Each level in the system depends on Each level in the system depends on the previous one. the previous one.

• If the number of the producers If the number of the producers decreases, number of the primary decreases, number of the primary consumers decreases. consumers decreases.

• If number of the primary consumers If number of the primary consumers increases, number of the secondary increases, number of the secondary consumers increases but the number consumers increases but the number of the producers decreases.of the producers decreases.

• Also some chemicals Also some chemicals pass with the food. If a pass with the food. If a chemical is firstly seen chemical is firstly seen in producers, the in producers, the amount of the amount of the chemical increases chemical increases until the top consumer.until the top consumer.

• The amount of The amount of dangerous chemicals dangerous chemicals is less in first levels is less in first levels but it increases until but it increases until the top.the top.

Biomass pyramidBiomass pyramid

• Biomass shows the total living Biomass shows the total living matter of a trophic(feeding) level at matter of a trophic(feeding) level at a specific time.a specific time.

• Biomass shows the dried organic Biomass shows the dried organic mass of an ecosystem. As the trophic mass of an ecosystem. As the trophic level increases, the biomass of each level increases, the biomass of each trophic level decreases .trophic level decreases .

ChemicaChemical Cyclingl Cycling

MATTER CYCLEMATTER CYCLE• EEnergy is lost through the food chain. nergy is lost through the food chain.

But it is always replaced by the sun. But But it is always replaced by the sun. But the matter within the system is limited. the matter within the system is limited. We have to gain back this matter. The We have to gain back this matter. The amount of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, amount of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus is not Nitrogen, Phosphorus is not exhausted,exhausted, They always They always recyclerecycle within within the system between organisms and the system between organisms and environment.environment.

• Recycling of materials prevents Recycling of materials prevents accumulation accumulation of of wastes and provides an wastes and provides an unlimited resource for organisms. unlimited resource for organisms.

WATER CYCLEWATER CYCLE

http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/indehttp://earthguide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/index.htmlx.html

• The water cycle is called the The water cycle is called the hydrologic cyclehydrologic cycle. . In the hydrologic cycle, water from oceans, In the hydrologic cycle, water from oceans, lakes, swamps, rivers, plants, and even you, lakes, swamps, rivers, plants, and even you, can turn into water vapor. Water vapor can turn into water vapor. Water vapor condenses into millions of tiny droplets that condenses into millions of tiny droplets that form clouds. Clouds lose their water as rain or form clouds. Clouds lose their water as rain or snow, which is called precipitation. snow, which is called precipitation. Precipitation is either absorbed into the Precipitation is either absorbed into the ground or runs off into rivers. Water that was ground or runs off into rivers. Water that was absorbed into the ground is taken up by absorbed into the ground is taken up by plants. Plants lose water from their surfaces as plants. Plants lose water from their surfaces as vapor back into the atmosphere. Water that vapor back into the atmosphere. Water that runs off into rivers flows into ponds, lakes, or runs off into rivers flows into ponds, lakes, or oceans where it evaporates back into the oceans where it evaporates back into the atmosphere. atmosphere.

CARBONCARBON and OXYGEN and OXYGEN CYCLECYCLE

• The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) The concentration of carbon in living matter (18%) is almost 100 times greater than its concentration is almost 100 times greater than its concentration in the earth (0.19%). So living things extract in the earth (0.19%). So living things extract carbon from their nonliving environment. For life carbon from their nonliving environment. For life to continue, this carbon must be recycled.to continue, this carbon must be recycled.

Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as: Carbon exists in the nonliving environment as: • carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and

dissolved in water (forming HCO3−) dissolved in water (forming HCO3−) • carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO3) carbonate rocks (limestone and coral = CaCO3) • deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas

derived from once-living things derived from once-living things • dead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soildead organic matter, e.g., humus in the soilCarbon enters the biotic world through the action of Carbon enters the biotic world through the action of

autotrophs.autotrophs.• Carbon returns to the atmosphere and water by Carbon returns to the atmosphere and water by

respiration (as CO2) respiration (as CO2) , , burning burning , , decay (producing decay (producing CO2 if oxygen is present, methane (CH4) if it is CO2 if oxygen is present, methane (CH4) if it is not.not.

• Increasing CO2 in the atmosphere absorbs the Increasing CO2 in the atmosphere absorbs the radiated heat from the earth. This results in an radiated heat from the earth. This results in an inrease in the temperature of the earth-global inrease in the temperature of the earth-global warming. This effect is called “Greenhouse effect”. warming. This effect is called “Greenhouse effect”.

• Careful monitoring of both ocean and land Careful monitoring of both ocean and land temperatures. temperatures.

• Many glaciers and ice sheets are receding. Many glaciers and ice sheets are receding. • Woody shrubs are now growing in areas of Woody shrubs are now growing in areas of

northern Alaska that 50 years ago were barren northern Alaska that 50 years ago were barren tundra. tundra.

• Many angiosperms in temperate climates are Many angiosperms in temperate climates are flowering earlier in the spring than they used to. flowering earlier in the spring than they used to.

• Many species of birds and butterflies are moving Many species of birds and butterflies are moving north and breeding earlier in the spring. north and breeding earlier in the spring.

Ozone problemOzone problem

• Ozone shields the earth's surface from much Ozone shields the earth's surface from much of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth of the ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth from the sunfrom the sun..

• Ozone is a highly active form of oxygen (O3 Ozone is a highly active form of oxygen (O3 rather than O2). Ozone is made when a rather than O2). Ozone is made when a electric spark passes through air, and this electric spark passes through air, and this accounts for the characteristic odor give off accounts for the characteristic odor give off by some electrical motors.by some electrical motors.

• Ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer, Ultraviolet rays can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and may depress the immune cataracts, and may depress the immune systemsystem

NITROGEN CYCLENITROGEN CYCLE

All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., proteins and nucleic acids. proteins and nucleic acids.

• Plants must secure their nitrogen in Plants must secure their nitrogen in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in compounds such as: compounds such as: – nitrate ions (NO3−) nitrate ions (NO3−) – ammonia (NH3) ammonia (NH3) – urea (NH2)2CO urea (NH2)2CO

• Animals secure their nitrogen (and all Animals secure their nitrogen (and all other) compounds from plants (or animals other) compounds from plants (or animals that have fed on plants).that have fed on plants).

• Nitrogen FixationNitrogen Fixation• The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert.

To break it apart so that its atoms can To break it apart so that its atoms can combine with other atoms requires the combine with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy. input of substantial amounts of energy.

• Three processes are responsible for most of Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere: the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:

• atmospheric fixation by lightning atmospheric fixation by lightning • biological fixation by certain microbes — biological fixation by certain microbes —

alone or in a symbiotic relationship with alone or in a symbiotic relationship with some plants and animals. Some live in a some plants and animals. Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the symbiotic relationship with plants of the legume family (e.g., soybeans, alfalfa).legume family (e.g., soybeans, alfalfa).

• DecayDecay• The proteins made by plants enter and The proteins made by plants enter and

pass through food webs just as pass through food webs just as carbohydrates do. At each trophic level, carbohydrates do. At each trophic level, their metabolism produces organic their metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds that return to the nitrogen compounds that return to the environment, chiefly in excretions. environment, chiefly in excretions. Microorganisms of decay, break down Microorganisms of decay, break down the molecules in excretions and dead the molecules in excretions and dead organisms into ammonia.organisms into ammonia.

• NitrificationNitrification• Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants

— usually through their roots. However, most — usually through their roots. However, most of the ammonia produced by decay is of the ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is accomplished converted into nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps: in two steps:

• Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2−). NH3 to nitrites (NO2−).

• Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3−).nitrites to nitrates (NO3−).

• These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Through their called nitrifying bacteria. Through their activities (which supply them with all their activities (which supply them with all their energy needs), nitrogen is made available to energy needs), nitrogen is made available to the roots of plants. the roots of plants.

• DenitrificationDenitrification• The three processes above remove The three processes above remove

nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through ecosystems.through ecosystems.

• Denitrification reduces nitrates to Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere. atmosphere.

• Once again, bacteria are the agents. They Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments where conditions are anaerobic.where conditions are anaerobic.

• The smoke and fumes from burning fossil fuels rise The smoke and fumes from burning fossil fuels rise into the atmosphere and combine with the moisture into the atmosphere and combine with the moisture in the air to form acid rain. The main chemicals in air in the air to form acid rain. The main chemicals in air pollution that create acid rain are pollution that create acid rain are sulfursulfur dioxidedioxide andand nitrogennitrogen oxidesoxides.  Acid rain usually forms high in the .  Acid rain usually forms high in the clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides clouds where sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants. This forms a react with water, oxygen, and oxidants. This forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid

PHOSPHORUS CYCLEPHOSPHORUS CYCLE

• Phosphorus is an important element for Phosphorus is an important element for living organisms. They use it mainly in living organisms. They use it mainly in nucleic acids. Plants as usual obtain nucleic acids. Plants as usual obtain phosphorus as phosphate from soil. Soil phosphorus as phosphate from soil. Soil becomes rich in phosphate by the becomes rich in phosphate by the breakdown of rocks. Fertilizers mainly breakdown of rocks. Fertilizers mainly have phosphate. Metabolic wastes and have phosphate. Metabolic wastes and decaying help formation of phosphate in decaying help formation of phosphate in soil. Man and animals get their soil. Man and animals get their phosphate need by feeding. phosphate need by feeding.

Different pyramidsDifferent pyramids

To produce a pyramid of biomass the dry weight of organisms in each level present are calculated.

Pyramid of Number Pyramid of Number • In this example the number of individuals at In this example the number of individuals at

each trophic level are shown. The length (or each trophic level are shown. The length (or area to be more accurate) of each bar is area to be more accurate) of each bar is proportional to the number of individuals. proportional to the number of individuals.

• This often produces an upright pyramid - but This often produces an upright pyramid - but not always not always

In example A the pyramid is upright while in In example A the pyramid is upright while in example B (which shows a food chain from an example B (which shows a food chain from an ecosystem present on a single tree) the number ecosystem present on a single tree) the number of individuals at the producer level is relatively of individuals at the producer level is relatively small (it is in fact one - the tree). This latter small (it is in fact one - the tree). This latter pyramid is said to be inverted. pyramid is said to be inverted.

• Pyramids of Pyramids of biomass and energybiomass and energy show a show a reduction with movement up the trophic reduction with movement up the trophic levels levels

• The units for pyramids of biomass are: dry The units for pyramids of biomass are: dry weight of organic matter (per square metre) weight of organic matter (per square metre)

• This shows the amount of energy (in This shows the amount of energy (in kiloJoules [kJ]) present at each trophic levelkiloJoules [kJ]) present at each trophic level

• The full units for a pyramid of energy are: kJ The full units for a pyramid of energy are: kJ m-2 year-1 (sometimes kcal m-2 year-1 m-2 year-1 (sometimes kcal m-2 year-1 where kcal is a now obsolete measure of where kcal is a now obsolete measure of energy)energy)

LIFE ASSOCIATIONS IN LIFE ASSOCIATIONS IN BIOSPHEREBIOSPHERE

• The life in earth exists only in a zone The life in earth exists only in a zone called called biospherebiosphere . .

• In the biosphere each organism lives In the biosphere each organism lives in a particular part which is called in a particular part which is called environment. This particular part environment. This particular part includes biotic and abiotic parts and it includes biotic and abiotic parts and it is theis the habitat habitat of that organismof that organism . .

• Each individual has a niche. Each individual has a niche. The The nicheniche includes the feeding and reproductive includes the feeding and reproductive behaviour of the organismsbehaviour of the organisms. .

POPULATIONPOPULATION• The same kind of organisms(same species) The same kind of organisms(same species)

living in a certain area forms the living in a certain area forms the population. population.

• The cats in Istanbul, the rabbits of İzmir,The cats in Istanbul, the rabbits of İzmir,• RRoses of Isparta are the populations. oses of Isparta are the populations.

COMMUNITYCOMMUNITY• The different The different populationspopulations within the within the

same area form the communitysame area form the community. . • Animals of Istanbul,Animals of Istanbul,• Flowering plants of KayışdağıFlowering plants of Kayışdağı

POPULATION GROWTHPOPULATION GROWTHpage 204page 204

• Within the ecosystem organisms and Within the ecosystem organisms and populations interact with each other for populations interact with each other for feeding and reproduction.feeding and reproduction.

• Population sizes can change during Population sizes can change during interactions. The size of a population is interactions. The size of a population is determined by two main factors: determined by two main factors: birth/death rate and migration.birth/death rate and migration.

• If we show this by an equation: If we show this by an equation:

The population size= ( birth rate + The population size= ( birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)immigration) – (death rate + emigration)

• ImmigrationImmigration is the flow of individuals to is the flow of individuals to the population and the population and emigrationemigration is the is the flow of individuals from the population.flow of individuals from the population.

• Birth rate, immigration, death rate and Birth rate, immigration, death rate and emigration are affected by many factors.emigration are affected by many factors.– Catastrophic events-fire, floods, droughtCatastrophic events-fire, floods, drought– PredatorsPredators– Availability of food, water, light, heat and Availability of food, water, light, heat and

sheltershelter

If there is enough food, space and other If there is enough food, space and other needsneeds(optimum)(optimum), the population grows. This , the population grows. This ideal condition is called ideal condition is called biotic potential.biotic potential.

• SSome environmental factors controls the ome environmental factors controls the biotic potential, these factors are called biotic potential, these factors are called environmental resistance or limiting factors. environmental resistance or limiting factors. These These limiting factorslimiting factors can be external: can be external:

• Availability of foodAvailability of food• DiseasesDiseases• TemperatureTemperature• Water Water • Competition Competition • Oxygen Oxygen • Parasitism Parasitism • PredationPredation

Or Or internal:internal:• the control of reproductionthe control of reproduction• social behavioursocial behaviour

In most of the food webs, organisms have complex In most of the food webs, organisms have complex relationships. They affect each other.relationships. They affect each other.

Predator: kill prey for food.Predator: kill prey for food.

Prey : is the food of predators.Prey : is the food of predators.

Their relationship determines the population size.Their relationship determines the population size.

In these relationships organisms compete with each In these relationships organisms compete with each other. other.

In In CompetitionCompetition, organisms fight for the same , organisms fight for the same thing(food or mate)thing(food or mate)

If the competition is among the organisms of same If the competition is among the organisms of same species , it is intraspecific competition.( foxes)species , it is intraspecific competition.( foxes)

If the competition is among the organisms of If the competition is among the organisms of different species, it is interspecific competition.different species, it is interspecific competition.(foxes and hawks)(foxes and hawks)

• The maximum size of a population The maximum size of a population which is supported by the which is supported by the environment is called environment is called carrying carrying capacitycapacity of the environment of the environment . .

• Carrying capacity is determined by Carrying capacity is determined by many factors (prey, predator, food many factors (prey, predator, food supply disease or climate)supply disease or climate)

Carrying capacity

time

Number of individuals

• Rapidly growingRapidly growing

• Slowly growingSlowly growing

• No growthNo growth

• DecreasingDecreasing

COMMUNITYCOMMUNITY

• In the community some populations In the community some populations are more important than the others. are more important than the others.

• They are strong and influence the They are strong and influence the other populations, they are called other populations, they are called dominant dominant species. Pine forest, species. Pine forest, chestnut forest,chestnut forest,

SUCCESSIONSUCCESSION• If another species replaces the dominant If another species replaces the dominant

species in the community, this process is species in the community, this process is named as successionnamed as succession ..

• The ecosystem has a stable condition. But if The ecosystem has a stable condition. But if some catastrophes occursome catastrophes occur,, the environment the environment changes (biotic or abiotic factors). For changes (biotic or abiotic factors). For example if a fire example if a fire (or a volcanic (or a volcanic eruption)eruption)happens in an ecosystem, most of the happens in an ecosystem, most of the trees, shrubs and grass are destroyed with trees, shrubs and grass are destroyed with some insects and animals. The stable condition some insects and animals. The stable condition changes and ecosystem tries to regain this changes and ecosystem tries to regain this condition again. So new populations and condition again. So new populations and communities are structured and a new balance communities are structured and a new balance is establishedis established

Primary Primary and secondary and secondary succession:succession:• If the succession If the succession

develops from an area develops from an area with no community, it with no community, it is called as is called as primary primary successionsuccession e.g. on e.g. on rock. rock.

• If the succession If the succession develops from an area develops from an area that has been that has been prevented from prevented from changing e.g. by changing e.g. by agriculture, it is called agriculture, it is called as as secondary secondary succession.succession.

Primary successionPrimary succession

Harmful effects of humansHarmful effects of humans

Air Air pollutionpollution

Damage to Damage to the ozone the ozone layerlayer

CFCCFC

Global Global warmingwarming

CO2, CFC, CO2, CFC,

Acid rainAcid rain Sulphur Sulphur dioxide and dioxide and Nitrogen Nitrogen oxidesoxides

Habitat Habitat destructiodestructionn

DeforestatiDeforestationon

Destruction of Destruction of forestsforests

Loss of Loss of wetlandswetlands

Draining wet Draining wet landslands

Water Water pollutionpollution

EutrophicatEutrophicationion

Run off of Run off of Sewage and Sewage and fertilizersfertilizers

SpeciesSpeciesdestructiodestructionn

Loss of Loss of habitathabitat

Destruction of Destruction of forestsforests

Damage Damage from from pesticidespesticides

Careless use Careless use of insecticides of insecticides and and herbicidesherbicides

Damage Damage from fishingfrom fishing

overfishingoverfishing

Type of damage Example Main causes Solutions

Soil pollution, sound pollution, electromagnetic pollution(radiation)

Erosion??Erosion??

1.1. What is erosion? What is erosion? 2.2. What can be done to prevent What can be done to prevent

erosion?erosion?

• http://www.tema.org.tr/tr/cevre_kuthttp://www.tema.org.tr/tr/cevre_kutuphanesi/erozyon/turkiyede_erozyonuphanesi/erozyon/turkiyede_erozyon.htm.htm

• http://www.design4effect.com/soc11/pop.htmhttp://www.design4effect.com/soc11/pop.htm