OPERANT OPERANT CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

OPERANT CONDITIONINGOPERANT CONDITIONING Many of the behaviours in animals and humans Many of the behaviours in animals and humans

cannot be explained in terms of classical cannot be explained in terms of classical conditioning. conditioning.

Many complex behaviours appear to be Many complex behaviours appear to be voluntary, goal-directed and governed by voluntary, goal-directed and governed by anticipated consequences or rewards. anticipated consequences or rewards.

Different principals are needed to explain how Different principals are needed to explain how complex, goal-orientated behaviour is learned complex, goal-orientated behaviour is learned and changed. and changed.

TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNINGTRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING

Trial and error learningTrial and error learning describes an describes an organism’s attempts to learn, or to solve a organism’s attempts to learn, or to solve a problem, by trying alternate possibilities until problem, by trying alternate possibilities until a correct solution or desired outcome is a correct solution or desired outcome is achieved. achieved.

It involves a number of attempts (trials) and a It involves a number of attempts (trials) and a number of incorrect choices (errors) before number of incorrect choices (errors) before the correct behaviour is learned. the correct behaviour is learned.

Once learned, the behaviour will usually be Once learned, the behaviour will usually be performed quickly and with few errors. performed quickly and with few errors.

TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNINGTRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING

Sometimes referred to as:Sometimes referred to as:

--instrumental learning instrumental learning as in the individual as in the individual is instrumental in learning the correct responseis instrumental in learning the correct response

--operant conditioningoperant conditioning as in the individual as in the individual operates on the environment to solve the operates on the environment to solve the problem. problem.

Trial and error learning involves motivation, Trial and error learning involves motivation, exploration, incorrect and correct responses, exploration, incorrect and correct responses, and reward. and reward.

TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNINGTRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING

Receiving a reward of some kind leads to the Receiving a reward of some kind leads to the repeated performance of the correct repeated performance of the correct responses, strengthening the association responses, strengthening the association between the behaviour and its outcome. between the behaviour and its outcome.

The number maze and the learning The number maze and the learning curvecurve

Negotiate the maze by drawing a line between Negotiate the maze by drawing a line between each consecutive number starting at number 1.each consecutive number starting at number 1.

You will be given a 1 minute interval for each You will be given a 1 minute interval for each maze. maze.

Repeat the procedure for each maze. Repeat the procedure for each maze. Record the number you reached in each maze in Record the number you reached in each maze in

the time allowed. the time allowed. Plot a graph of these numbers against the 10 Plot a graph of these numbers against the 10

trial numbers. trial numbers.

The number maze and the learning The number maze and the learning curvecurve

1.1. What is the shape of the graph?What is the shape of the graph?2.2. How is the shape of this graph different How is the shape of this graph different

from the shapes of graphs obtained by from the shapes of graphs obtained by Thorndike?Thorndike?

3.3. Work out how long on average it took to Work out how long on average it took to get from number to number in the first get from number to number in the first trial as compared to the last trial (no. of trial as compared to the last trial (no. of no.’s / 60 seconds). no.’s / 60 seconds).

4.4. What was the reinforcement that caused What was the reinforcement that caused learning to occur in this case?learning to occur in this case?

THORNDIKE’S EXPERIMENT THORNDIKE’S EXPERIMENT WITH CATS.WITH CATS.

In the early years of the twentieth century, In the early years of the twentieth century, about the same time Pavlov was investigating about the same time Pavlov was investigating the digestive system of dogs, Edward the digestive system of dogs, Edward Thorndike was performing experiments that Thorndike was performing experiments that would form the basis of operant conditioning. would form the basis of operant conditioning.

In Thorndike’s puzzle box experiment, he In Thorndike’s puzzle box experiment, he would place a cat inside a puzzle box and put would place a cat inside a puzzle box and put a fish outside the box. The idea was to a fish outside the box. The idea was to observe and time the cats attempts to escape observe and time the cats attempts to escape the box and get to the fish. the box and get to the fish.

At first the cat showed a wide range of random At first the cat showed a wide range of random behaviours in attempting to escape the box, behaviours in attempting to escape the box, until it accidentally stepped on a leaver in the until it accidentally stepped on a leaver in the middle of the box which released the door. middle of the box which released the door.

The cats behaviour gradually became less The cats behaviour gradually became less random. random.

Each time it was put in the box the cat would Each time it was put in the box the cat would escape a little more quickly, until eventually it escape a little more quickly, until eventually it escaped as soon as it was put back in the box. escaped as soon as it was put back in the box.

Because the cat had started with random Because the cat had started with random behaviour and had gradually learned the behaviour and had gradually learned the solution to the puzzle box, Thorndike believed solution to the puzzle box, Thorndike believed that learning was a trial and error process. that learning was a trial and error process.

Thorndike found that the animal learned those Thorndike found that the animal learned those behaviours that were followed by pleasant behaviours that were followed by pleasant consequences, while other behaviours were not consequences, while other behaviours were not repeated. This became known as the law of repeated. This became known as the law of effect. effect.

The The law of effectlaw of effect suggests that behaviours that suggests that behaviours that lead to positive consequences are repeated and lead to positive consequences are repeated and behaviours that do not lead to positive behaviours that do not lead to positive consequences are not repeated. consequences are not repeated.

The conditioning process became known as The conditioning process became known as instrumental conditioninginstrumental conditioning, , because behaviour because behaviour is instrumental in obtaining rewards. is instrumental in obtaining rewards.

Although it was formulated to explain goal-Although it was formulated to explain goal-directed behaviour, operant conditioning directed behaviour, operant conditioning attempts to explain such behaviour in terms attempts to explain such behaviour in terms of what has happened in the past. of what has happened in the past.

OPERANT CONDITIONINGOPERANT CONDITIONING

The term ‘operant conditioning’ was not The term ‘operant conditioning’ was not introduced until years after Thorndike’s introduced until years after Thorndike’s experiments with cats. experiments with cats.

This term was coined by a man named Burrhus This term was coined by a man named Burrhus Skinner. Skinner.

He suggested that an He suggested that an operantoperant is a response is a response (or set of responses) that occurs and acts on (or set of responses) that occurs and acts on the environment to produce some kind of the environment to produce some kind of effect. effect.

Essentially an operant is a response of behaviour Essentially an operant is a response of behaviour that generates consequences.that generates consequences.

Before conditioning, an organism might make Before conditioning, an organism might make many operant responses. (The cat clawing and many operant responses. (The cat clawing and biting).biting).

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning is based on the principle is based on the principle that an organism will tend to repeat behaviours that an organism will tend to repeat behaviours that have desirable consequences, or that will that have desirable consequences, or that will enable it to avoid undesirable consequences. enable it to avoid undesirable consequences.

Furthermore, organisms will tend not to repeat Furthermore, organisms will tend not to repeat behaviours which have undesirable behaviours which have undesirable consequences. consequences.

SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS WITH SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS WITH RATSRATS

Skinner created an apparatus called a Skinner Skinner created an apparatus called a Skinner Box.Box.

A A Skinner BoxSkinner Box is a small chamber in which is a small chamber in which an experimental animal learns to make a an experimental animal learns to make a particular response for which the particular response for which the consequences can be controlled by the consequences can be controlled by the researcher. researcher.

It has a leaver which delivers a reward (food) It has a leaver which delivers a reward (food) when pushed. when pushed.

Some boxes have lights, buzzers and grid Some boxes have lights, buzzers and grid floors which provide mild electric shocks. floors which provide mild electric shocks.

The lever is also attached to a cumulative The lever is also attached to a cumulative recorder which tracks the desired responses, recorder which tracks the desired responses, their frequency and speed. their frequency and speed.

Rats and pigeons were used for these Rats and pigeons were used for these experiments. experiments.

Skinner 1938, classic experiment to Skinner 1938, classic experiment to demonstrate operant conditioning. demonstrate operant conditioning.

When a hungry rat was placed in the box, it When a hungry rat was placed in the box, it would scurry around, randomly touching the would scurry around, randomly touching the floor and walls. floor and walls.

Eventually it would accidentally press the Eventually it would accidentally press the leaver on the wall in which case a pellet of rat leaver on the wall in which case a pellet of rat food would drop into the food dish and the rat food would drop into the food dish and the rat would eat it. would eat it.

With additional repetitions of leaver pressing With additional repetitions of leaver pressing followed by food, the rat’s random followed by food, the rat’s random movements began to disappear and were movements began to disappear and were replaced by more consistent lever pressing. replaced by more consistent lever pressing.

Eventually the rat was pressing the lever as Eventually the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat the pellets. fast as it could eat the pellets.

The pellet was a reward for making the The pellet was a reward for making the correct response. correct response.

Skinner referred to different kinds of rewards Skinner referred to different kinds of rewards as as reinforcersreinforcers..

Skinner wanted to demonstrate the impact of Skinner wanted to demonstrate the impact of reinforcement according to different types of reinforcement according to different types of schedules of reinforcement. Eg. Every time a schedules of reinforcement. Eg. Every time a correct response is made compared with correct response is made compared with every second time the response is made.every second time the response is made.

Thorndike’s cats could see their reinforcement Thorndike’s cats could see their reinforcement from the box they were placed in, so although from the box they were placed in, so although it took them many trials to make the correct it took them many trials to make the correct response, their motivation was clear. response, their motivation was clear.

Skinner’s lab animals came across their Skinner’s lab animals came across their reinforcement by chance. reinforcement by chance.

Skinner had to use hungry rats in order for Skinner had to use hungry rats in order for them to act erratically and hit the leaver by them to act erratically and hit the leaver by chance. chance.

ELEMENTS OF OPERANT ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

Central to operant conditioning is Central to operant conditioning is reinforcementreinforcement because learning through because learning through operant conditioning occurs as a result of operant conditioning occurs as a result of consequences of behaviour. consequences of behaviour.

A response that is rewarded is strengthened, A response that is rewarded is strengthened, whereas one that is punished is weakened. whereas one that is punished is weakened.

REINFORCEMENTREINFORCEMENT

How do you train a dog?How do you train a dog?

How do you ensure that you don’t get wet when How do you ensure that you don’t get wet when walking in the rain?walking in the rain?

Reinforcement may involve receiving a pleasant Reinforcement may involve receiving a pleasant stimulus (pat/food) or escaping an unpleasant stimulus (pat/food) or escaping an unpleasant stimulus (rain).stimulus (rain).

In either case the outcome is one that is desired In either case the outcome is one that is desired by the organism performing the behaviour.by the organism performing the behaviour.

ReinforcementReinforcement is applying a positive is applying a positive stimulus or removing a negative stimulus to stimulus or removing a negative stimulus to subsequently strengthen or increase the subsequently strengthen or increase the likelihood of a particular response that it likelihood of a particular response that it follows. follows.

The term ‘reinforcer’ is often used The term ‘reinforcer’ is often used interchangeably with the term ‘reward’. interchangeably with the term ‘reward’.

The only difference is that reward suggests The only difference is that reward suggests an outcome that is positive, such as an outcome that is positive, such as satisfaction or pleasure. satisfaction or pleasure.

A stimulus is a reinforcer if it strengthens the A stimulus is a reinforcer if it strengthens the preceding behaviour. preceding behaviour.

SCHEDULES OF SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT. REINFORCEMENT.

Reinforcement may be provided on a Reinforcement may be provided on a continuous schedule (after every correct continuous schedule (after every correct response) or on a partial reinforcement response) or on a partial reinforcement schedule (that is only on some occasions).schedule (that is only on some occasions).

The difference between the two is the speed The difference between the two is the speed with which the response is conditioned and with which the response is conditioned and the strength of the conditioned response. the strength of the conditioned response.

In the early stages of conditioning, learning is In the early stages of conditioning, learning is most rapid if the correct response is reinforced most rapid if the correct response is reinforced every time it occurs. every time it occurs.

This is known as This is known as continuous reinforcementcontinuous reinforcement. .

Once a correct response consistently occurs, a Once a correct response consistently occurs, a different reinforcement schedule can be used different reinforcement schedule can be used to maintain, increase or strengthen the to maintain, increase or strengthen the response. response.

Responses maintained through a program of Responses maintained through a program of intermittent reinforcement are stronger and intermittent reinforcement are stronger and are less likely to weaken or cease than those are less likely to weaken or cease than those maintained by continuous reinforcement. maintained by continuous reinforcement.

Partial reinforcementPartial reinforcement is the process of is the process of reinforcing some correct responses but not all reinforcing some correct responses but not all of them. of them.

The term The term schedule of reinforcementschedule of reinforcement refers refers to the frequency and manner in which a to the frequency and manner in which a desired response is reinforced. desired response is reinforced.

Reinforcement can be given after a certain Reinforcement can be given after a certain numbernumber of correct responses have been made of correct responses have been made (ratio) or as a certain amount of (ratio) or as a certain amount of timetime has has passed (interval). passed (interval).

Reinforcement may be given on a Reinforcement may be given on a regular regular basis (fixed) or it may be basis (fixed) or it may be unpredictable unpredictable (variable). (variable).

Behaviour that is conditioned on a schedule Behaviour that is conditioned on a schedule of partial reinforcement is generally the most of partial reinforcement is generally the most difficult to change. difficult to change.

Each schedule produces a different effect on Each schedule produces a different effect on the rate and pattern of a response. the rate and pattern of a response.

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTPOSITIVE REINFORCEMENT A A positive reinforcerpositive reinforcer is a stimulus that is a stimulus that

strengthens or increases the likelihood of a strengthens or increases the likelihood of a desired response by providing a satisfying desired response by providing a satisfying consequence (reward). consequence (reward).

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement occurs from giving or occurs from giving or applying a positive reinforcer after the desired applying a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made.response has been made.

The food pellet in the Skinner box. The food pellet in the Skinner box. Receiving a good mark if you have studied Receiving a good mark if you have studied

hard. hard.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTNEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

A A negative reinforcernegative reinforcer is any unpleasant or is any unpleasant or aversive stimulus, that when removed or aversive stimulus, that when removed or avoided, strengthens or increases the avoided, strengthens or increases the likelihood of a desired response. likelihood of a desired response.

Skinner Box and electric current. Skinner Box and electric current.

Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement is the removal or is the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. It has avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. It has the effect of increasing the likelihood of a the effect of increasing the likelihood of a response being repeated. response being repeated.

The important distinction between positive The important distinction between positive and negative reinforcement is that positive and negative reinforcement is that positive reinforcers are reinforcers are givengiven and negative reinforcers and negative reinforcers are are removed removed or or avoidedavoided. .

Both procedures lead to desirable Both procedures lead to desirable consequences. consequences.

Examples of negative reinforcers are:Examples of negative reinforcers are:

-turning off a scary video-turning off a scary video

-driving slowly to avoid a speeding fine-driving slowly to avoid a speeding fine

If you take a panadol when you have a headache If you take a panadol when you have a headache and the headache goes away, the behaviour of and the headache goes away, the behaviour of taking the panadol has been negatively taking the panadol has been negatively reinforced, and it is likely you will repeat that reinforced, and it is likely you will repeat that behaviour next time you have a headache. behaviour next time you have a headache.

TO REMEMBER:TO REMEMBER:

-positive (+) reinforcer = adding something -positive (+) reinforcer = adding something pleasant pleasant

-negative (-) reinforcer = subtracting something -negative (-) reinforcer = subtracting something unpleasant (which results in a pleasant or unpleasant (which results in a pleasant or desirable outcome. desirable outcome.

PUNISHMENTPUNISHMENT PunishmentPunishment is the delivery of an unpleasant is the delivery of an unpleasant

stimulus following a response, or the removal stimulus following a response, or the removal of a pleasant stimulus following a response. of a pleasant stimulus following a response.

It has the same unpleasant quality as a It has the same unpleasant quality as a negative reinforcer, but unlike a negative negative reinforcer, but unlike a negative reinforcer, the punishment is given or reinforcer, the punishment is given or applied, whereas the negative reinforcer is applied, whereas the negative reinforcer is prevented or avoided. prevented or avoided.

Punishment is designed to Punishment is designed to weakenweaken a a response, or response, or decreasedecrease the probability of that the probability of that response occurring again over time. response occurring again over time.

Factors that influence the Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement effectiveness of reinforcement

and punishment. and punishment. Reinforcement is intended to increase the Reinforcement is intended to increase the

likelihood of a behaviour being repeated and likelihood of a behaviour being repeated and punishment is intended to decrease the punishment is intended to decrease the likelihood of behaviour being repeated. likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

-Order of presentation-Order of presentation

-Timing-Timing

-Appropriateness-Appropriateness

ORDER OF PRESENTATIONORDER OF PRESENTATION

To use reinforcement and punishment To use reinforcement and punishment effectively it is important that it is presented effectively it is important that it is presented after after a desired response, never before. a desired response, never before.

Learning consequences of certain responses. Learning consequences of certain responses.

TIMINGTIMING Reinforcement are most effective when they Reinforcement are most effective when they

are given are given immediately afterimmediately after the response has the response has occurred. occurred.

This helps the organism to make the This helps the organism to make the association between the response and the association between the response and the reinforcer/punishment. reinforcer/punishment.

If there is a delay learning will take longer. If there is a delay learning will take longer.

Sometimes, in real life, it is not possible for Sometimes, in real life, it is not possible for consequences to be given immediately. consequences to be given immediately.

APPROPRIATENESSAPPROPRIATENESS For any stimulus to be a reinforcer, it must be For any stimulus to be a reinforcer, it must be

pleasing or satisfying in some way. pleasing or satisfying in some way.

It is not known if something is going to be a It is not known if something is going to be a reinforcer until after it has been used. reinforcer until after it has been used.

It cannot be assumed that a reinforcer that It cannot be assumed that a reinforcer that works in one situation will work in other works in one situation will work in other situations. situations.

Characteristics of the individual need to be Characteristics of the individual need to be taken into account. taken into account.

A stimulus must be appropriate as a A stimulus must be appropriate as a punishment, as in it must provide a punishment, as in it must provide a consequence that is unpleasant, and consequence that is unpleasant, and therefore likely to decrease the unwanted therefore likely to decrease the unwanted behaviour. behaviour.

KEY PROCESSES IN OPERANT KEY PROCESSES IN OPERANT CONDITIONINGCONDITIONING

The same key processes are involved in both The same key processes are involved in both classical and operant conditioning, however classical and operant conditioning, however the way in which these processes occur is the way in which these processes occur is slightly different in each. slightly different in each.

-Acquisition-Acquisition-Extinction-Extinction-Stimulus generalisation-Stimulus generalisation-Stimulus discrimination-Stimulus discrimination-Spontaneous recovery-Spontaneous recovery

ACQUISITIONACQUISITION AcquisitionAcquisition r refers to the overall learning efers to the overall learning

process, during which a specific response, or process, during which a specific response, or set of responses is established. set of responses is established.

The types of behaviours acquired during The types of behaviours acquired during operant conditioning in comparison to operant conditioning in comparison to classical conditioning are generally more classical conditioning are generally more complex. complex.

In operant conditioning, In operant conditioning, acquisitionacquisition is the is the establishment of a response through establishment of a response through reinforcement. reinforcement.

Some behaviours that are operantly Some behaviours that are operantly conditioned are too complex to be performed conditioned are too complex to be performed completely in the beginning of the acquisition completely in the beginning of the acquisition process. process.

Instead behaviours that are a simpler version Instead behaviours that are a simpler version of the desired behaviour, or a step towards of the desired behaviour, or a step towards the desired behaviour are rewarded instead. the desired behaviour are rewarded instead.

This is known as shaping. This is known as shaping.

ShapingShaping is the procedure in which is the procedure in which reinforcement is given for any response that reinforcement is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately successively approximates and ultimately leads to the final desired response, or target leads to the final desired response, or target behaviour. (Also known as the behaviour. (Also known as the method of method of successive approximationssuccessive approximations). ).

EXTINCTIONEXTINCTION In operant conditioning, extinction may also In operant conditioning, extinction may also

occur, and the process is similar to its occur, and the process is similar to its occurrence in classical conditioning. occurrence in classical conditioning.

ExtinctionExtinction is the gradual decrease in the is the gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a conditioned response strength or rate of a conditioned response following consistent non-reinforcement of the following consistent non-reinforcement of the response .response .

Extinction is less likely to occur when partial Extinction is less likely to occur when partial reinforcement is used. reinforcement is used.

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERYSPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

After the apparent extinction of a response, After the apparent extinction of a response, spontaneous recoveryspontaneous recovery can occur and the can occur and the organism will once again show the response organism will once again show the response in the absence of any reinforcement. in the absence of any reinforcement.

The response is likely to be weaker. The response is likely to be weaker.

A spontaneously recovered response is often A spontaneously recovered response is often stronger when it occurs after a lengthy period stronger when it occurs after a lengthy period following extinction of the response, than following extinction of the response, than when it occurs relatively soon after extinction. when it occurs relatively soon after extinction.

STIMULUS GENERALISATIONSTIMULUS GENERALISATION

In operant conditioning, In operant conditioning, stimulus stimulus generalisationgeneralisation occurs when the correct occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is response is made to another stimulus that is similar to the stimulus that was present when similar to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced. the conditioned response was reinforced.

Response usually occurs at a reduced level. Response usually occurs at a reduced level.

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATIONSTIMULUS DISCRIMINATION

Stimulus discrimination Stimulus discrimination occurs when an occurs when an organism makes the correct response to a organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when respond to any other stimulus, even when they are similar. they are similar.

Skinner trained pigeons to discriminate Skinner trained pigeons to discriminate between red and green lights and to peck between red and green lights and to peck only when they saw a green light in order to only when they saw a green light in order to receive reinforcement. receive reinforcement.

COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL COMPARISON OF CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Common elements:Common elements:

-Acquisition-Acquisition

-Extinction-Extinction

-Spontaneous recovery-Spontaneous recovery

-Stimulus discrimination-Stimulus discrimination

-Stimulus generalisation-Stimulus generalisation

-Association between two events-Association between two events

-Often occur in the same situation-Often occur in the same situation

Major differences:Major differences:

-Operant- emphasis on consequences-Operant- emphasis on consequences

-Classical- behaviour does not have -Classical- behaviour does not have environmental consequencesenvironmental consequences

-Classical- response is involuntary/automatic-Classical- response is involuntary/automatic

-Operant- responses are mostly voluntary-Operant- responses are mostly voluntary

THE ROLE OF THE LEARNERTHE ROLE OF THE LEARNER

In classical conditioning the learner is In classical conditioning the learner is relatively passive, that is the response relatively passive, that is the response elicited by the learner occurs automatically. elicited by the learner occurs automatically.

In operant conditioning the learner must In operant conditioning the learner must actively operate on the environment so as to actively operate on the environment so as to obtain the reinforcement or the punishment. obtain the reinforcement or the punishment.

TIMING OF THE STIMULUS AND TIMING OF THE STIMULUS AND RESPONSERESPONSE

In classical conditioning the response In classical conditioning the response depends on the presentation of the UCS depends on the presentation of the UCS occurring first. occurring first.

In operant conditioning the presentation of In operant conditioning the presentation of the reinforcer depends on the response the reinforcer depends on the response occurring first. occurring first.

In classical conditioning the timing of the two In classical conditioning the timing of the two stimuli produces an association between stimuli produces an association between them that conditions the learner to anticipate them that conditions the learner to anticipate the UCS and respond to it even if it is not the UCS and respond to it even if it is not presented. presented.

In operant conditioning, the association that In operant conditioning, the association that is conditioned is between the stimulus and is conditioned is between the stimulus and the response. The response is either the response. The response is either strengthened by reinforcement or weakened strengthened by reinforcement or weakened through punishment. through punishment.

In classical conditioning the timing of the two In classical conditioning the timing of the two stimuli needs to be very close and the stimuli needs to be very close and the sequencing is vital. sequencing is vital.

In operant conditioning, while learning In operant conditioning, while learning generally occurs faster when the generally occurs faster when the reinforcement or punishment occurs soon reinforcement or punishment occurs soon after the response, there can be a significant after the response, there can be a significant time difference between them. time difference between them.

THE NATURE OF THE RESPONSETHE NATURE OF THE RESPONSE In classical conditioning the response by the In classical conditioning the response by the

learner is usually a reflexive, involuntary one. learner is usually a reflexive, involuntary one.

In operant conditioning, the response by the In operant conditioning, the response by the learner is usually a voluntary one. learner is usually a voluntary one.

In classical conditioning the response is likely to In classical conditioning the response is likely to involve the action of the autonomic nervous involve the action of the autonomic nervous system, and the association is not conscious or system, and the association is not conscious or deliberate. deliberate.

In operant conditioning the response is likely to In operant conditioning the response is likely to involve the central nervous system, and to be involve the central nervous system, and to be conscious, intentional and often goal-orientated. conscious, intentional and often goal-orientated.