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ISSN 0953 1599 THE JOURNAL OF THE ASTRO SPACE

STAMP SOCIETY Issue No 80 January 2009

Patron:

Cosmonaut Georgi Grechko, Hero of the Soviet Union

COMMITTEE

Chair : Margaret Morris, 55 Canniesburn Drive, Bearsden, Glasgow

G61 1RX (E-mail: MMorris671@aol.com)

Hon. Secretary: Brian J.Lockyer, 21, Exford Close,Weston-Super-Mare,

Somerset BS23 4RE

(E-mail : brian.lockyer@tesco.net)

Compiler of Checklist / Hon Treasurer / Postal Packet Organiser

Harvey Duncan,16, Begg Avenue, Falkirk, Scotland FK1 5DL

(E-mail: duncan1975@btinternet.com)

Orbit : Editor Jeff Dugdale, Glebe Cottage, Speymouth, Mosstodloch, Moray.

Scotland IV32 7LE (E-mail: jefforbited@aol.com)

Webmaster Derek Clarke, 36 Cherryfield Road, Walkington, Dublin 12 (E-mail: dclarke@utvinternet.com)

Postal Auction Organiser: David Saunders, 42 Burnet Road, Bradwell,

Great Yarmouth. NR31 8SL.

Overseas Representatives:

Australia: Charles Bromser, 37 Bridport Street, Melbourne 3205. Germany:Jurgen P. Esders, An der Apostelkirche 10, 10783 Berlin

Eire:Derek Clarke, 36 Cherryfield Rd, Walkinstown. Dublin 12. France: Jean-Louis Lafon, 23 Rue de Mercantour, 78310 Maurepas

Netherlands: Bart Beimers, NJ Haismasrt 7, 9061 BV Gierkerk Russia: Mikhail Vorobyov, 31-12 Krupskaya Str, Kostroma

United States: Dr Ben Ramkissoon, 3011 White Oak Lane, Oak Brook, Il 60521 USA

Life Members: UK - Harvey Duncan, George Spiteri, Ian Ridpath, Margaret Morris, Michael Packham, Dr W.R. Withey, Paul Uppington,

Jillian Wood. Derek Clarke (Eire,) Charles Bromser (Australia.) Tom Baughn (U.S.A.,) Ross Smith (Australia,)

Vincent Leung Wing Sing (Hong Kong.) Mohammed K.Safdar (Saudi Arabia)

2009—Anniversaries Galore

Happy New Year to You from Scotland in a year that promises to be the most prolific yet for anniversaries

of important space events. This will certainly be

reflected in commemorative issues which will ask you to dig deep at a time when finances may well be

stretched because of the “credit crunch” so you may have to be selective in what you purchase.

We reflect the first of these anniversaries with our cover story which relates to Man’s first shot at the

Moon, albeit an unsuccessful one, but it was followed later in 1959 by successful Moon landings by

unmanned Soviet craft.

Remarkably within ten years a man was standing on

the Moon himself with the July 1969 landing of Apollo XI, preceded by the dress rehearsals of Apollo IX and

Apollo X in March and May respectively and followed by the anti-climactic second Moon landing of Apollo

XII in November.

400 years ago Copernicus had made the first of his

major discoveries and a series of articles in Orbit in the coming issues will give due recognition to these

with a series by different contributors.

I trust you will enjoy our coverage of all these major

space events. Meantime best wishes.

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FROM ATOM TO NUCLEAR POWERED SPACECRAFT PART 3: ROCKETS and MISSILES : Part 3 by John Beenen

The Soviet Missiles continued R-36/ 8K67/ SS-9 Scarp, R-36M/ SS-18 Satan

(335. SS-18 Satan) The R36 consists of a whole family of solid

fuel ICBMs and satellite launching rockets during the Cold War. A more modern

version also is called, SS-18 Satan (Soviet

codes 15A14 and 15A18).

The missile is able to transport four warheads and as such marks the first

Soviet MIRV. With a load of 8,8 MT is also

the heaviest. It could be launched directly from storage silos with a depth of about

40 m. The development was concentrated at the OKB-586 (Yushnoye) at Dnjepropetrovsk and started in

1962.

Finally, in 1969, it became the R36M designed to

destroy the American Minuteman silos, but this goal has always been denied by the Russians. An important

designer of silos for such heavy rockets was Vladimir Stepanov. The missile also could carry biological

weapons based on Anthrax 836. From 1975 the

weapon became operational and was called SS-18 Satan by NATO.

According the START-1 Treaty the Soviet number was

decreased from 204 to 154 and their silos in

Kazakhstan were deactivated. In agreement with the START-2 Treaty all these missiles were to be destroyed

but this treaty never was ratified. Hence, in the middle of 2005 still 85 were operational.

It’s a difficulty that their factory today is located in the

middle of the Ukraine. It is expected that the missile

stock between 2007 and 2009 will be decreased further and that only some 40 of the most modern modification

are to undergo a life extension programme and may then serve until 2014-2016. The missile is also used to

launch small, mostly foreign satellites into orbit.

(336. Dnepr, Ukraïne

2005) Based on the SS-18 the factory in the Ukraine

( Y u z n o y e ) s t i l l i s

manufacturing a rocket named Dnepro.

GR-1 (8K713) en 2

Next to the R-series a number of other important missiles, with other codes, were developed such as the

GR-1 (Global Rocket), the first missile produced by

Korolev which was able to carry a 1500 kg nuclear

warhead to an altitude of 150 km. This warhead could hit anywhere in the United States and became difficult

to intercept. The disadvantage in comparison to a classic ICBM was its low accuracy in the target area.

Finally the project was cancelled in favour of Yangel’s R36-O, probably because Korolev insisted on liquid

propellants. Chelomei was also in the race but also his project, UR-200 was cancelled.

That we like to describe this rocket still is caused by the

fact that the cancelling of this project determined the

fate of the development of Korolev’s moon rocket N-1, for which he needed the GR-1. This, at least, is one of

the reasons why the Soviets finally lost the moon race.

Korolev’s competitors called the GR-1 rocket mockingly

the ‘Moskow-Leningrad ICBM’ because this was the only section the rocket ever covered.

UR-200/ 8K81, 8K83/ SS-10

(337 UR-200, Touva) The UR-200 was a more powerful

execution of Chelomei’s UR-100 and

was capable of carrying a nuclear warhead over a distance of 12.000

km, but was also able to launch s a t e l l i t e s . T h e t e c h n i c a l

characteristics would be more or

less the same as Korolev’s R-9A and Yangel’s R-16.

On October 13th 1964 Khrushchev disappeared from

the stage and his successor, Leonid Breshnev

disapproved all his projects.

A commission of experts lead by M.V.Keldysh reviewed all Chelomei’s projects and found the R-36 of Yangel

sufficient: hence the end of Chelomei’s UR-200.

That was more than a problem as the UR-200, like

Korolev’s GR-1, actually was part of a larger project, the UR-500 moon rocket, constructed from five

clustered UR-200’s. But the UR-200 was not completely cancelled and survived as the upper stages

of the UR-500.

In the West the development of a UR-200 was

completely unknown ; until after the parade of May 9th 1965 their secret services thought that the GR1 of

Korolev, the UR-200 of Chelomei and the R36O of Yangel were one design, the SS-10 Scrag.

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UR-100/ 8K84/ SS-11

Sego (338 UR-100, Touva)

UR (Universal Rocket) is the name for the rockets

developed by the Chelomei

bureau, OKB-52. He was constantly Korolev’s great

rival. Originally his bureau was founded to develop complex cruise missiles for the Navy but through his

good connections with the son of Khrushchev, Chelomei obtained entrance to the highest levels of influence to

convince them that his ideas were the best: faster,

cheaper, better! And doing this he came to be in charge of a series of other design bureaux.

He started with the design of the UR-100 as an

alternative for the American Minuteman. The

requirements were high: it should be launched from a silo and had to be operational for five years in fully

tanked position (later even prolonged for 17 years). That was not simple with a fuel 20,000 times more aggressive

than earlier fuels.

In the end the UR-100 became the most often built

rocket in history without any knowledge of the Western secret services. With respect to this Chelomei can be

considered as the father of the Soviet strategic weapons just as Korolev is that of Soviet space travel.

The development of the UR-100 started in 1963 and the construction of the silos in 1964, even before the rocket

was operational. That was not easy as the whole project had to be carried out with enormous secrecy. 1130 silos

had to be constructed for the UR-100 and 308 for the R-

36. At the height of its popularity it required 650.000 workers and cost one milliard roubles. The system

stayed in place from 1966 until 1988.

The UR-100 was the first fast Soviet missile system and required only three minutes of preparation. Some

modifications were made afterwards but none related to

space travel.

R T - 2 / 8 K 9 8 / S S - 1 3 S a v a g e RT-2PM/ 15Zh58/ SS-25 Sickle

RT-2PM2/ SS-27, SS-29 Topol-M

(339 SS-27) As some of its ancestors the RT-2

and its modifications are a whole family of ICBMs in place since

1969. It was the first Soviet three-stage ICBM and worked on solid

propellants.

Principally it was developed by

Korolev and after his death continued by Mishkin with Bureau

TsKB-7 (Arsenal) in Leningrad as contractor for the

production.

The project occupied Korolev’s team to such an extent

that they couldn’t work on their moon rocket N-1 so providing another cause for the failure of this project.

Although this development should have been the

answer to the American Minuteman only 60 RT-2 were

built instead of the Minuteman of which over 1000 were in use. Because of high corrosion the life time

of the rocket was limited. The propellant was developed by Yakov F.Savchenko in Altaisk. After

1980 the missile was succeeded by the RT-12M and the R-23.

Temp-2S/ 15Zh42/ SS-16 Sinner (340. SS-16)

The Temp-2S originates from 1977 and was the first operational mobile

ICBM. Its deployment started in the

deepest secrecy as under the terms of the SALT-2 Treaty this was not

allowed.

The rocket was solid fuel propelled and a simultaneous development of

Nadiradze’s NII-1 MOP and Yuzhnoye

in the Ukraine.

In total seven regiments each with six mobile installations were formed, from which 36-40 were

available at any time. The Americans, however, were

not fooled and claimed already one year before SALT_2 that 50 to 100 Temp-2S launchers were

operational at Plesetsk. This was ignored by the Carter government, but became a major example of

the deceptions of the ’Evil Empire’ during the Reagan

presidency.

From 1985 these missiles were part of the negotiations in the SALT-2 treaty and went in

retirement from 1986.

RT-21M Pioneer/ SS-20

Saber (341. SS-20)

The RT-21M, the ‘Pioneer’ in the West especially is known

as the notorious SS-20.

In the beginning its range

covered 600-5000 km finally increased to 7500 km.

Originally it had one nuclear warhead of 1 MT (1600 kg)

but subsequent models could

carry more warheads at one time (MIRV).

The missile replaced the R-12 (SS-4 Sandal) and the R-14 (SS-5 Skean), the missiles well-known from the

Cuba Crisis. 654 missiles were built (and destroyed in

1991). In Europe the Pershing II and the Tomahawk

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cruise missiles made the defence.

RT-23/ 15Zh60/ SS-24 Scalpel

(342. SS-24) The R-23 was the one and only ICBM ever to be

launched from a train. The Soviets were very proud of

that result as the Americans never succeeded in doing that. But its development by Yuznoye in the Ukraine

lasted not less than 12 years. A regiment finally was made of 17 railway carriages, from which three were

launch carriages, a command carriage, a generator and an autonomous working life support system, living

quarters and a navigation support wagon. The train

was designed to operate for up to two months without re-supply at distances of up to 1500 km from its logistic

home base. In times of tension the train was parked in railway tunnels for both blast protection and to hide

them from enemy reconnaissance satellites.

In 1988 six or seven regiments—a total of about 20

launchers had been deployed to Kostroma. They travelled around constantly or were parked at least 20

km from each other. The advantage over trucks was

the fact that much higher loads could be transported. Train versions also were considered for R012, RT-2 and

RT-21 but no one came further than the design desk.

It was a three-stage rocket launched as a ‘cold launch’ which means that the rocket first was fired to an

altitude over ten, twenty metres before the rocket

engines were started. Under the definitions of START-2 these rockets were to be destroyed by 2003.

UR-500/ 8K82/ PROTON

(343 UR-200 en 500, Touva)

Together with the UR-200 the original UR-500 was under

development since 1961 and meant for a five-fold higher load.

The first and second stage were to

consist of four clustered two-stage

UR-200’s, the third stage to be a modified second stage UR-200. Also Yangel chose such

an option with his R-56 based upon clustered R-46’s.

With 10.000 kg the required load (12.000 kg), probably

a nuclear warhead of 30 MT, however, could not be

obtained. In 1965 successful test flights were carried

out but the rocket never became operational. Still, it became the base for the present Proton rocket in use

for bringing many satellites into space.

(344. Proton, Russia 2004)

Finally, a three or four stage Proton can carry a load of 21 tons.

As a propellant the rocket uses a

combination of UDMH/nitrogen tetroxide. The first launch of a four

-stage Proton was on March 10th

1967 meant for a manned Moon programme. The rocket launched

from its base at Baikonur in Kazakhstan. As Kazakhstan is now an independent

country at Plessezk (Plesetsk) in Russia a new launch

platform wasconstructed for a new rocket, the Angara A-5.

To complete the development time of the Angara the

Proton M was built, a huge commercial success by which many commercial satellites are launched and

which is a huge competitor to the European Ariane 5

and the American launchers.

N-1/ 11A52 (345. Rocket N-1)

A l t hough t h i s

rocket, like the American Saturn,

does not belong in a discussion of

nuclear missiles, I

should not like to leave it out for

r e a s o n s o f completeness.

The N-1 was the Soviet rocket by which they hoped to

reach the Moon before the Americans. Its length was

105 m, the tallest Soviet launch vehicle. It consisted of five stages, three for immediate boost into orbit and

two for the lunar portion. Fully loaded its weight was 2788 metric tons. In comparison to Saturn the N1 is

somewhat larger overall, only slightly shorter, but much

wider at the base.

All four tests, however, failed at even the first stage, generally because of the complexity of the plumbing to

feed fuel and oxidizer into the clustered arrangement. There also was a factor in that the Baikonur launch

complex could not be reached by heavy barge so for

transport by rail all the stages had to be broken and re-assembled. Because of this, the complex and

destructive vibrational modes (which ripped apart propellant lines and turbines) as well as the exhaust

plume fluid dynamic problems (causing vehicle roll,

vacuum cavitation and other problems) were not

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discovered and worked out before the flight.

As a result of these technical difficulties, and then in turn

due to lack of funding for full-up testing, the N1 never successfully completed a test flight.

The development of such a rocket began in 1959 at the bureau of Korolev, OKB-1. The original design foresaw

the transport of a 50 ton load for manned space stations and manned flights to Mars. In June 1961 Korolev

received a conservative consent for the development of the N1. After President Kennedy had announced that the

Americans would have an American on the Moon before

the end of the sixties, the N1 project was speeded up considerably.

But then Korolev needed heavy engines made by

Glushko and this marked the difference in opinion

between them. As said earlier, Korolev preferred liquid propellants (LOx, kerosine) and Glusko solid fuels such

as the far more toxic UDMH/nitrogen tetroxide,

The gentlemen could not agree and Korolev asked Nikolai Kuznetsov of OKB-276, who, however, had

little experience in developing rocket engines. In the

meantime Chelomei worked on his version of the moon rocket, the UR-500 and was supported by Glushko.

After the overthrow of Khrushchev the complete moon programme was reconsidered, but both the projects of

Korolev and Chelomei were continued until the moment

that the Soviets realized that the moon race could not be won anymore.

Finally the residues of the N-1’s found their way as sheds

and shelters at Baikonur. About 50 spare engines were

sold to Aerojet General for 1,1 million dollars each. Later they re-appeared in the Japanese J-1 en J-2 rockets

Missiles of Other States

(346. Rocket Egypt, Egypt 1962, WB-1)

Next to the Americans and Russians

other military powers possess missiles for the short, medium and long-range

against ground targets, ships and airplanes, incoming missiles, troops

and special targets such as underground bunkers and targets

under water.

In total a hundred of other types of missiles have been

developed varying from the most simple Palestine Qassam rocket, a steel tube filled with explosives, to the

most complicated multi-stage missiles with a nuclear

warhead. The UK and Germany possess the most. Also India, Pakistan, France, Israel and Iran have several

missile systems. Known types are: the French Exocet, and the German missiles developed in cooperation with

the US, Stinger and Patriot.

(347. Exocet) The

Exocet is a missile against ships and

has proved to be

successful for the Argentines against

the UK in the Fa l k l a nds War

(1982). It damaged or even sunk several British ships them.

The FIM-92 Stinger, is a rocket which can be fired from the shoulder by two persons and is a SAM-rocket

aimed against air targets.

(348. Patriot) The MIM-104

Patriot (Phased Array Tracking to Intercept of Target) is a

brother of the Arrow developed in cooperation between the US

and Israel, and is a anti-rocket-rocket (ABM). Its first version

proved not to be extremely

reliable against incoming Scud rockets in the first Gulf War.

Without discussing all types some special versions will

be discussed below, especially those from the

countries, Peoples Republic of China, North-Korea and Iran.

People’s Republic of China

(349. Long March 3, China

1986, WB 34)

The ballistic missiles of the Peoples Republic of China are

known as Dong-Feng, i.e. East wind. Next to it the Chinese

possess cruise missiles against

ships, in the West known as ‘Silkworm’. The rockets used in

space travel are adjusted Dong-Feng rockets and bear the name

‘Long March’.

MAO-8 is not a rocket but a space travel programme

also called Don Fang Hong 08 (‘The East is Red’). The rocket for this project was the Long March 2C and

started on Januray 26th 1978.

The first real Dong-Feng missile was the IRBM 3/3A

also called CSS-2 (Chinese surface-to-surface). It was directed especially against American targets in the

Philippines region, but after the Chinese-Russian border war in 1969 also against Soviet cities.

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It was preceded by the Dong-Feng 2, in essence a

copy of the Soviet R-2 (SS-2 Sibling).

The first real Chinese ICBM is the Dong-Feng 5/5A (CSS-4). The civil version is the earlier Long March 2C. The

missile is comparable to the Soviet R-36M (SS-18). It

can cover a distance of 7.000-15.000 km and as such is able to reach targets in Europe, Russia and North

America.

China has also developed other missiles such as tactical SRBM’s M-9, M-11 and M-18 mainly meant for export

and amongst others has been sold to Libya, Syria,

Pakistan, Iran and Egypt. The missile can be considered as a more modern version of the Scud.

North Korea

This part is a shortened and freely translated version of

an article by David C. Wright: ‘North Korea’s Missile p r o g r a m : F r o m a P h y s i c i s t ’ s Notebook’ (www.epsusa.org/publications/newsletter/nov2000/wright.htm)

North Korea during the early 1980s was able to obtain

a 300-kilometre range Soviet Scud missile, which it

copied and began to build domestically. It sold a large number of these missiles to Iran, which used them in

its war with Iraq. In the late 1980s, North Korea developed and built a longer-range version of the Scud

that could reach 500 kilometres.

In parallel with that programme, North Korea began to

develop a larger missile – the Nodong – that is believed to have a range of 1.000 to 1.300 km, and which could

transport a nuclear warhead (North Korea is believed to

have enough plutonium for perhaps two nuclear weapons but it is not known whether it has developed

a working weapon).

North Korea flight-tested the Nodong missile only once (1993), but the Pakistani Ghauri missile, which has

been flight-tested at least twice, is widely believed to

be a Nodong missile or closely related to it. Intelligence reports say North Korea has begun

building and deploying Nodong missiles on mobile launchers.

The Nodong range is significant since it would allow North Korea to

target all of Japan, and if sold abroad would allow Iran and Libya

to target Israel. Press reports have claimed that Nodong development

was partly funded by Iran. The

Nodong in Iran is called Shahab-3.

(350. Korea DPR 1998) - opposite In August 1998, North Korea

launched its first multiple stage

missile, the Taepo Dong 1. The

missile appears to have consisted of a Nodong missile

as the first stage and a missile similar to a Scud as the second stage (in Iran Shahab-4). In addition, the

missile carried a small solid-fuel third stage – a discovery that surprised the US intelligence community.

The launch is believed to have been an unsuccessful attempt to launch a small satellite, and was highly

controversial since the missile flew over Japan. The launch was important for several reasons. First if used

as a ballistic missile, this missile could deliver a small payload over a long distance. It might be able to carry

a 300-kilogramme payload 6.000-6.500 km. Such a

missile could reach parts of Alaska with a small biological warhead, and therefore is seen by some as

proof of a long-range missile threat to US territory. Second, the launch demonstrated North Korea’s ability

to do multi-staging, crucial for developing long-range

missiles.

On the other hand, the capabilities of such a missile must be kept in perspective. It would be highly

inaccurate, with an expected inaccuracy possibly of tens of kilometres. Moreover with a payload of 800-

1000 kg, which might be required for a nuclear

warhead, the range would be less than 3000 km.

North Korea is also believed to be developing an even longer-range missile, the Taepo Dong- 2 (Iran Shahab-

5) and a next one with mainly a more powerful first

stage. In that case the second stage could be a Nodong missile and with a third stage the Western part of

America could be in reach, especially once North Korea was able to make the body out of lightweight material

such as aluminium alloys rather than steel.

A key question is how soon a Taepo Dong missile might

be tested as the flight testing program is limited, as it is assumed. The design of the first two stages of the TD-

2 appears to be roughly similar to the Chinese Dong-Feng 4 missile which was given a third stage to build

the Dong-Feng 5 ICBM. In the meantime North Korea

made its seventh test flight in October 9th 2006 leading again to great excitation in Japan. Possibly

the launching of the Taepo Dong 2 or 3?

Iran

(351. Missile tests Iran 2006) The Iranian missile programme can be

divided into three parts: Before the revolution (1977-1979), at the war with

Iraq (1980-1988) and

after it (from

1989).

In cooperation with Israel (!)

J u l y 1977

marks the start

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of the Iranian missile programme based upon the

Israeli anti-ship missile, Gabriel.

As part of this cooperation the next year an assembly factory was build in Sirjan and a test facility in

Rafsanjan but the Iranian revolution of 1979 ended it.

Forced by the war with Iraq a new missile programme was started leading to surface to air missiles (SAM)

such as the Misagh-2 and the Sayyad-1. With the help of mainly the People’s Republic of China for the artillery

different other missile systems were developed such as: Fajr-3, Naze’at, ZelZal, Oghab, Shahin-II. Samid and de

solid fuel missiles: Tondar-69 (= China’s CSS-8), Fateh-

110.

(352. Iran, Missile Shahab-3)

After the war the

deve lopment was pointed to further

development of the Scud-B missiles and the

local variation Shahab-1 was manufactured.

In cooperation with North Korea and based upon their Nodong missile the Shahab-3 was produced, also called

Zelzal (Earthquake). Although the missile is relatively unreliable it may be able to reach Israel.

The Shahab-4 was to be developed together with The Soviets based upon their R-12 (SS-4 Sandal). Its range

is 1800-2000 km and it can carry a payload of 1500 kg, enough for a nuclear warhead. Iran denies such a

development and declares that their developments are

only aimed to launch a small satellite in future (the IRSL-X-2 variation). It is obvious that their tests are

already going on since the year 2002.

The Shahab-5 is an analogue of the Soviet R-14 (SS-5 Skean) and should also be identical to the North Korean

Taep’o Dong-2. Based upon the available information

the Shahab-6 is a further development. Although Iran declares that their missile potential is only meant for

defensive and deterrent purposes in the Western world large concern exists about only the possibilities Iran

has possessing such arms.

Israël

Concerning the situation in the Middle East it is interesting to know what is within the nuclear arsenal

of Israel. Since the Suez crisis in 1956 Israel was supported by the French to build up a nuclear

knowledge by supply of a heavy water factory in

Dimona which started in 1964. Also the UK helped Israel during the fifties and the sixties with apparatus

and nuclear basic material such as plutonium and lithium-6 (for a hydrogen bomb).

The transaction ran through Norway and naturally was

denied by the authorities. Only in March 2006 was this admitted officially.

It is probable that Israel carried out an underground

nuclear bomb test in the Negev desert already in 1963.

In September 1979 the American Vela satellite observed a phenomenon in the ocean near South

Africa. It is thought that this has been an Israeli-South African nuclear bomb test.

(353. Mordechai Vanunu)

In 1969 the US Ministry of

defence announced that Israe l poss ib ly had

developed a nuclear weapon but it was only

1983 before this was

confirmed by a former co-operator of the Negev

Nuclear Research Center, Mordechai Vanunu. For disclosing of such secrets of

state Mr.Vanunu was convicted and sentenced to 18 years in prison. According to him Israel possesses

about 100 to 200 nuclear weapons

which can be delivered over a medium-range distance with the

Jericho missile.

The Jericho 1 is a two-stage missile

originally based on a French design. It was tested in 1968 and be

provided with a nuclear load. It can transport a payload of 500 kg over

500 km. The missile is designed to be

operational within two hours, and four to eight missiles can be fired per

hour.

(354. Jericho 2) Thee Jericho II can carry a payload of 1000 kg. over

1500 km. Its first test took place in 1989. The missile

shows a resemblance with the American Pershing II. Both Jerichos can be launched from a mobile base.

Together with a third stage the Jericho II becomes the Shafit (comet) rocket, by which Israeli satellites, Ofek

(Offeq, “Horizon”), are launched. The rocket can be

easily translated into an ICBM missile for a range of 7000 km.

Moreover, Israel possesses three submarines of the

Dolphin-class with American Harpoon missiles with a nuclear warhead or the larger Israeli SLCM Popeye

Turbo missiles. In 2000 and in the neighbourhood of

Sri Lanka these were tested. In the meantime different modifications are known.

Next to it Israel has an effective anti-missile shield in

the form of the Arrow-missiles developed together with

the Americans.

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It may be obvious that together with India and Pakistan

Israel has not signed the NTP Treaty against the proliferation of nuclear arms.

India

The nuclear position of India is relatively unknown. In

1974 India tested a small nuclear bomb (4-6 kT) in Pokhran in the Rajastan desert, the project ‘Smiling

Buddha’. After a long period of silence on May 11th an 13th 1998 India suddenly tested two atomic bombs,

three little bombs (low-yield device) and a hydrogen bomb (operation ‘Shakti’). It is estimated that India

today has 75-110 nuclear warheads, partly operational,

but this number will increase the coming years.

(355. July 18th 1981 Launch SLV-3 and

satellite Rohini, India 1981, WB-9).

Since 1981 with the launch of the SLV-3 (Space Launch Vehicle) India has its own

missile programme from which the SBRM, Prithvi I (Sanskrit for “Earth”) is the most

interesting. This surface-to-surface missile is based on liquid propellants and is special as

during the flight it can be chosen between six

pre-programmed targets. The range, however, is just 150-200 km for a payload of

1000 kg. Its first test happened on February 25th 1988.

On January 27th 1996 India launched the Prithvi II with a somewhat wider range of 250 km but a lower payload

of 500 kg. This missile also seems suitable for a nuclear load. The Danush is a modification from it in use at the

Indian Navy. It was tested in April 2000 from a ship but

the experiment failed partly. A two-stage Prithvi III was tested on September 21st 2001 and is able to cover a

larger distance and to carry a higher payload. A problem of the Prithvis in the beginning was their low

accuracy. Therefore a GPS system has been added, by which the accuracy raised considerably.

For the longer distance (2500 km) the Agni missile has been developed, a two-stage missile, of which three

test launchings were carried out, before the Americans persuaded the Indians to stop. The IRBM Agni II,

tested in April 1999, can cover 4000-5000 km. Also this

missile should be suitable for a nuclear load. Possibly the missile is fully based upon solid propellants; a

mobile version also should exist.

In September 1997 the PSLV (Polar Space Launch Vehicle) launched an Indian photo satellite in an orbit

at an altitude of 800 km. And finally since 1994 the

Surya (Sun) programme exists for the development of an ICBM suitable for distances over 5000 km. The

Indian Navy is equipped with submarines with suitable missiles. Moreover, India has foreign cruise missiles at

its disposal such as: SS-N-7 Starbright, Exocet, Styx,

Sea Eagle and the supersonic Sunburn. Their own

SLBM suitable for a nuclear warhead is called, Sagarika (Ocean) and has allegedly been built with Russian co-

operation, a fact which is denied by both parties. India also works on the possession of five submarines

equipped with nuclear warheads.

Pakistan

As there are large politicial and religious differences between India and Pakistan Pakistan felt seriously

threatened by the nuclear developments in India and therefore had to develop their own ambitious nuclear

power.

Although their interest was raised already in the

Seventies it lasted until May 28th 1998 before Pakistan

was able to detonate five nuclear bombs with a total power of 9 kT in their test area of Cahagai Hills in

Balochistan.

With the help of the Chinese People’s Republic in the

meantime the Pakistani produced their own plutonium in two factories. Estimations show that the amount

produced should be sufficient for about 40 nuclear warheads. As said before the basic technology was

partly stolen from the Dutch nuclear company Urenco.

(356. Abdul Khan)

The father of the Pakistani nuclear programme, Abdul

Qadeer Khan (b.1935) worked in The Netherlands at

Urenco and took the collected

knowledge with him to Pakistan. After that he started

an enrichment factory for uranium which became

operational in 1986. For the theft of the information he was convicted in 1983 in his

absence but never was punished. In 2005 he was

acquitted by the Pakistan President.

Pakistan also has a large programme for the development of ballistic missiles, called Hatf.

10

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In February 2000 the first surface-to-surface missile

was tested, the Hatf-1A, which should have flown for 100 km. After that, different missions with different

names were flown also. Some developments are still in the design stage. The Saheen-2 mission could have

been a MIRV.

During the development Pakistan was heavily

supported by the People’s Republic of China and North Korea. The Shaheen-1 is based upon the Chinese M-11

and the Ghauri-1 the North Korean Nodong missile.

The Babur missile is the first cruise missile tested by

Pakistan and called after a Mogul from the 14th century. The missile shows a great deal of resemblance to the

American Tomahawk probably as six Tomahawks fired by the Americans against the Taliban in Afghanistan

landed in Pakistan and were copied. On August 11th

2005 the missile was tested successfully for the first time. A Babur-2 with a wider range is under

development. The launching caused a large uproar in India as their Intelligence was accused to have missed

this development.

France

(357. Diamant B, France 1970, WB 45)

Directly after WW II France occupied itself a great deal with

the development of missiles. It

started with the Eole (1951). The s ub s e q ue n t r o c k e t w a s

immediately used for the launch of cats into space (March 7th

1959). Also the Vesta was used

for such purposes. Next were the Saphir (1965), the Diamant and

the Ariane series. For military purposes France’s arsenal is relatively limited.

At the moment the cruise missile ASMP (air-sol

moyenne portée, air-surface medium range), a MRBM

is in use with the French Air Force. This nuclear rocket can carry a nuclear warhead of 150 to 300 kT over a

distance of 300 km and is mainly mean as a warning before the outburst of a war.

The French missile against ships is the notorious Exocet, very well known by the British from their

Falklands War experience.

Ground troops use a very good and very light (9kg) anti-tank missile (ATGM) of the type APILAS (Armor-

piercing infantry light arm system). Another missile

also is suitable against bunkers, the Eryx and also is in use with the Norwegian and Canadian Armies. The

Hadès missile system, a SRBM was developed as the last non-nuclear warning against an eventual Soviet

attack of Western Europe. It was deployed in July 1984

and showed a range of 250, later 480 km.

The missile was shot directly from a truck and not

meant for use against cities or silos. After the rearrangement of the French military power and

limitation of the Marine the last missile was dismantled at June 23rd 1997.

(358. Rédoutable, France 1969, M1686)

I n t h e F r e n c h submar ine ( t ype

Rédoutable) an MSBS is used developed in

1985 for a range of

6000 km and at choice a nuclear warhead of

100 or 150 kT. And finally there is the Anglo-French-Italian ‘Storm Shadow’ or in France the ‘Scalp

EG’ (General purpose) a long-distance air-to-surface

missile, MBDA. The first successful mission was flown from a Mirage 2000N on May 25th 2000 from a base in

England. A variation to be use at sea, ‘Scalp Naval’ is under development..

Britain: Blue Streak

(359. Blue Steak,

Panama 1966, WB 108) In the second half of

the Fifties in Britain a ballistic missile had

been developed, the

‘Blue Steak’ together with its re-entry part

the ‘Black Knight’, but the tests were not very

successful. In 1954 based on the Wilson-Sandys

Agreement between the USA and the UK it was decided that Britain should develop a MRBM with a range of

3700 km.

The project was finally cancelled not only because of the costs but also a it did not work as a deterrent. The

missile was built to use very cold liquid propellant and it

took 15 minutes to fill it up which was too long to be used in a direct response.

Moreover, no suitable location could be found far

enough away from inhabited places for the necessary

underground silos. Such a stable solid rock only could be found in Southern England but at that location too

many people lived and thus, it was not politically acceptable. After that the British looked at the

American Skybolt project before they decided to buy 58 American Polaris missiles.

As Britain ratified the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty in 1968 they have not run an independent programme

since the failure of the Blue Streak missile. Today Britain possesses four Vanguard class submarines

armed with nuclear-tipped Trident missiles. Each

submarine carries 16 Trident II D-5 missiles which can

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carry up to twelve warheads, but the government

decided in 1998 to limit this amount to 48 warheads. The warheads are selectable from 0,3 kT, 5-10 kT or

100 kT.

Argentina

(360. Rocket Castor, Argentina 1992, WB 27)

Although it is all war material costing far too

much money which could have been spent for

better purposes, the

development of missile has delivered some interesting stories. That does not

count for the large missiles only, for especially the development and use of the small arms sometimes

presents interesting views.

The Condor is such a small one. Its development started

in 1970 by a German company MBB, today Daimler Chrysler. Originally the missile was developed to gain

experience with rock technology, but after the Malvinas-Falkland War Argentina found it necessary to possess an

own missile. What was the case? When the British

noticed that the Argentines were very successful with their French Exocet missiles they tried to persuade the

French to offer them their deactivation codes. Thereafter the Exocets became useless for the

Argentines and the Argentines’ own development was

begun producing the Condor II. This missile could carry a conventional load of 450 kg over a distance of 900

km. The programme was carried out in close co-operation with Egypt and Iraq, but was ended by

President Menem in 1990 after pressure of the United

States.

The Condor II also became a useful missile for Libya and possibly some other states in the Middle East. A

Condor III programme did not get off the ground with the fall of Saddam Hussein in Iraq. n the course of the

year Argentina had tested a series of other missiles such

as: Centaure, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Orion and Castor.

Other Nuclear Weapons (Bunker Busters)

Next to all sorts of missiles there exist nuclear bombs,

however, which are not to be considered as atomic bombs. Such bombs are called ‘bunker busters’, bombs

which by their shape and design can penetrate deep into the earth or water and can penetrate through thick

layers of concrete.

This kind of bomb had already been developed during

the WW II by the British designer Barnes Wallis. The first was ‘Tallboy’ weighing 5 tons and ‘Earthquake’,

weighing ten tons, each made of hardened steel, aerodynamically formed and with a certain spin by

which they could, falling from high altitude, even

surpass the sound barrier.

The ‘Grand Slam’ was their successor. The Grand Slam bombs did not work on weight only but actually were

dropped just near the target to undermine it in the

hope it would collapse. One of the first ordinary bunker buster bombs, a ‘Disney Bomb’ fell on February

10th 1945 on a German submarine port at IJmuiden in The Netherlands.

Also in the first Gulf War, the fight against terrorists in

Tora Bora and in Afghanistan bunker busters were

used which could handle six meters of concrete. ll these bombs were more or less conventional bombs.

Bunker Busters with a nuclear load known as RNEP (Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator) are able to

penetrate much deeper. Theoretically their fall out

should be limited due to the depth but still a considerable amount of radio-active material is emitted

which causes much soil pollution. It is striking that when such a bomb penetrates thick layers of soil, its

effect is much more limited as the soil more or less absorbs the shock.

It is therefore that such bombs are not very popular in ordinary warfare. Bunkers can be constructed deeper

into the earth, and fall out remains a problem especially in the neighbourhood of cities. Also

conventional bunker busters are already very effective.

The development and use of such nuclear bombs further is limited by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (open for ratification since 24-09-96), and not signed by the United States, India, Pakistan and North-

Korea and some other states. Many fear that this could

lead to a next arms race.

Conclusion

(361. Dollar as

stamp) According to one of

my internet sources, between 1945 and

1990 the United

States built over 70.000 missiles/rockets, divided into about 65 classes.

Even, at this moment, after the agreement on many

treaties, the US certainly possesses about 2000 nuclear

warheads within the terms of the treaties and 500 outside it. The maximum, however, was about 30.000

in the year 1966. When we consider that also Russia has such an arsenal and that there are several

countries with at least a reasonable stock, we must not entertain the possibility they should be used once.

Moreover, it is an exceptionally unpleasant thought when we think of all the money which has been spent

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and what could have been done with it for the sake of

the world.

According to one source (www.ieer.org/) citing from a book: ‘Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons since 1940’ of Stephen I.Schwarz

from 1998, the total cost between 1946 and 1996 of nuclear arms systems mounted to 5,5 billion dollars

(5,5x1012), about 10% of the American budget.

The greater part of this amount is used for all additional systems around the weapons such as air planes, storage

silos etc. An amount of 13 milliard (25%) had to be

added when the national defence as a whole is considered also. For comparison reasons: In the same

period about 1,4% was spent for the environment and just over 1% for science and space travel. The cost of

the Manhattan project only was calculated on 20 milliard

dollar. (www.brook.edu/ 50 facts about US nuclear weapons).

Per year the United States spent over 200 milliard dollar

for nuclear armament over the said period (re-calculated after 1996 standards) or $ 35 per citizen of

the world. Fortunately these amounts are decreasing.

But we still did not mention Russia, the UK, France and other countries. That it serves the economy and labour

may be true, but that would also have been the case if the money had been spent otherwise.

In short, technically and militarily spoken the development of all these missile systems certainly is

fascinating. In particular, when we remember that without such a development we should not have been

able to start our hobby. On the other hand it is

unacceptable that in view of all problems on Earth this cost such an amount of money, money that could have

been spent so much better.

Hoorn, February 24th 2007

Literature http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/

http://home.comcast.net/~rusaerog/boosters/R-77.html Russian Aerospace guide

http://64.233.183.104/ Proton rocket http://jeff560.tripod.com/ Different pictures of

mathematicians

www.aeronautics.ru/ Air-to-air missiles: Israel www.aerospace.ru/ NPO energomash engines history

www.astronautix.com/ www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/weapons.htm 50

facts about US nuclear weapons www.cdi.org/ Nuclear weapons database, Chinese

nuclear delivery system

www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/22/documents/starwars.speech/ Address for the nation on

defense and national security (23 March 1983)

www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/K/Korolev.html Korolev, Sergei Pavlovich (1907-1966)

www.designation-systems.net/non-us/soviet-mw.html Russian Designations of Missiles www.designation-

systems.net/usmilav/missiles.html Current designations

of US unmanned military aerospace vehicles www.energia.ru/english/energia/launchers/rocket -

r9.html S.P.Korolev RSC Energia www.epsusa.org/publications/newsletter/nov2000/

wright.htm North Korea’s Missile program: From a Physicist’s Notebook, David C.Wright.

www.fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm Status of

nuclear powers and their nuclear capabilities www.geocities.com/ History of the Snark missile;

Valentin Glushko e.a. www.globalsecurity.org/ Missiles (Iran)

www.hq.nasa.gov/off ice/pao/Hostory/Sputnik/

siddiqi.html Korolev, Sputnik and The International Geophysical Year, Asev A.Siddiqi

www. l i b . be r ke l e y . edu /~ l cush i ng / addpages /PeaceSymbolArticle.html The origin of the Peace

Symbol www.milparade.ru/aerospece/088.htm Pushing back

the missile technology frontiers, Leonid Sternin, Boris

Katorgin www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/weapons/

Frontline: The Gulf War, Weapons www.redstone.army.mil/history/lance/summary.html

Historical summary of the lance missile system

www.robsv.com/cape/c11v.html Snark missile www.russianspaceweb.com/rockets_icbm.html Long-

range Ballistic Missiles www.russianspaceweb.com/rockets_pre2oth_cent.html

Origins of the Russian rocketry

www.spaceline.org/rocketsum/goose.html Goose (Bull Goose) fact sheet

www.thebulletin.org/ Israel nuclear forces www.vredesmuseum.nl/ Geschiedenis van de

vredesbeweging in Nederland (Dutch), History of the peace movement in The Netherlands

www.wisconsinproject.org ballistic missile update

www.wonderland.org.nz/Proton%208K82.htm Proton 8K82

In the next part of this series John Beenen examines the beginnings of the use of nuclear energy in

missiles and rockets.

13

ORBIT

Two Unusual Recovery Ship Covers —from Harry Rose. Elgin, USA

The Lake Champlain PRS cover from Alan Shepard’s

flight of May 5, 1961 is postmarked on May 23, 1961. I was informed that the later postmark was the day the

ship returned to port.

The USS Randolph PRS cover from Gus Grissom’s flight

of July 21, 1961 has a July 28 postmark, this being just

one week after the pick-up. We all know how

expensive the proper dated covers are but the two covers below are somewhat related. The cost was also

a fraction that the originals would cost. These were bought from a Space Auction and show how it pays to

peruse al such events. H.R. 10.10.08

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Un-manned Satellites on Postage Stamps : 28 By Guest Contributors Don Hillger and Garry Toth

A version of this article first appeared in The Astrophile for Jan/Feb 2008

The A-1 Satellite

This is the twenty-eighth in a series of articles about un-manned satellites on postage stamps. This article

features the French A-1 satellite, also known as Asterix. A-1 was successfully launched on 30

November 1965.

A-1 was the first French satellite, mainly for launch

vehicle evaluation and engineering testing. In addition, an onboard sensor and transmitter were to provide

ionospheric measurements, but due to antenna damage no data could be transmitted. Shaped

somewhat like a double cone with flattened points, the

satellite was 0.5 m in diameter. Four antennas extended radially out from the widest part of the body.

The A-1 satellite appears on a large number of postal

items, especially stamps from France and several of its former colonies. Many of the A-1 items have a

common design, except for different country names

and denominations. Nearly all the postage stamps showing A-1 were issued shortly after its launch, in the

years 1965 to 1967. The last item known to show the A-1 satellite is a souvenir sheet issued by Upper Volta

(Scott C184) in 1974.

An interesting dichotomy exists between the images of

A-1, as seen in two different groups of items. Whereas many of the stamps, including the ones with a common

design, show the A-1 satellite with a rather plain

surface, a larger number of stamps show the satellite with wide light-and-dark stripes around the body of the

spacecraft. The reference images found for A-1 appear to have these stripes as well. The stripe/no-stripe

situation is parallel to that of San Marco (covered in the 26th article in this series). The first four San Marco

satellites had black and white longitudinal sections

painted on their surface. However these stripes were often not reproduced on postal items showing San

Marco. Moreover, in cases where the stripes are shown, they are red and white.

A checklist of postal items identified as showing the A-1 satellite (http://www.cira.colostate.edu/ramm/hillger/A-

1.htm) as part of the Website developed by the authors for the un-manned satellites featured in this series of

articles (http://www.cira.colostate.edu/ramm/hillger/satellites.htm). The Website includes images of stamps

and other postal items depicting the A-1 satellite, as

well as images of launch covers that feature this satellite. E-mail correspondence with the authors is

welcome. Don Hillger can be reached at hillger@cira.colostate.edu and Garry Toth at

garry_toth@hotmail.com.

The above designs as se-tenant pairs were also issued in various colours for French Territories, (including France of

course) : T.A.A.F., French Polynesia, New Caledonia, St Pierre

and Miquelon, , French Somalia Coast, Wallis and Futuna and Reunion.

15

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16

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Luna 1: Man’s First Shot at The Moon Although it did not achieve its objectives fifty years ago

this month, Luna 1 was nevertheless one of a battery of stunning spaceflight achievements by the Soviet Union

in the first few years of the space race, following on from...

Sputnik—first artificial satellite (4.10.57)

Sputnik 2—first dog in space (3.12.57) Sputnik 3— study of Earth’s atmosphere (15.5.58)

and of course followed by the rest of the Sputnik series some of which were undeclared and unmanned Vostok

craft leading up to Gagarin’s launch in April 1961

Luna 1 (aka “Mechta” (Dream) and “Lunik 1”) was only

the Soviet’s fourth unmanned spacecraft, launched on January 2nd, 1959 and was planned to impact on the

Moon, having become the first craft to reach escape or “second cosmic velocity” of 40,234 kph. It was finally

successfully launched at the fourth attempt. Previous

launches in September, October and December of 1958 had all failed within minutes of lift-off and had led to

bitter arguments about the reasons for such failures, between Chief Designers Korolev and Glushko who

believed in different launch and fuel systems.

Weighing just over 360 kg the spherical craft with five

antennae protruding from one half was launched by a three stage A1 rocket from Tyuratam. The craft was

essentially a missile with no power systems on board.

A day into its flight, when

the craft was over 100,000 km from earth a

large cloud of sodium gas was deliberately expelled

allowing astronomers to

track it more easily as for a while it glowed orange

rather like a comet.

Inside there were telemetry systems and

several scientific devices

like a Geiger counter and micro meteorite detector,

which provided scientists w i t h t h e i r f i r s t

i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t

radiation in trans-lunar space. It also provided the first sure information that

the Moon had no magnetic field and of the solar wind streaming through space.

Three days after launch the ballistic Luna 1, by then

misaligned with ground controllers unable to modify its

direction, missed its target and along with the third stage of the rocket launcher passed within 6000 km of

the Moon, eventually going into solar orbit.

Because the craft had reached escape velocity it was

termed the “First Cosmic Rocket” and for a while called a new planet. The name “Luna 1” came as an

afterthought, it being referred to as “Mechta” initially. The tiny object now orbits between Earth and Mars,

having become the first to achieve heliocentric orbit.

The American craft Pioneer 4 did very much the same

thing as Luna 1 two months later. (Pioneer 3 had failed in the same objectives in December 1958 and

Pioneer 4 was a repeat mission).

Luna’s successor Luna 2, a little heavier but practically

indistinguishable from Luna 1 in outline in stamp designs was launched nine months later and did

succeed in hitting the Moon delivering pedants with Soviet symbols onto the surface East of the Sea of

Serenity in mid-September. Luna 3 three weeks later

on Oct 4, 1959 circumnavigated the Moon and sent back the first photographs of the far side which the

Soviets were to publish with great kudos. It was to orbit the Moon at a considerable distance eleven times

in the course of the next six months before decaying.

There are over two

d o z e n s t a m p s showing Luna 1

either on its own or as part of the Luna

series and reprinted

here is Harvey Duncan’s check list as

issued to members in March 2000.

A number of these are illustrated below

and opposite.

Year SG Nos

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Albania 1963—Reissued on 23.8.64 with “Riccione” overprint

Bulgaria 1963 (above centre ) and 1984 (right) show Luna 1 as one of several Moonshots.

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ORBIT

Flight STS-96 Commander Kent Rominger Pilot Rick Husband MS Ellen Ochoa MS Tamara Jernigan MS Daniel Barry MS Julie Payette MS Valery Tokarev KSC Launch Date 27.5.99 KSC Landing 6.6.99 Purpose / Dock with ISS Main Payload Spacehab

Shuttle Story : 1999 STS –96, -93, -103 2000 –99, -101, -106, -92, -97

First ISS Mission

STS-96 was flown by Discovery and was the first shuttle flight to dock with the International Space Station. The shuttle carried the Spacehab module in the payload, filled with cargo for station outfitting. STS-96 launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, May 27, 1999.

The Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC) carried the Russian cargo crane, known as STRELA, which was mounted to the exterior of the Russian station segment, the SPACEHAB Oceaneering Space System Box (SHOSS) and a U.S. built crane called the ORU Transfer Device (OTD) Other payloads were the Student Tracked Atmospheric Research Satellite for Heuristic International Networking Equipment (STARSHINE), the Shuttle Vibration Forces Experiment (SVF) and the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitoring - HEDS Technology Demonstration (IVHM HTD).

The STARSHINE satellite consisted of an inert, 19 inch (483 mm) hollow sphere covered by 1,000 evenly-distributed, flat, polished mirrors, each 1 inch in diameter. The payload consisted of the STARSHINE satellite, integrated with the Pallet Ejection System (PES), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. The HH equipment consisted of one HH Lightweight Avionics Plate (LAP), then mounted inside a lidless carrier. Additional HH equipment consists of one Hitchhiker Ejection System Electronics (HESE), one 5.0 cubic-foot (142 L) HH canister, and one Adapter Beam Assembly (ABA). The purpose of the mission was to train international student volunteer observers to visually track this optically reflective spacecraft during morning and evening twilight intervals for several months, calculate its orbit from shared observations, and derive atmospheric density from drag-induced changes in its orbit over time.

The Shuttle Vibration Forces (SVF) Experiment provided flight measurements of the vibratory forces acting between an aerospace payload and its mounting structure. The force transducers were incorporated into four custom brackets which replaced the existing brackets used to attach the 5 ft (1.5 m) standard canister to the side wall GAS adapter beam. The payload was activated automatically by the Orbiter Lift-off vibration and operated for approximately 100 seconds. STS-96 was the second flight of the SVF experiment.

The purpose of the Orbiter Integrated Vehicle Health Monitor ing- HEDS Technology Demonstration (IVHM HTD) was to demonstrate competing modern, off-the-shelf sensing technologies in an operational environment to

make informed design decisions for the eventual Orbiter upgrade IVHM. The objective of IVHM was to reduce planned ground processing, streamline problem troubleshooting (unplanned ground processing), enhance visibility into systems operation and improve overall vehicle safety.

Daniel T. Barry, who enjoys playing the popular computer game StarCraft, brought along a copy of the game during the mission. The game now resides at Blizzard’s home office after having orbited the Earth 153 times and travelling 3.5 million nautical miles. Source: Wikipedia

Julie Payette

The crew patch highlights the major themes of the ISS Program: Earth directed research, advancement of human space research and international cooperation. The first ISS modules Zarya and Unity are shown orbiting Earth. The triangular shape of the patch represents building on the knowledge and experience of earlier missions, whilst

the three vertical bars of the astronaut emblem point towards future endeavour. The five pointed star that tops the emblem is symbolic of the five space agencies participating in the development of the ISS, - NASA and those of Russia, Europe, Japan and Canada. The red white and blue colours represent USA, Canada and Russia.

19

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Flight STS-93 Commander Eileen Collins Pilot Jeffrey Ashby MS Steven Hawley MS Catherine Coleman MS Michel Tognini KSC Launch Date 23.7.99 KSC Landing 27.7.99 Purpose / AXAF “Chandra” Main Payload X-ray Observatory

Chandra Mission

STS-93 marked the 95th launch of the Space Shuttle, the 26th launch of Columbia, and the 21st night launch of a Space Shuttle. Eileen Collins became the first female shuttle Commander on this flight. Its primary payload was the Chandra X-ray Observatory. It would also be the last mission of Columbia until March 2002. During the interim, Columbia would be out of service for upgrading, and would not fly again until STS-109. The launch was originally scheduled for July 20 but the launch was aborted at T-7 seconds. The successful launch of the flight occurred 3 days later.

Five seconds after liftoff, an electrical short disabled one primary and one secondary controller on two of the three main engines. In this event, the engines automatically switched to their backup controllers. The short was later discovered to have been caused by poorly routed wiring which had rubbed on an exposed screw head. This wiring issue led to a program-wide inspection of the wiring in all orbiters. Concurrently, an oxidizer post, which had been intentionally plugged, came loose inside one of the main engine's main injector and impacted the engine nozzle inner surface rupturing a hydrogen cooling line allowing a small leak. To maintain a proper mixture ratio in the event of this leak, the engine's controller increased oxidizer flow resulting in a premature engine shutdown near the end of the projected burn due to low liquid oxygen level. Despite the premature

shutdown, the vehicle safely achieved a slightly lower orbit and was able to complete the mission as planned. This incident brought on a maintenance practice change which required damaged oxidizer posts to be removed and replaced as opposed to being intentionally plugged, as was the practice beforehand. The primary objective of the STS-93 mission was to deploy the Chandra X-ray Observatory (formerly AXAF—the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility) with its Inertial Upper Stage booster. At its launch, Chandra was the most sophisticated X-ray observatory ever built. It was designed to observe X-rays from high energy regions of the universe, such as hot gas in the remnants of exploded stars.

Other payloads included the Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX), the Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Local Exhaust (SIMPLEX), the Southwest Ultraviolet Imaging System (SWUIS), the Gelation of Sols: Applied Microgravity Research (GOSAMR) experiment, the Space Tissue Loss - B (STL-B) experiment, a Light Weight Flexible Solar Array Hinge (LFSAH), the Cell Culture Module (CCM), the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment - II (SAREX - II), EarthKAM, Plant Growth Investigations in Microgravity (PGIM), the Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA), the Micro-Electrical Mechanical System (MEMS), and the Biological Research in Canisters (BRIC).

The Shuttle Ionespheric Modification with Pulsed Local Exhaust (SIMPLEX) payload activity researched the source of Very High Frequency (VHF) radar echoes caused by the orbiter and its OMS engine firings. The Principal Investigator (PI) used the collected data to examine the effects of orbital kinetic energy on ionospheric irregularities and to understand the processes that take place with the venting of

exhaust materials. Columbia's landing at Kennedy Space Center marked the twelfth night landing in the Shuttle program's history. Five had been at Edwards Air Force Base in California and the rest KSC. To date, there had been 19 consecutive landings at KSC and 25 of the last 26 had been there.

Sweden

AXAF, the third of NASA’s great observatories, was dubbed “Chandra” after American theoretical astrophysicist and Nobel laureate Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-95), born in Lahore, India, now in Pakistan and pictured left. He determined that a star with a mass more than 1.44 times that of our Sun cannot directly become a white dwarf, a limit n o w k n o w n a s “ t h e Chandrasekhar limit”.

The largely blue mission patch depicts AXAF separating from the shuttle. A spiral galaxy is shown in the background as a possible target for AXAF observation. The two flags represent the international crew, consisting of astronauts from the USA and France.

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Flight STS-103 Commander Curtis Brown Pilot Scott Kelly MS Steven Smith MS Michael Foale MS John Grunsfeld MS Claude Nicollier MS Jean-François Clervoy KSC Launch Date 19.12.99 KSC Landing 27.12.99 Purpose / Servicing HST Main Payload

STS-103 was a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission

including four scheduled EVAs by the crew of Discovery, launched

from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 19, 1999. NASA officials decided to move up part of the servicing mission that had been scheduled for June 2000 after three of the telescope's six gyroscopes failed. Three gyroscopes must be working to meet the telescope's very precise pointing requirements, and the telescope's flight rules dictated that NASA consider a "call-up" mission before a fourth gyroscope failed. Four new gyros were installed during the first servicing mission (STS-61) in December of 1993 and all six gyros were working during the second servicing mission (STS-82) in February 1997. Since then, a gyro failed in 1997, another in 1998 and a third in 1999. The Hubble team believed they understood the cause of the failures, although they could not be certain until the gyros were returned from space. Having fewer than three working gyroscopes would preclude science observations, although the telescope would remain safely in orbit until a servicing crew arrived.

In addition to replacing all six gyroscopes the crew replaced a guidance sensor, the spacecraft's computer and installed a voltage/temperature kit for the spacecraft's batteries. A new transmitter, solid state recorder and thermal insulation blankets were also installed.

Hubble's gyros spin at a constant rate of 19,200 rpm on gas bearings. This wheel is mounted in a sealed cylinder, which floats in a thick fluid. Electricity is carried to the motor by thin wires (approximately the size of a human hair). It is believed that oxygen in the pressurized air used during the assembly process caused the wires to corrode and break. The new

gyros were assembled using nitrogen instead of oxygen. Each gyroscope is packaged in a Rate Sensor assembly. The Rate Sensors changed by the crew were packaged in pairs into an assembly called a Rate Sensor Unit (RSU's).

The new computer which was installed was designed to reduce the burden of flight software maintenance and significantly lower costs. The new computer is 20 times faster and has six times the memory of the current DF-224 computer used on Hubble s 5.5 by 4 by 2 feet (1.68 by 1.22 by 0.61 m) in size.

A voltage/temperature improvement kit (VIK) was also installed to protect spacecraft batteries from overcharging and overheating when the spacecraft goes into safe mode. The VIK modifies the charge cutoff voltage to a lower level to prevent battery overcharging and associated overheating.

The repair mission also installed a new S-Band Single Access Transmitter (SSAT). Hubble has two identical SSATs onboard and can operate with only one. The SSATs send data from Hubble through NASA's Tracking Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) to the ground. The new transmitter replaced one that failed in 1998.

A spare solid state recorder was also installed to allow efficient handling of high-volume data. Prior to the second servicing mission, Hubble used three 1970s style reel-to-reel tape recorders. During the second servicing mission one of these mechanical recorders was replaced with a digital solid state recorder. During this mission a second mechanical recorder will be replaced by a second Solid State Recorder. The new recorder can hold approximately 10 times as much data as the old unit (12 gigabytes instead of 1.2 gigabytes).

Finally, the EVA crew will replace the telescopes outer insulation that has degraded. The insulation is necessary to control the internal temperature on the Hubble. The New Outer Blanket Layer (NOBL) and Shell/Shield Replacement Fabric

(SSRF) will help protect Hubble from the harsh environment of space.

STS-103 will also carry hundreds of thousands of student signatures as part of the Student Signatures in Space (S3) program. The unique project provides elementary schools with spec ia l posters to be autographed by students, then scanned onto disks and carried aboard.

Below right 2008 USA issue for Edwin Hubble

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Flight STS-99 Commander Kevin Kregel Pilot Dominic Gorie MS Janet Kavandi MS Janice Voss MS Gerhard Thiele MS Mamoru Mohri KSC Launch Date 11.2.00 KSC Landing 22.2.00 Purpose / SRTM Main Payload Mapping Project

arresting the mast's motion and increasing the orbiter's speed.

Radar data gathering concluded at 6:54 a.m.

EST on the tenth day of flight after a final sweep across Australia. During 222 hours and 23 minutes of mapping, Endeavour’s radar images filled 332 high density tapes and covered 99.98 % of the planned mapping area - land between 60 degrees north latitude and 56 degrees south latitude - at least once and 94.6 % of it twice. Only about 80,000 square miles in scattered areas remained unimaged, most of them in North America and most already well mapped by other methods. Data was gathered to fill the equivalent of 20,000 CDs.

Also aboard Endeavour was a student experiment called EarthKAM, which took 2,715 digital photos during the mission through an overhead flight-deck window. The NASA-sponsored program lets middle school students select photo targets and receive the images via the Internet. The pictures are used in classroom projects on Earth science, geography, mathematics and space science.

Mappa Mundi ? STS-99 was an Endeavour mission, whose primary mission objective was the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) project spearheaded by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency and NASA, with participation of the German Aerospace Center DLR. Its objective is to obtain the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of the Earth. SRTM consists of a specially modified radar system that will flew onboard the space shuttle during its 11-day mission. This radar system gathered around 8 terabytes of data to produce unrivaled 3-D images of the Earth's surface.

SRTM uses C-band and X-band - (IFSAR) to acquire topographic data of Earth's land mass (between 60°N and 56°S). It produces digital topographic map products which meet Interferometric Terrain Height Data (ITHD)-2 specifications. The result of the SRTM could be close to 1 trillion measurements of the Earth's topography. Besides contributing to the production of better maps, these measurements could lead to improved water drainage modelling, more realistic flight simulators, better locations for cell phone towers, and enhanced navigation safety.

The SRTM mast was deployed successfully to its full length, and the antenna was turned to its operation position. After a successful checkout of the radar systems, mapping began at 12:31 a.m., less than 12 hours after launch. Crewmembers, split into two shifts so they could work around the

clock, began mapping an area from 60 degrees north to 56 degrees south. Data was sent to Jet Propulsion Laboratory for analysis and early indications showed the data to be of excellent quality. Mapping proceeded fairly smoothly, but during an attitude-hold period for payload mapping during the second day of flight, it was determined that orbiter propellant usage had doubled from 0.07 to 0.15 % an hour. The increase was caused by a failure of the payload cold-gas thrust system that was used to offset the gravity gradient torque of the mast.

As a result of this failure, orbiter propellant was being used at a higher-than-planned rate to maintain the attitude of the vehicle. Measures to reduce the expenditure were evaluated and based on the analysis, enough propellant could be saved to complete the planned 9-day plus science mission. The first of a series of "flycast" manoeuvres during the mission was also made on the second day of flight. The flycast manoeuvre was designed to reduce strain on the almost 200 foot (60 m) mast extending from Endeavour’s cargo bay when adjustments to Endeavour’s orbit were needed.

The orbiter, which flies tail-first during mapping operations, is moved to a nose-first attitude with the mast extending upward. A brief reaction control system pulse begins the manoeuvre. The mast deflects slightly backwards, then rebounds forward. As it reaches vertical, a stronger thrust is applied,

The deep blue mission patch shows the radar beams of the SRTM penetrating the cloudy surface of the globe as the instrument maps a notional grid over the Earth’s surface. A rainbow effect on the Earth’s horizon represents an orbital sunrise and also suggests a bright future for human beings venturing into space.

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Flight STS-101 Commander James Halsell Pilot Scott Horowitz MS James Voss MS Mary Weber MS Jeff Williams MS Susan Helms MS Yuri Usachev KSC Launch Date 19.5.00 KSC Landing 29.5.00 Purpose / ISS Servicing Main Payload

Atlantis flies 3rd ISS Mission

The primary mission objectives for STS-101 was to deliver supplies to the International Space Station, perform a spacewalk and then

reboost the station from 230 to 250 statute miles (370 to 402 km).

Detailed objectives included ISS ingress/safety to take air samples,

monitor carbon dioxide, deploy portable, personal fans, measure air flow, rework/modify ISS ducting, replace air filters, and replace

Zarya fire extinguishers and smoke detectors. Critical replacements, repairs and spares were also done to replace four

suspect batteries on Zarya, replace failed or suspect electronics for

Zarya's batteries, replace Radio Telemetry System memory unit, replace port early communications antenna, replace Radio

Frequency Power Distribution Box and clear Space Vision System target.

The mission also included incremental assembly/upgrades such as assembly of Strela crane, installation of additional exterior

handrails, set up of centre-line camera cable, installation of "Komparus" cable inserts and reseating the U.S. crane. Assembly

parts, tools and equipment were also transferred to the station and equipment stowed for future missions.

The station was also re-supplied with water, a docking mechanism accessory kit, film and video tape for documentation, office

supplies and personal items. Crew health maintenance items were also transferred including exercise equipment, medical support

supplies, formaldehyde monitor kit and a passive dosimetry

system.

Re-Entry Fears

This mission was almost similar to the Columbia disaster. A damaged tile seam caused a breach which allowed superheated

gas to enter the left wing during re-entry. The gas did not penetrate deeply and the damage was repaired before the next

flight. If it had penetrated deeply the Shuttle could have been

destroyed during re-entry.

This mission was the first mission to fly with a glass cockpit.

On the mission patch (left) the shuttle is depicted in orbital configuration prior to docking the ISS as it was then, comprising of the American Unity module and the Russia Zarya module. The three stars represent the third mission to the ISS and the Russian and American flag appear in elongated form along the borders. Below: Russian Zarya module

One of three Russian stamps issued on Cosmonautics Day (12th April) 2000 to mark International

Cooperation in Space since the ASTP project, shows the ISS as it would become but not as it was then.

Compare with ISS configuration on mission patch on

launch cover above.

Right : US Unity module

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Flight STS-106 Commander Terrence Wilcut Pilot Scott Altman MS Rick Mastracchio MS Daniel Burbank MS Edward Lu MS Boris Mokurov MS Yuri Malenchenko KSC Launch Date 8.9.00 KSC Landing 20.9.00 Purpose / ISS Servicing Main Payload Spacehab

Atlantis flies 4th ISS Mission Space Station assembly flight ISS-2A.2b utilized the SPACEHAB Double Module and the Integrated Cargo Carrier (ICC) to bring supplies to the station. The mission also included two spacewalks.

Veteran Astronaut Terrence Wilcutt (Col., USMC) led the seven-man crew, commanding his second Shuttle flight and making his fourth trip into space. During the planned 11-day mission, Wilcutt and his crew mates

spent a week inside the ISS unloading supplies from both a double SPACEHAB cargo module in the rear of Atlantis's cargo bay and from a Russian Progress M-1 resupply craft docked to the aft end of the Zvezda Service Module. Zvezda, which linked up to the ISS on July 26, served as the early living quarters for the station and is the cornerstone of the Russian contribution to the ISS.

The goal of the flight was to prepare Zvezda for the arrival of the first residents, or Expedition, crew later in the fall of 2000 and the start of a permanent human presence on the new outpost. That crew, made up of Expedition Commander Bill Shepherd, Soyuz Commander Yuri Gidzenko and Flight Engineer Sergei Krikalev, launched on October 31, 2000 in a Soyuz capsule from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan for a four-month "shakedown" mission aboard the ISS.

On flight day three, Dr. Ed Lu and Yuri Malenchenko (Col., Russian Air Force), who were both making their second flights into space, conducted a 6 hour and 14 minute space walk. The spacewalk's objective focused on routing and connecting nine power, data and communications cables between the Zvezda module and the other Russian-built module, Zarya, as well as installing the six-foot-long magnetometer. The magnetometer will serve as a three-dimensional compass designed to minimize Zvezda propellant usage by relaying information to the module's computers regarding its orientation relative to the Earth.

Lu and Malenchenko used tethers and handrails along the ISS to make their way to a point more than 100 feet above the cargo bay, the farthest

any tethered spacewalker has ventured outside the shuttle. They completed this with the assistance of their crewmates Burbank and Mastracchio who deftly manoeuvred them around with the robotic arm. This spacewalk celebrated the sixth spacewalk in support of the station assembly and the 50th spacewalk in space shuttle history. Also this was the second joint U.S.-Russian space walk outside a Space Shuttle, following on the work conducted by Astronaut Scott Parazynski and Cosmonaut Vladimir Titov outside Atlantis while docked to the Mir Space Station during the STS-86 mission in October 1997. Dan Burbank (Lt.

Cmdr, USCG), who was a spaceflight rookie, served as the space walk choreographer. The crew transferred more than 6,000 pounds of material - including six 100 pound bags of water, all of the food for the first resident crew, office supplies, onboard environmental supplies, a vacuum cleaner and a computer and monitor - to the interior of the station.

The astronauts spent a total of 5 days, 9 hours and 21 minutes inside the station before closing the hatch on the orbiting outpost. Wilcutt and Altman commanded a series of four altitude boosts to place the station in an orbit of approximately 241 by 233 statute miles, raising the average altitude by 14 miles (23 km). After spending 7 days, 21 hours and 54 minutes linked to the station, Atlantis undocked at 11:46 p.m. EDT as Wilcutt and Altman fired Atlantis' jets to move to a distance of about 450 feet for a double-loop flyaround.

The newly arrived Russian module Zvezda (“Star” - see photo below) is depicted above the “Malen” of Malenchenko in the crew patch (left) mated to Unity and Zarya (“Sunrise”) with a Progress vehicle docked at the rear of the Station. The Astronaut Office symbol provides a connection between Atlantis and the ISS

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Flight STS-92 Commander Brian Duffy Pilot Pamela Melroy MS Bill McArthur MS Leroy Chiao MS Jeff Wisoff MS Mike Lopez-Alegria MS Koichi Wakata KSC Launch Date 11.10.00 KSC Landing 24.10.00 Purpose / Delivery of US Main Payload Elements to ISS

Discovery flies 100th Shuttle Mission STS-92 was an ISS assembly flight that brought the Z-1 Truss,

Control Moment Gyros, Pressurized Mating Adapter-3 (PMA-3) (mounted on a Spacelab pallet) and two DDCU (Heat pipes) to the

space station.

ITS Z1 is an early exterior framework to allow the first U.S. solar

arrays on flight 4A to be temporarily installed on Unity for early power. The Ku-band communication system supports early science

capability and U.S. television on 6A. The CMGs (Control Moment

Gyros) weigh about 600 lb (27 kg) and provide non-propulsive (electrically powered) attitude control when activated on 5A, and

PMA-3 provides shuttle docking port for solar array installation on 4A, Lab installation on 5A.

The mission included seven days docked with the ISS, four EVAs and two ingress opportunities.

Canada 1986 (right in se-tenant pair) depicts the shuttle’s robot arm, used in deploying the new US elements

Over the course of four scheduled spacewalks, two teams of space

walkers and an experienced robot arm operator collaborated to

install the Z1 (Z for zenith port) truss structure on top of the U.S. Unity connecting node on the growing station and to deliver the

third Pressurized Mating Adapter (PMA 3) to the ISS for the future berthing of new station components and to accommodate shuttle

dockings.

The Z1 truss was the first permanent lattice-work structure for the

ISS, very much like a girder, setting the stage for the future addition of the station's major trusses or backbones. The Z1

fixture also served as the platform on which the huge U.S. solar

The mission patch symbolises the second mission to carry US-built elements to the ISS. In the foreground in grey is a profile of the Station as it was when shuttle arrived. The shuttle was bringing the Z1 truss and the PMA-3 shown (in red) as additions to Unity module above “Wakata” at the bottom of the shuttle silhouette and right in illustration below.

arrays were mounted on the next shuttle

assembly flight, STS-97.

The Z1 contains four large gyroscopic devices, called Control Moment Gyroscope

(CMGs), which are used to maneuver the

ISS into the proper orientation on orbit once they were activated following the installation

of the U.S. laboratory.

Germany 2000 (for Expo 2000 in Hannover) depicts a shuttle launch in top left quadrant of stamp.

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Flight STS-97 Commander Brent Jett Pilot Michael Bloomfield PC Joe Tanner MS Carlos Noriega MS Mark Garneau KSC Launch Date 30.11.00 KSC Landing 11.12.00 Purpose / Solar Array Delivery Main Payload to ISS

Powerful Endeavour Mission

During the 11-day mission, the primary objective was completed, which was to deliver and connect the first set of U.S.-provided solar arrays to the International Space Station. The astronauts completed three spacewalks, during which they prepared a docking port for arrival of the Destiny Laboratory Module, installed Floating Potential Probes to measure electrical potential surrounding the station, installed a camera cable outside the Unity Module, and transferred supplies, equipment and refuse between Endeavour and the station On Flight Day 3, Commander Brent Jett linked Endeavour to the ISS while 230 statute miles above northeast Kazakhstan.

The successful checkout of the Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMUs), the Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue (SAFER) units, the Canadarm (RMS), the Orbiter Space Vision System (OSVS) and the Orbiter Docking System (ODS) were all completed nominally. Also, the ODS centreline camera was installed with no misalignment noted. From inside Endeavour, Canadian Mission Specialist Marc Garneau used the Canadarm to remove the P6 truss from the payload bay, manoeuvring it into an overnight park position to warm its components. Mission Specialists Joseph Tanner and Carlos Noriega moved through Endeavour's docking tunnel and opened the hatch to the ISS docking port to leave supplies and computer hardware on the doorstep of the Station. On flight day 4, the Expedition 1 crew -- Commander William Shepherd, Pilot Yuri Gidzenko and Flight Engineer Sergei Krikalev -- entered the Unity Module for the first time and retrieved the items left for them. At 9:36 a.m. EST on Friday, December 8, the crew paid the first visit to the Expedition 1 crew residing in the space station. Until then the shuttle and the station had kept one hatch closed to maintain respective atmospheric pressures, allowing the shuttle crew to conduct their spacewalks and mission goals. After a welcome ceremony and briefing, the eight spacefarers conducted structural tests of the station and its solar arrays, transferred equipment, supplies and refuse back and forth

between the spacecraft, and checked out the television camera cable installed by Tanner and Noriega for the upcoming mission.

On December 9, the two crews completed final transfers of supplies to the station and other items being returned to Earth. The Endeavour crew bade farewell to the Expedition 1 crew at 10:51 a.m. EST and closed the hatches between the spacecraft. After being docked together for 6 days, 23 hours and 13 minutes, Endeavour undocked from the station at 2:13 p.m. EST. Piloted by Michael Bloomfield, it then made an hour-long, tail-

first circle of the station. The undocking took place 235 statute miles above the border of Kazakhstan and China. The final separation burn took place near the northeast coast of South America.

STS-97 was the 15th flight of Endeavour and the 101st Space Shuttle mission. Below Taken from Endeavour on December 9, 2000 shortly after undocking. The new solar arrays are visible at the top.

Launch day cover signed by crew (one of the few fully signed covers in your editor’s possession). The mission patch depicts the result of this mission’s arrival, namely the delivery of a 47 foot integrated truss structure known as P6 which was to carry large solar arrays to provide the ISS with power.

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27

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Above left: Zond 2

Left : Mariner 9

Above : Viking 1

Right : Viking 2 Above : Mariner 4

Below: Mars Observer

Right: Mars Pathfinder

Above Soviet probes Mars 3, below from left Mars 2 and two stamps commemorating Mars 1

Left Soviet stamp

marking Mars 1, 2 and 3

Right: Phobos probe

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29

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Tartu Observatory: A Pace In The Past By Bert van Eijck

“Look, there it is!” Elina Aro, authorized guide of the

city, stretches her right arm and points in front of her where behind the trees a yellow building with a big

brown tower is hidden. We climb 68 metres up a hill in a park called Toomemagi and suddenly we are

confronted with a centuries old edifice, we only know

from a stamp: the Old Tartu Observatory.

The red-and-white coloured 5 Eesti stamp was issued by the

Estonia Post in 1932.The inscription reads: Tartu Ulikool

1632-1932 . By m i s take

collectors think – and I was with them till now - the Tartu

Observatory was 300 years old. But Ulikool means in Estonian

language University, and the

tower of the observatory was the main building in the ‘30’s. It then was 120 years

old, built in 1808-1810.

It lies in the centre of the city of Tartu, on the site of the former bishop’s castle its architect being J.W.

Krause. The builders followed the examples of the

observatories of Gotha, Goettingen and Uppsala University. The tower of this neoclassical building was

originally topped by a dome. In the western hall there was a meridian circle. In 1825 the tower was rebuilt to

house the biggest telescope at that time in the world.

The dome was replaced by a revolving upper part that was surrounded by a 12-facet gallery. In the

neighbourhood there is the astronomer’s house, which is connected to the observatory, and on the slope of

the hill is a small telescope tower.

N o w a d a y s t h e

building is home to a science centre, which

creates fun, hands-on science exhibits for

kids. The observatory

itself is closed. That is a pity but there has to

be a photo taken, to prove I was there.

Opposite the old

observatory there is a small yellow-brown

pavilion smeared with graffiti, once used for

Petzval astrograph.

Petzval astrograph,

named after the Austrian inventor, was

initially used as an astrocamera. In 1927 it was

detached from the Zeiss refractor and placed in the former pavilion of the zenith telescope.

The most famous director of the Tartu Observatory was

astronomer Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve (1793-

1864), who started his scientific carrier here in 1814. He was in charge from 1820 till 1839 and installed in

1824 what was then the most powerful telescope on Earth. This was the Fraunhofer refractor. Seven years

before Struve started “The Publications of the Tartu Observatory” which appeared up to 1990, and was then

the oldest periodical publication in astronomy of the

world. Struve also published the general catalogue of binary stars and measured the length of the meridian

curve in de Baltic countries. Struve left Tartu to become the first director of the later famous Pulkova

Observatory in St. Petersburg, Russia.

In July 2005 UNESCO, the institute of the United

Nations, added Struve’s Geodetic Arc, a string of survey triangulations stretching 2820 kilometer from Norway

to the Black Sea, to its Cultural World Heritage List. (see below for more information).

The Old Tartu Observatory has done its duty and was closed at the end of the ‘50’s.

About 20 kilometres from Tartu at the village of

Toravere a new observatory was erected and named “Tartu Observatoorium”. It has several domes and

came into function officially in 1964. The same year during an international conference held on the occasion

of the opening, it was given a new name, that of F.G.W. Struve, the great astronomer who was present

a t t h e

beginning of t h e o l d

observatory.

In 1975 the

observat ions of the heavens

started via the b i g g e s t

telescope: the 1,5 meter

reflector. In

1995 the old name came

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back, Tartu Observatory. Three years later the new

60cm Zeiss 600 telescope saw its first light.

About Tartu TARTU is the second town of Estonia, about 200

kilometer southeast of the capital Tallinn. It has 102,000 inhabitants of whom 20.000 students. Therefore it is

called the intellectual capital. The border of Russia is

nearby, as is the main road to St. Petersburg.

Ulikool, or the University was established in 1632 by the Swedish king Gustav Adolf. Tartu was already mentioned

in 1030 as a fortress of the grand duke Yaroslav of Kiev.

The town was conquered and destroyed several times : in 1061 by the Estonians, in 1224 by the Germans, in

1798 during the Nordic Wars and in 1775 by a great fire. In the centre you will find the Raekoja plats (Townhall

Square) with the Townhall (Raekoda) from 1798. The University Building is from 1809. There is a lot to tell

about Tartu, but the best thing to do is— go and see for

yourself. Estonia is a member of the European Community, but it does not have yet the Euro.

Struve Arc

The Struve Arc is a chain of survey triangulations

stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries and over 2820 kilometres. These

are points of a survey, carried out between 1816 and 1855 by the astronomer Struve, which represented the

first accurate measuring of a long segment of a meridian. This helped to establish the exact size and

shape of the planet and marked an important step in the

development of earth sciences and topographic mapping.

It is an extraordinary example of scientific collaboration

among scientists from different countries, and of

collaboration between monarchs for a scientific cause.

The original arc consisted of 258 main triangles with 265 main station points. The listed site includes 34 of the

original station points, with different markings, for instance a drilled hole in rock, iron cross, cairns or built

obelisks.

The ten participating countries are: Belarus, Estonia,

Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Norway, Russian

Federation, Sweden, Ukraine.

Two Wildes There is a remarkable statue near Tartu University

and the park Toomemagi: Two Wildes. The hypothetical conversation between the Irish writer

Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) and the Estonian writer

Eduard Wilde (1865-1933) depicted in the sculpture, could have taken place in 1892. The two actually

never met. The building behind the two authors used to be a printing shop that was founded by yet another

Wilde, Peter Ernst Wilde. Today the building house a

café and an Irish pub. The sculpture was unveiled in 1999; in 2004 a copy of the statue was presented to

the Irish city of Galway.

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Shen Zhou 7 : First Commemorative Issues from Ling Fugen

Above cover (almost A4 size) produced by China National

Philatelic Corporation including Chinese stamps and labels carrying the portraits of the latest three taikonauts who

flew in space at the end of September.

Mission commander Zhai Zhigang made history by

becoming the first Chinese astronaut to walk in space. Accompanying him on the three day flight

were Liu Boming and Jing Jaipeng.

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Illustrated cover for SZ7 launch which is date-marked “2008.9” only. The covers in this series for other events in the

flight like the EVA and the landing bore the same postmark.

Above from Scotland on Sunday for 28.9.08 a cartoon

making a topical illusion to the myth that the Great Wall of China is the only man made structure which can be

seen from space and right an agency photo of Zhai Zhigan’s short space walk

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ASTEROIDS

Some Bits and Pieces 2009 ASSS Air Mail Etiquette

Designed by Alec Bartos The new Apollo XI 40th anniversary ASSS full colour airmail etiquette, reproduced below for GB members is

the work of our Romanian member Alec Bartos whom you will recall has already designed a series of space

stamps and hand-stamps for his own country: see

Orbits for June and October 08.

Alec’s exclusive design for which we are very grateful incorporates one of the very few NASA images

showing Armstrong and Aldrin together as they erect the flag taken from the lunar module. If you would

like some pages of these etiquettes for your own use

please contact Alec directly : alec.bartos@gmail.com

Scare US Item on the Market Bert van Eijck draws our attention to this very scare US space philatelic item offered for sale in the

December 19-21 2008 Beverley Hills Collectibles Sales by the long established Regency Superior firm of

auctioneers. Estimates are between $7500 and

$10,000 and we will let you know what it raised in our next edition. The whole lot consists of “Essays of the

first US space stamp issued in 1960 for Echo 1…..includes two preliminary sketches in red and blue

pencil, a black photo essay for press publicity purposes

(showing clouds), a note on an envelope from Mrs Louise Beck Fergus that reads : “Enclose is my original

design and a copy of the change that was made

(Postmaster) Summerfield and the final red white and

blue painted design with

clouds removed…..”

Ray Billings Members will be sad to learn of the death in late September of last year of our long standing member

Ray Billings of Abbey Meads, Swindon. Ray had battled

against cancer very bravely in his final years—he was well into his 80’s—and wrote lengthy personal letters to

your Editor about his adventures and his writing. He was a prolific amateur author and had published books

about his war time experiences with the RAF. He also

wrote a number of articles for Orbit in the 1990’s.

Chinese and Japan Sister Societies Our Japan based member Haruki Ikuro has written to

point out in response to your Editor’s widely published

article “Astrophilately—a Universally Popular Theme” on p17 of the October 08 Orbit that he was unaware of

space stamp societies in the Orient. He writes…

“In Japan we have a space stamp collecting society

named as “JPS Space Stamp Unit” founded in June 1972, currently with 40 members. This unit issues a

bulletin bi-monthly and the contents with colour illustrations are of a very high level : it has also

compiled a worldwide space stamp catalogue written in

Japanese”. A specimen page from a recent JPS bulletin is reproduced below left…….

Haruki points out also that there is a Chinese space

stamp collecting organisation with, he believes, the largest membership (of any such society) in the world.

A sample page of their bulletin is reproduced below right. We are happy to set right this sin of omission

and to publicise these flourishing sister societies.

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The Limits of Space Travel By John Beenen UFO

Part 3: Encounters of the second kind

An encounter of the second kind occurred on 2

November 1957 at Levelland (USA)

It is especially interesting as it was observed one hour

before the launch of the second Sputnik and the phenomenon was observed by fifteen persons. The first

two were on night watch. Pedro Saucedo and his colleague Joe Salaz travelling at about 23.00 on a

highway in the neighbourhood of Levelland, Texas.

Close enough to observe the phenomenon they heard a thundering noise, felt a strong wind and heat while the

lights of their truck went out.

They saw a torpedo-shaped object with high speed

going along. The object was at least 60 metres long and had a speed of 1000-1300 km/h. After its passing

by the lights of the truck came on again on their own. They continued their trip and reported the event to the

local police. Shortly after, the object was seen by several people, also reporting that their engines

stopped suddenly and after passing by started again.

The phenomenon was later investigated by experts

such as Dr.Hynek, and suggested to be St.Elmo’s fire, but many witnesses refused to accept this ‘conclusion’.

Also Dr.Hynek admitted that ball lightning could never

grow so large and furthermore meteorologists explained that during that night no thunderstorm

activity was observed. Hence, the phenomenon never was explained sufficiently.

(301) But in this category many more cases have been

reported but not all with the same positive outcome. On 7 January 1948 a patrol of the traffic police at

Louisville, close to Fort Knox, USA reported the

observation of a strange object. Shortly after the traffic

tower of the Wright-Patterson base received a second

signal and somewhat later the Godman base reported visual contact. It was decided to launch three P-51

airplanes to see what was going on. About half an hour later one pilot, Thomas F.Mantell, reported the sight

of an enormous metal machine flying at a speed of

3000 km/h. He chased it to an altitude of 6000 m, : without an oxygen mask he shouldn’t have gone higher

than 4500 m. Thereafter his colleagues lost contact and had to return to the base because of fuel shortage.

Shortly after Mantell appeared to have been crashed.

In itself it is strange that an experienced pilot as

Mantell should have exceeded the safety precautions in such a way, but it has been accepted that he lost

consciousness because of lack of oxygen. From further investigation the concerning object could have been a

weather balloon or the planet Venus, but not everyone

has supported this conclusion. Therefore some people have seen Mantell as the first victim of a UFO

experience.

(302) An important observation took place on

24 April 1964 at Soccoro

in New Mexico. Lonnie Zamora, a policeman, was

pursuing a car which had m a d e a s p e e d

infringement, when he

suddenly saw a blue light and heard a roaring noise. Because he was afraid that

something was happening at the dynamite depot nearby, he stepped out of his car and saw some

distance in front of him a kind of rocket in the shape of

a car on his head and two persons in white suits.. On the ‘rocket’ was a strange red sign. After both figures

went in again, a short explosion followed and the ‘rocket’ lifted vertically and flew away some 10-15 m

above the ground.

(303) A while after a second policeman arrived,

M.S.Chavez. Together they investigated the impressions of the rocket and the still smouldering

bushes. Also Dr.Hynek investigated the spot. It transpired by chance (!) that the ‘rocket’ had just

landed on a spot owned by the local major who was

able to use a little more tourism in his area.

An other incident dates from 1952 when in Norway on Spitzbergen the wreck of a dish-like craft was

found, of which the cockpit was partially destroyed. After investigation the craft showed to contain a

plutonium core. A commission of investigation classified

it as an accident with an experimental Soviet airplane.

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ORBIT ORBIT

A couple of years later the chairman of the committee

declared that it really had been a craft from extraterrestrial origin as the materials used where

unknown to the commission. But a further couple of years later this explanation was not taken seriously

anymore.

(303) On 20 May 1967

S teven Micha lak, a mechanic from Falcon

Lake, Ontario, Canada, saw two reddish objects

passing by with great

speed. One of them landed in a white glowing halo.

Michalak observed the object for a quarter of an hour and saw that a door

opened, from which a bright white light was glowing.

Coming closer to the object he heard human voices. As he was convinced that it was a new experimental

American airplane he called for them, but received no answer. He touched the apparatus and noticed

immediately burning of his hand and hat. At that moment the machine started up and flew away.

Michalak’s clothes were set on fire and he felt a strong pain in his belly. Because of the pain a couple of days

after he consulted a doctor who established severe burnings indeed, but of a very special shape. Days after

Michalak lost weight, and a strong decrease of white

blood corpuscles was observed. He also suffered from diarrhoea, felt sick and was dizzy and fainting, all

phenomena of a strong exposure to radioactive radiation.

Even worse was the fate of Inacio de Souza in Crixas in Brazil. On 13 August also in 1967 he

detected a strange aeroplane on the airstrip near his remote farm. Beside the craft three persons were

standing. Because he was afraid that they should attack him, he took his rifle and shot at the closest figure. At

the same moment he was hit by a green ray, from

which he fell to the ground. The craft left with great speed. After that also he was seized by dizziness, had

itching everywhere and suffered from great fatigue. Doctors found a large burned spot of a diameter of 15

cm at his shoulder and finally diagnosed incurable

leukaemia. De Sousa passed away at 11 October caused by an overdose of radio-active radiation.

Also from the Soviet Union and Estonia some other

cases of encounters of the second kind have been reported especially strange objects in the soil. Close

to the river Vaksja in the Soviet Republic of Komi in

1976 workers found a silver-like piece of metal as large as a fist. The material was intensively investigated in a

laboratory by which it appeared to be composed of rare earth metals such as cerium, lanthanium and

neodymium an alloy not existing on Earth in this

composition. Further the metal had a high content of

uranium from which an age of not over 100,000 years

could be concluded. Also the purity of the alloy puts question marks to its origin.

During digging activities in 1965 in Merivjalja in

Estonia at a depth of 6.5 metres a stone-hard object

was met composing mainly from iron and titanium. After thorough investigation the conclusion was drawn

that it had to be manufactured by a technical process. By means of a divining-rod it was established that the

diameter of the object was about 15-20 m and it was surrounded by a particularly strong magnetic field.

However, recovery proved to be very difficult because

of problems identical with the opening of the tomb of Tutankhamun: a couple of co-operators died after a

short time or became seriously ill, in the surroundings strange phenomena were observed such as the sudden

shift of objects, cars included, and strange sounds were

heard. Thereafter, further work was suspended.

Close encounters of the third kind Encounters of the third and fourth kind are the subject

of the most intense scrutiny. We may accept as a fact

that our present intelligence is not the best which the creation has to offer. Together with the obvious

possibility that elsewhere in the universe higher forms of life exist, it is not completely out of the question that

these creatures cross the galaxies and occasionally also encounter our underdeveloped planet. Though, it may

be possible that sometimes inexplicable meetings could

take place, particularly as all these meetings speak of non-intervention with affairs on Earth and that hardly

any traces may remain. In short, we are in the middle of the ‘Fermi Paradox’ as discussed in the first chapter.

But, at present about 2% of all Americans think that

they may have had contact with an alien from outside our world, which is most unlikely. If this were to have

been the case more traces of those entities and wrecks of their means of transport must have been found. It is

striking that especially in the United States the fascination for UFO’s is that great. In the Soviet Union

and later in Russia the interest in such phenomena is

also extensive. Among other countries which may enjoy themselves in the observation of UFO’s are Great

Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and Belgium. But from the third world countries hardly any

reports are forthcoming.

(401) The next story comes

from France: On 10 September 1954 at 22.30

the dog belonging to

Marius DeWilde at Quarouble c l o se to

Valenciennes started to whine. Marius went out to

see what happened. There, in a corner of his garden stood two figures not more than a metere high with

37

ORBIT

broad shoulders and dressed in a sort of diving-suits.

When he came closer he was hit by a kind of dazzling light ray, after which he could not move nor yell. In the

distance on the railway behind his house he just could see the opened door of an object which left with a

whistling sound and with much steam. After that, sharp

imprints were found in the sleepers under the rails which could be made only by a very heavy object.

Moreover, the area was affected by heat.

Also an interesting story is that of Linda Taylor from Southport, Lancashire, on 10 January 1982. She

drove with her mother in a car when this suddenly

slowed down and finally stopped completely. Above them they saw a bright light. Behind drove an old black

car which nearly collided, but did not touch them. After the objects were gone, the car acted as normal. An

hour later Ms Taylor found that her legs were full of red

and black spots which disappeared after some time. The UFO also was observed above a gas station close

by, but disappeared quickly.

The story is therefore interesting because it tells of an old black car from the 30’s. Especially in the United

States many persons, who claim to have seen a UFO,

also claim to have been visited by somewhat stiffly moving gentlemen in old-fashioned black dresses, the

so-called MIB’s (Men in Black). These men seem to know everything about them and advise them not to

report the observation threatening with accidents or

other troubles. Invariably these men drive a black Cadillac from the 30-ies.

As all such observations originate in the USA they

probably date from a collective anxiety influenced by

science-fiction literature and film and conspiracy theories caused by the Cold War.

An other interesting story is that of the Kelly Family.

They lived with eleven persons in a very remote farm in Hopkinsville in Kentucky. On 21 August 1955

they claim to have seen a UFO descending in their

neighbourhood, but first they thought of a falling star. When the dog barked, some men decided to go outside

to have a look and saw two strange, little phosphorescent men with very long arms dressed in

metal coloured suits. As the family was of the kind of

shooting first and then thinking, they shot immediately on both entities which fell down, but seem not to have

been hurt. They disappeared immediately. The men also went inside and closed everything. Some minutes

after the creatures returned looking angry through their windows. The farmers opened a window and started

shooting again. They saw a light behind the trees and

shot at it, but heard their shots ricocheting on metal. Because they saw that their shots had no effect, they

became afraid and barricaded their house from the inside. They were able to observe the creatures for a

further two hours. When it became silent again they

left their house carefully and warned the local sheriff.

The next day the local press was also present and for a

while they were a tourist attraction. But if I lived in that desolation in the bush I also should have liked some

fun.

Some further stories from the Soviet Union. Besides

extraterrestrial entities inhabitants of the steppes of Siberia sometimes are being startled by Yeti-like

observations as on 18 September 1984 when members of an expedition saw a radiant bright light.

Some days later on the terrain of the camp a pile of

stones was found forming the constellation of Cepheus. And the same night they noticed a human-like figure

bending over these stones.

In the neighbourhood of Saratov a farmer’s wife and

her son reported also a yeti-like figure and three weeks later the teacher of a kindergarten and a milk maid saw

as many as three of these creatures. Far away in the Soviet Union such stories turn up regularly.

Concerning contacts with extraterrestrial creatures many swindlers and jokers have been active. The art

painter Budd Hopkins saw that it would pay bread and got a flourishing practice as hypnotherapeutist. His

book ‘Missing Time’ from 1981 was a bestseller. Among other stories, he was responsible for the stories of

Kathy Davis and Linda Napolitano (see below). Also the

Harvard professor, John Mack, contributed much to myth formation with his book from 1984: ‘Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens’.

I further mention David Jacobs who in 1975 even

graduated in the history of the UFO phenomenon, issued as a book entitled: ‘

T h e U F O C o n t r o v e r s y i n A m e r i c a ’ . Among other conclusions he demonstrated that millions

of Americans claimed to be abducted by extraterrestrial creatures and he was the ‘inventor’ of the phrase

‘Missing Time’, the feeling that one thinks there is some

entity in your sleeping room or waking up as paralyzed. He considered this as a ‘proof’ for an extraterrestrial

abduction. But his nearly obsessive interest especially in the sexual behaviour of these entities in contact with

humans comes close to the morbid.

38

ORBIT

But just as his predecessors these ‘experts’, when not

swindlers, or at least persons who use the credulity of people for their own profit, can be considered as charlatans.

In his next part John Studies claims of

Abduction !!

ASTEROIDS

Some Bits and Pieces

New Member seeks to Purchase Mercury Items

See above for contact details

New Issue depicts History of Telecommunications

As spotted by Bert van Eijck (issued on 1.8.08) at

least one of these (bottom left “The Satellite” as yet

unidentified) might be of interest to you.

A Personal Story of the Space Age 1948-1989

New Book from Tim Furniss The inspiring story of a 12-year old British space enthusiast, whose interest in space was fired by Yuri

Gagarin’s flight in 1961 and whose ambition was to

become a spaceflight journalist.

Tim purchased his first copy of Flight International in 1962, when the magazine featured a Space Special issue and he

continued to read it every week. His ambition was to meet astronauts, visit spaceports, to see launches and to get a

job in space. He witnessed Apollo, Shuttle and other launches from Cape Canaveral and the Kennedy Space

Centre and also met and interviewed many astronauts and

cosmonauts.

Tim became Flight International’s spaceflight correspondent in 1984 after being one of the first

journalists to visit the Soviet Union’s Star City training centre. In1988, Tim was the first British journalist to

witness a manned launch from the Baikonur Cosmodrome

in the remote steppes of Kazakhstan. When he stood on the launch pad from where Gagarin was launched - while

also meeting with veteran cosmonauts Gherman Titov and Alexei Leonov -Tim had come full circle, remembering that

day in 1961 with gratitude to God.

Tim is also an author, broadcaster, lecturer and theatrical presenter of his personal space story. One Small Steppe is a personal, inspiring, amusing, moving and feel-good read,

accompanied by a popular history of the international space age to 1989, including Tim’s reporting and travelling for Flight International. A second book, The Rural Spaceman is in preparation, covering 1990-99 and again, will include personal stories and a continued popular history of the international space age.

39

ORBIT

How The Romans were Responsible for An Important Aspect of Shuttle Design !!!???

The following text came into your Editor’s email box from a friend of a friend - you’ll know the kind of stuff that circulates on the web—and is reproduced unexpurgated below as a curio with no claim for its veracity. Any comments ?

The US standard railroad gauge (distance between the rails) is 4 feet, 8.5 inches. That's an exceedingly odd

number. Why was that gauge used? Because that's the

way they built them in England and English expatriates built the US railroads.

Why did the English build them like that? Because the

first rail lines were built by the same people who built the pre-railroad tramways, and that's the gauge they

used. Why did they use that gauge then? Because the

people who built the tramways used the same jigs and tools that they used for building wagons, which used

that wheel spacing.

Why did the wagons have

that particular odd wheel spacing? Well, if they

tried to use any other spacing, the wagon

wheels would break on

some of the old, long distance roads in England,

because that's the spacing of the wheel ruts.

So who built those old rutted roads? Imperial Rome

built the first long distance roads in Europe (and

England) for their legions. The roads have been used ever since. And the ruts in the roads? Roman war

chariots formed the initial ruts, which everyone else had to match for fear of destroying their wagon wheels.

Since the chariots were made for Imperial Rome, they

were all alike in the matter of wheel spacing. Therefore the United States standard railroad gauge of 4 feet, 8.5

inches is derived from the original specifications for an

Imperial Roman war chariot. Bureaucracies live forever.

So the next time you are handed a specification/

procedure/process and wonder, 'What horse's arse

came up with this?', you may be exactly right. Imperial Roman army chariots were made just wide enough to

accommodate the rear ends of two war horses. (Two horses' arses.)

Now, the twist to the story: When you see a Space

Shuttle sitting on its launch pad, there are two big

booster rockets attached to the sides of the main fuel tank. These are solid rocket boosters, or SRBs. The

SRBs are made by Thiokol at their factory in Utah. The engineers who designed the SRBs would have preferred

to make them a bit fatter but the SRBs had to be

shipped by train from the factory to the launch site.

The railroad line from the factory happens to run

through a tunnel in the mountains, and the SRBs had

to fit through that tunnel. The tunnel is slightly wider than the railroad track, and the railroad track, as you

now know, is about as wide as two horses' behinds. So, a major Space Shuttle design feature of what is

arguably the world's most advanced transportation system was determined over two thousand years ago

by the width of a horse's arse. And you thought being a

horse's arse wasn't important? Ancient horse's arses control almost everything ... and current horse’s arses

are controlling everything else!

A long set from Italy 1937 shows various aspects and personalities of the Roman Empire

Great Britain 1984 showing Bath Mail coach of 1784

Signed STS-2 launch cover referring to the shuttle as a workhorse !

40

Exploration of the Moon — from Imagination to Reality

De la Terre à La Lune (1865)

A Trip to the Moon (1902)