Organic Farming History and Certification

C. Francis and J. Van Wart University of Nebraska, Lincoln

Abstract

Abstract: The roots of modern organic farming emerge from the parent material of agricultural history, as

indigenous systems were de facto organic for millennia. In the middle of the 20th Century the term “organic”

began to be used to designate production systems that depended on biodiversity and internal system structuring

to manage fertility and pests, in contrast to systems dependent on imported fertilizers and chemical pesticides

derived from fossil fuels and other outside inputs. Many organic practices were designed and tested by farmers,

while a few noted academics such as Rudolph Steiner in Germany, William Albrecht in Missouri, Albert Howard in

India, and Evelyn Balfour in U.K. began to apply science to understand system mechanisms. Today organic

farming systems are a hot topic for research in a number of landgrant universities and private research centers, in

response in part to sustained annual growth rates of 20% per year in organic acres farmed in the U.S. over the

past two decades. Standardization in official certification began with the International Federation of Organic

Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) in 1982, and there are currently a number of national, state, non-profit, and

private certification agencies and systems. This includes the U.S. National Organic Program that was officially

introduced in October 2002. These programs assure a relatively uniform set of requirements for certification that

provide accountability in the production and processing of organic foods and assurance for the consumer. One of

the greatest concerns today is the growth of industrial organic production and marketing, known as “Big O”, that

reduces production costs but moves away from the traditional organic family farm and a social system that is

concerned about distribution of benefits from this sector of the food system. Organic farming and food systems

are projected to continue to grow as more is discovered about efficient design of farming practices and systems.

Certification/Regulation

Early agricultural systems in Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome, east Asia, Central Africa, and the Andean Zone and Central America developed along parallel lines, and all were essentially organic systems. Fertile lands were used for the favored crops, and complex intercrop systems developed such as the three sisters (maize, bean, squash) in the Americas and 20-crop mixtures in the humid forest zone in West Africa. Many of the native crops and some of the indigenous systems persist today, although improved cultivars are rapidly replacing those of traditional cultures, and agricultural systems in most favored areas have turned to higher technology practices that include chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Farming was essentially all organic in the U.S. as elsewhere until the early 1900s, and a drastic change began after WWII.

Selected ReferencesBalfour, E.B. 1976. The living soil and the Haughley Experiment. Universe Books, NY, Bender, J. 1994. Future harvest: pesticide-free farming. Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.Bezdicek, D.F., and J.F. Power, eds. Organic farming: current technology and its role in a sustainable agriculture. ASA Spec. Publ. No. 46, Amer. Soc. Agron., Madison, WI.Bromfield, L. 1948. Malabar Farm. Harper Bros. Publ., New York. Caporali, F.1991. Ecologia per l'agricoltura. Teoria e pratica. Utet-libreria, Torino, Italy.Carson, R. 1962. Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin Publ., Boston, MAConford, P. 2001. The origins of the organic movement. Floris Books, Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.Duram, L. 2005. Good growing: why organic farming works. Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE.Francis, C. (ed) Organic farming: the ecological system. ASA, Madison Heckman, J. 2006. A history of organic farming—transitions from Sir Albert Howard’s War in the Soil to the USDA National Organic Program. Renewable Agric. Food Systems 21(3):143-150. Howard, A. 1946. The war in the soil. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. King, F.H. 1915. Farmers of forty centuries. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. Lockeretz, W. 2008. Organic farming: an international history. CABI, London, U.K. Lotter, D. 2003. Organic agriculture. J. Sustain. Agric. 21(4):59-128. Northbourne, W.J. 1940. Look to the land. Dent Publ., London, U.K.Rodale, J.I. 1946. Pay dirt. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. Steiner, R. 1958. Agriculture: a course of eight lectures. Biodynamic Agriculture Association, London, U.K. Walters, C., editor. 1996. The Albrecht papers, Volume I, Foundation concepts. ACRES U.S.A., Metairie, LA

Conclusions: Future Directions

Brief History of Organic Farming

Science Base, Literature and Research

Albert Howard studied native systems in the West Indies and India, and developed his theories about organic production from this experience and published An Agricultural Testament. His work was publicized by the Soil Association of the U.K.

Evelyn Balfour reported on long-term rotations at the Houghley experiments in Suffolk in her book The Living Soil.

Rudolph Steiner’s famous eight lectures to farmers and scientists form the basis of the biodynamic farming movement, one that has rules more strict than certified organic farming.

William Albrecht at University of Missouri pursued organic methods of maintaining soil fertility through crop rotations and manure/compost applications, and his work has been summarized in three volumes from ACRES International.

These people provided much of the scientific foundation for what we today call organic farming

J. Van Wart and C. Francis , University of Nebraska-Lincoln

1962: Silent Spring Published- explains dangers of chemical inputs like DDT; initiates the environmental movement and formation of the EPA

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

1942: Rodale Magazine Organic Farming and Gardening first published, Albert Howard named first editor

1990: Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) of 1990 Initiated calling for regulation of the “organic” label

2002: (OFPA) National Organic Program takes effect certifying “organic” production

1980: USDA reports on organic farming as way to eliminate chemicals because of concerns of environmental and food quality degradation. Farmers feel unsupported by government and research community

Late 1980’s: Fraudulent organic labels and food scares prompt interest in regulation of organic labeling

We describe how organic farming has stimulated an ecologically-based research agenda, a far reaching change that is now permeating our national agricultural research agenda. It is difficult to quantify the impacts that organic farmers and organic farming research have made on mainstream agriculture. We are becoming more aware of the unintended consequences of many of our current fertilizer and pesticide practices, as farmers struggle to meet EPA requirements for water quality and as farm program compliance for federal payments continues to put pressure on mainstream agriculture. These emergent properties of high-tech agriculture help us to realize the importance of a systems perspective to research, one that takes into account production and economics but also the environmental and social impacts of alternative agricultural strategies. All of these factors lead us toward research that takes into account the ecological processes on which agriculture depends, and compels us to use an improved understanding of ecosystem dynamics in planning future, sustainable production and food systems.

1967: U.C. Santa Cruz organic program started by Alan Chadwick-eventually leading to a 25-acre research farm hosting over 1000 interns in its history

1984: Michael Fields biodynamic farm started in WI to promote sustainable agriculture through hands-on training and political activism; first ASA book on organic farming

1989/1990’s: University of Maine adds B.S. program, initiates a student-run CSA and is recognized as adding important new information to the industry

2003: State of the States, 2nd Edition: Organic Systems Research at Land Grant Universities, 2001-2003 published. State by state analysis of research activity-much has changed since 1980

1990’s: Nebraska statewide organic research program begins

1972: IFOAM initiated, soon begins providing certification guidelines, standards and direction.

• Initially certification in US was a farmer to farmer or farmer to consumer verification without official guidelines. • Disagreements among independent certifiers stimulated a calling for uniform certification• Though initiated in 1990, proposed certification rules weren’t released until 1997• First rules allowed irradiation, GMOs, and sewage sludge• Organic industry responded immediately becoming first and only industry to request stricter standards from the government (over 280,000 wrote in contest of the first rule)• Official revised rules, called the national organic program (NOP), were instituted in October, 2002.

U.S.

2009: ASA publishes Organic Farming:

the Ecological Systems

Certification/Regulation

• There are many organic regulations and certification standards around the world instituted at various times in the 20th century.• The most well known and oft referred to standards were formed by IFOAM in the 1970’s. They are guided today by four principles: 1. Health: sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible. 2. Ecology: based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them. 3. Fairness: build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities 4. Care: managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.•Some examples of International Certifications Logos are displayed right

Internationally