DevelopmentalPsychology1982,Vol. 18, No.3,341-358Copyright1982 by theAmerican PsychologicalAssociation,Inc.0012-1649/82/1803-0341 J00.75IdentityDevelopmentFrom Adolescence to Adulthood:AnExtensionof Theory andaReviewof ResearchAlanS.WatermanTrentonState CollegeThoseaspectsofErikson'stheoryofpsychosocialdevelopmentconcerningtheformationofasense ofpersonal identityareexaminedinlightofresearchevi-dence.WhentheStage5 component isconsideredasabipolardimension,theexpectationis thatthetransitionfromadolescencetoadulthoodinvolves apro-gressivestrengthening inthesenseofidentity.Whentheidentityconstructisexpandedto includetheprocesses by whichan identityis formed,itishypoth-esizedthatover timetherewillbeprogressivedevelopmentalshiftsinidentitystatus,thatis,fromtheidentitydiffusionstatusintoeithertheforeclosureormoratoriumstatus,fromtheforeclosureintothemoratoriumstatus,andfromthemoratoriumintotheidentityachievementstatus.Thecircumstancesasso-ciatedwithprogressiveshifts,regressive changes,andreentryintoanidentitycrisisarediscussed.Thereviewoftheliteraturefocusesonquestionsofthedirectionand timing of identity development, sex differencesin development, andthe identificationof antecedent conditions relating to the choice of developmentalpathways.Erikson's(1963,1968) constructof iden-tityhasbecometheprincipaltoolforun-derstandingthedevelopmentofpersonalityfromadolescenceintoadulthood:The wholeness to be achieved at this stageI have calledasense of inneridentity. Theyoung person, in ordertoexperience wholeness, must feel a progressive continuitybetween thatwhich he hascome tobe during thelongyears of childhood and that which he promises to becomeintheanticipatedfuture;betweenthatwhichhecon-ceiveshimselfto be and that which he perceives othersto see in him and to expect of him. Individually speaking,identityincludes, butismore than, thesumofallthesuccessive identifications of those earlier years when thechild wanted to be, and often was forced to become,likethe people he depended on. Identity is a unique product,whichnow meets a crisisto be solved onlyin new iden-tifications with age mates and with leader figures outsideofthefamily. (Erikson,1968,p.87)Eriksonhasidentifiedseveraldevelop-mentalissues that may become thefocus ofanidentitycrisis.Thereis thechoiceofanoccupationthatisbothsociallyrecognizedandpersonallyexpressive.Anotheristhedevelopmentofanideologicalworldviewthatisworthyofapersonalcommitment.Such an ideologymay be eitherreligiousorpoliticalinnature.OtherquestionsinvolveRequests for reprints should be sent to Alan S. Water-man, Department of Psychology, Trenton StateCollege,Hillwood Lakes,CN550,Trenton,New Jersey08625.sexroleappropriatebehaviorandsexualorientation.Heretoothetaskistofindmodes of expression thatreflect intrinsic in-clinations andfor which sufficientsources ofsocialsupportexistwithintheindividual'sculturalmilieu.Sincetheconstructof identitywasintro-ducedforpurposesofclinicalanalysis,whether of individuals orof cultures, its def-initioncouldremain richly associativewith-outbeingpreciselyspecified. TheimpactofErikson'sclinicalinterpretationsrests,inpart,on his capacityto persuadethereaderthatquitediverse forms of behaviorareac-countableforintermsofalimitednumberofconcepts*However,theabsenceofade-finitivestatementoftheboundariesoftheidentityconstructhasposedaproblemforresearchersattemptingtodevelopopera-tional definitions thatcover therangeof as-pectsattributedtoit.Theassessmentin-strumentsthathavebeendevelopedhaveusuallyfocused onsome combinationofthefollowingfacets of identity: (a)a clearsenseofself-definition;(b)thepresenceofcom-mitmentsregardinggoals,values,andbe-liefs;(c)theexistenceofactivitydirectedtoward the implementationofcommitments;(d)theconsiderationofarangeofidentityalternatives;(e)theextentofself-accep-341342 ALANS. WATERMANtance; (f)a sense of personal uniqueness; and(g)confidenceinone'spersonalfuture.Amongtheglobalpaper-and-pencilinstru-mentswithitemstappingdifferentcombi-nationsofthesethemesareRasmussen's(1961)Ego IdentityScale, Dignan's(1965)Ego Identity Scale, the EgoIdentity-Incom-pleteSentencesBlank(Marcia,1966),theInventoryofPsychosocialDevelopment(Constantinople,1969),andtheIdentityAchievementScale(Simmons,1970).Such a global approach to assessmentper-mitsa determinationof theextentto whichapersonhasestablishedaclearsenseofidentity butdoes not provide information ontheprocessesbywhichidentityelementsweredeveloped.Inwriting ontheprocessesofdevelopment,Erikson(1958)usedWil-liamJames's distinctionbetween thosewhoareoncebornandthosewho gothroughasecondbirthorgrowth crisisintheshapingoftheiridentity.Theformerexperiencenodifficultiesinfittingthemselvesintotheirsociety.Theytranslatetheirchildhood iden-tificationsintoadultexperiencewithout se-rious doubt or conflict. In contrast, thetwicebornundergoacrisisofpurposeorfaithinwhichtheiradultcommitmentsareformedasanactof personalchoice.Marcia(1966)constructedasemistruc-turedinterview by which toassessboththeclarityofpersonalidentityandtheprocessbywhich itdevelops.Theclassificationsys-temusediscomposedoffouregoidentitystatuses:(a)identityachievement,(b)mor-atorium,(c)foreclosure,and(d)identitydiffusion.These statusesaredefinedin termsoftwodimensions:crisisandcommitment."Crisis" refers to a periodof struggleor ac-tivequestioninginarrivingatsuchaspectsof personal identityas vocational choice andideologicalbeliefs."Commitment" involvesmakingafirm,unwavering decisioninsuchareasandengaginginappropriateimple-mentingactivities.Anidentityachieveris someonewhohasgonethroughaperiodof crisisandhasde-velopedrelativelyfirmcommitments.Theterm moratoriumis used to refer to a personwhoiscurrentlyinastateofcrisisandisactivelyseekingamongalternativesinanattempttoarriveatachoice.Apersonisclassifiedasa foreclosureifheorshehasnever experienceda crisis butis neverthelesscommittedtoparticulargoals,values,orbeliefs.Thecommitmentsthatforeclosureshavemadegenerallyreflectthewishesofparentsorotherauthority figures. Thecat-egoryofidentitydiffusionincludes individ-uals who do not have firm commitmentsandwhoarenotactivelytryingtoformthem.Theymaynever have beenin crisis,ortheymayhavehadaperiodofquestioningandbeenunabletoresolveit,subsequentlyemergingwithouthaving madeadecision.There have beenseveralrecentreviews oftheresearchliteratureonidentity (Bourne,1978a,1978b;Marcia,1980,Note1) eval-uating the validityof the various assessmenttechniques and documenting the broadrangeof variablesto which identityis related.Themore limitedfocus here is on theoryandre-search pertaining to questions of identity for-mation.Specifically,theissuestobedis-cussedare(a)thedirectionandtimingofidentitydevelopment,(b)sexdifferencesindevelopment,and(c)antecedentconditionsrelating to the choice of developmental path-ways.DevelopmentalHypothesesDirectionandTimingofDevelopmentAtitssimplest,thebasichypothesisofidentitydevelopmentisthatthetransitionfromadolescencetoadulthoodinvolvesaprogressivestrengtheninginthesenseofidentity.Itis thishypothesisthathasbeentested in numerous studiesusingpaper-and-pencilmeasuresofidentity.BecauseMarcia'sidentityinterviewpro-cedureinvolvescategorizingindividuals ac-cordingtotheirstrategyforhandlingthetask of identity formation and does notyielda single continuous measure, a more complexsetofdevelopmentalpatternscanbeiden-tified.A schematicpresentationof thepath-waysof identitystatusformationconsistentwithErikson'stheoryis giveninFigure1.Apersonwhoisintheidentitydiffusionstatusmay(a)becomeamoratoriumbybeginningtoseriouslyexploreavarietyofidentityalternatives(D M);(b)becomeaforeclosure by latching on to thefirstrealpossibilitythatispresentedwithouteverevaluating other coursesofaction(D > F);IDENTITYDEVELOPMENT 343or(c)continueindefinitelyinthediffusionstatus,never making a serious effortto workoutidentityissues(D D).Aperson who isintheforeclosurestatusmay(a)becomeamoratoriumif theearlycommitmentsarechallengedinawaythatrequires the consideration of alternative pos-sibilities(F *M);(b)continueasafore-closure,carryingintoadulthoodcommit-mentstothegoalsandvaluesthatweredevelopedpriortoorduringadolescence(F F);or(c)becomeadiffusioniftheinitialcommitmentsgradually becomelessmeaningfulwithout stepsbeing takento re-vise orreplacethem(F > D).A person who has entered the moratoriumstatusmay (a)become anidentity achieverbyestablishingfirm,meaningfulcommit-ments tospecificgoals andvalues (M *A)or (b) become an identitydiffusionby givingupontheeffortstofindsomething worth-whiletowhichtobecomecommitted(M^D).1Apersonwhohasbecomeanidentityachievermay(a)continueasanachiever,maintainingthecommitmentstothegoalsandvalues thatwere worked out during theidentitycrisis(A A);(b)againbecomea moratorium, reentering crisis if theearlierresolutionproves unsatisfactoryin some way(A M);or(c)becomeadiffusionifthecommitmentsthatwereestablishedgradu-allylosetheirvitalitywithouttriggeringanewcrisis(A > D).Ofthechangesinstatusjustdescribed,thefollowingconstituteprogressivedevel-opmentalshifts: fromtheidentitydiffusionstatusintoeithertheforeclosureormora-toriumstatus,fromtheforeclosure intothemoratoriumstatus,andfromthemorato-riumintotheidentityachievementstatus.Eachrepresentsmovementinvolvingeithertheinitiationofreflectiveconsiderationofidentityalternativesorthedevelopment ofpersonallymeaningfulcommitments,Achange into the identity diffusionstatusfromanyoftheotherstatusescanbeviewedasdevelopmentallyregressive, since it involvesa puttingasideof identity concerns, at leasttemporarily,withouthavingestablishedasatisfactoryresolution.Theshiftfromtheidentity achievement to the moratorium sta-tus mightmoreappropriately be consideredMMMFFigure1.Amodelofthesequentialpatternsofegoidentity development. (D=identity diffusion;F=fore-closure;M=moratorium; A=identityachievement.)as theresumptionof acrisis ratherthanadevelopmentalregression.Itreflectsacon-tinuationof theidentityformationprocess,an attempt to make more rewarding choices,notarenunciationof identityconcerns.Theabove constitutes a descriptive modelratherthanatheoryofdevelopment,sincetherearevirtuallynopatternsofidentitystatus change inconsistentwith it. The utilityofthemodelrestsintheopportunity itaf-fordstostudytherelative frequencyofthedifferentdevelopmentalpathsandthecir-cumstancesthatinfluence theiradoption.Itthusbecomespossibletocomparethepat-terns of development among various groupswithinapopulation(andbetweenpopula-tions)andtoidentifytheimpactofsocio-historicalconditions on identity formation.Thebasichypothesis ofidentity develop-mentmaynow be phrased: Movementfromadolescenceto adulthood involves a prepon-deranceof changesin identitystatuswhichcanbecharacterizedasprogressivedevel-opmentalshifts.Therearetwoquestionsrelatedtothedirectionofidentitydevelopmentaboutwhich little a priori theorizing has been done.Oneconcernstherelativestabilityofthevariousidentitystatuses.Itcanbeantici-'Continuing in the moratorium status is not includedhere,sinceindefinitelymaintaining anidentitycrisis ishighlyimprobable(althoughtheoreticallypossible).Moving from the moratorium(or achiever) status to theforeclosurestatusis notatheoreticalpossibility.Onceapersonhas undergone anidentitycrisis,he or she nolongercanmeetthedefinitionofaforeclosure,even ifheor she goesbacktothesame goalsandvalues thatwere held beforethe crisis.344 ALANS. WATERMANpatedthatthemoratoriumcategorywill betheleaststableofthestatuses,sinceitisassociatedwith an expresseddesiretomakechangesinone'slife.Furtheritisdifficultforindividuals tosustainthesubjective dis-comfortusuallyassociatedwithidentitycrises.Ifasuccessfulresolutioncannotbeachieved,thepersonislikelytoeventuallyrenounce the taskas unresolvable. However,itisunclearastowhichstatuswillbethemoststable. Whileboththeforeclosureandidentityachievementstatusesinvolve com-mitments, the stability of either type of com-mitment may be influenced by a wide varietyof life events. Thelackof commitmentchar-acteristic of the identity diffusionstatusmayormaynotprovetobearelativelystabledevelopmental quality. Further,it is possiblethattherelativestabilityof thevarious sta-tuseswillvarybythetopicareainwhichidentityisconsidered.Theotherquestionbestapproachedinempiricalfashionconcernsthetimingofidentitychanges.Inhisdiscussionoftheepigeneticprinciple,Erikson(1959)refersnotonlytoapropersequenceofstagede-velopmentbuttoaproperrate.Stage5 inhistheorycanbepresumedtocovermuchor all of theperiod frompuberty throughthecollegeyears.He does not,however, suggestatimetableof theagesatwhichparticularidentityissuesaremostlikelytoarise,be-comeafocusofdevelopment,andreacheventualresolution.Althoughwide individ-ualdifferences inthetiming ofidentityde-velopmentmaybe expected,itshouldbe ofinteresttodetermineif therearecharacter-istictimes(ordevelopmentalsettings)as-sociatedwiththegreatestprobabilityofchange.SexDifferencesinIdentityDevelopmentSinceErikson(1963,1968, 1975) wroteextensivelyonthedifferences inpsycholog-icalfunctioningbetweenthesexes,itmightbeexpectedthathewouldanticipatesexdifferencesinthepatternsofidentity for-mation.Itisquestionable,however,astowhetherheintendedsuchahypothesis.Be-foreaddressingthatquestion,itishelpfultolookatthedifferencesthathedoesde-scribe.Working fromhis experience with the playconstructionsofpreadolescentparticipantsinalong-termdevelopmentstudy,Eriksondiscusseddifferencesbetweenthesexesintherealandsymbolic use of space.He drewanassociationbetweentheplayconstruc-tions andanatomically basedgenitalmodes.Males,withexternalgenitalorgans,erect-ableandintrusive, developedplayconstruc-tioncharacterizedbyheightanddownfall,strongmotionanditschannelizationorar-rest.Females,withinternalgenitalorganshavingvestibularaccess,constructedstaticinteriorsthatwereopen,simplyenclosed,andpeacefulorintrudedupon.However,Eriksondidnotconclude thatintrusion andenclosingwere theexclusive prerogativesofmalesandfemales,respectively.Rather,thesedifferences were seenasonesof "pre-dispositionand prediction." Hewrotethatwhere cultural and historicalconditions per-mit,eachsex maybeled"tomakeuseof,toshare,andattimestoimitate,the con-figurationsmosttypicaloftheothersex"(Erikson,1975,p. 233).TheemphasisErikson(1975)placedonthepresenceofanatomicallybasedsex dif-ferencesinbehaviorreflectsanefforttocounter the assertionsmade by some thatallsex differencesarelearned.Hedidnot pos-tulatedifferentdevelopmentalprocessesformalesandfemales.Thus,whilebiologicalpredispositionsmaybeexpectedtoplaysomeroleregardingthecontentofidentitychoices,theywouldnotnecessarilybein-volvedintheprocessesbywhichidentityelementsareselected.Bothsexesmayundergocomparableexperiencesofcrisisandcommitment.Itshouldberecognizedthatanysex differences observedin thefre-quencyofpresenceinthedifferentidentitystatusescanbeinterpretedasafunction ofculturalinfluences,notaresultoftheun-foldingofdifferentdevelopmental capabili-ties.AntecedentConditionsRelatingtoIdentityDevelopmentThechoiceofadevelopmentalpathwayforidentityformationmaybeexpectedtobeinfluencedbyavarietyofinterrelatedvariables.Thefollowing isasummary pre-IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 345sentationofhypothesesrelatingantecedentconditionstothecourseofidentitydevel-opment.1.The greatertheextent ofidentificationwithparentspriorto or duringadolescence,thegreaterthelikelihood will be offormingandmaintainingpersonallymeaningfulcommitments.Withstrongidentification,entrance into, andmaintenance of, the fore-closure status appears mostprobable.2.Differencesin parenting styles(Becker,1964) will be reflectedin differences in path-ways of identity formation. Individuals withpermissive,neglecting,orrejectingparentsmay be expected most frequently to be iden-titydiffuseandto have difficultyinsuccess-fullyresolvingidentitycrisesshouldtheyoccur.Thosefromauthoritarianfamiliesmay take either of two quite divergentpaths,becomingforeclosedonparentalchoicesorrebellingandgoing throughanidentitycri-sis,perhapsofquitestrenuousproportions.The former alternative should be morecom-monunder circumstanceswhere anadoles-cent is able to earn parental respect, whereasthelattershouldmorefrequentlyoccurwhereparentalapprovalcannotbegained.Bothprotectiveandindulgentparentingstylesmaybeexpectedtoyieldoutcomescharacterizedeitherbyrelativeinsecurity(identitydiffusion)orbydocile conformity(foreclosure).Finally,democraticparentingshould be relatively conducive to the consid-eration of identity alternatives and the form-ingofpersonalcommitments(identityachievement).Presenceintheforeclosurestatusmay also be expected where any earlydecisionsarefunctionalfortheadolescentandmeetwithparentalsupport.3.Thegreater,therangeofidentityal-ternatives towhich anindividual isexposedpriortoorduringadolescence,thegreaterthe likelihoodwill be of undergoing aniden-titycrisis.Thus,homogeneouscommunitiesmay be conducive to theforming and main-taining of foreclosure commitments, whereasmore heterogeneous communitiesmayservetofacilitatetheentranceintoanidentitycrisis.4.Thegreatertheavailabilityofmodelfigures perceivedaslivingsuccessfully,thegreaterthe probabilitywill be thatapersonwillformmeaningfulcommitments.Thisshould have particular relevance for the like-lihoodofsuccessfullyresolvinganidentitycrisis,sincesuccessfuladultmodelsmayserveasexamplesofhowtocopewith dif-ficultiesandmaysuggestidentitycontentalternativesthatcanbe profitably explored.Similarly, theparents'own identity statusesmayinfluencetheprocessofidentitydevel-opmentthroughthemodel value they havefortheadolescent.5.Thenatureofthesocialexpectationspertainingto identity choices arisingwithinthefamily,theschools,andthepeergroupwill contribute to the particular identityde-velopmentpathwaysemployed.Whereoneis exposed to social groups thatseldom ques-tionreceivedauthority,anidentitycrisiswouldappearlessprobablethanamonggroupswherequestioningismorecommonandevenencouraged.6.Consistentwiththeepigeneticprinci-ple,itis anticipatedthatto theextentthatpreadolescent personalityprovides anappro-priatefoundationforcopingwithidentityconcerns(i.e.,therearesufficientlevelsofbasictrust,autonomy, initiative, and indus-try),themoresuccessfullyidentitydevel-opmentislikely toproceed.Similarly,suc-cessin suchotheraspectsof development asformaloperationsand moralreasoning mayalsocontributetoadvancesinidentityfor-mation.ResearchEvidenceDirection andTimingofDevelopmentDevelopment priorto and during the highschool years.Prior to the high school years,thereappearsto be little interestinidentity-relatedquestions.Ciaccio(1971)usedaThematicApperception Test-typestory-tell-ing projective instrument to assess the extentofconcerns associatedwith eachof thefirstfive stagesdescribedbyErikson.Thesam-plesconsistedofmalesatthreeagelevels:5,8,and11years.Theresultsofa"unitutterance"scoring procedureindicatedthatthe11-year-oldboyswerebeginningto ev-idenceidentity concerns,butthe frequencyof such concerns was farlower than for con-cerns associatedwiththeearlierstagecom-ponents of industry and initiative.Similarly,346 ALANS.WATERMANintwostudiesusing theegoidentityinter-viewwith11-to13-year-olds(Meilman,1979; Archer, Note 2), theidentity achieve-mentstatuswas observed in less than4% ofthetopicareascoringdecisions.Theresultsofcross-sectionalstudiesofdevelopmentduringthehighschoolyearsusing paper-and-pencil instruments have re-vealedonlylimiteddifferences.Pomerantz(1979) foundtwelfth-grade females toscoresignificantlyhigherthaneighth-gradefe-males on the Rasmussen Ego Identity Scale,butthedifferenceformales,thoughintheexpecteddirection,wasnotsignificant.LaVoie (1976) studied high school sophomores,juniors, and seniors of both sexes using Mar-cia'sEgoIdentity-IncompleteSentencesBlankandfoundanonsignificantincreasewithincreasing grade level. Similarly, How-ard(1960),inacomparisonofsophomoreandseniorhighschool girls, found anonsig-nificantincreasein scores onherowniden-tityquestionnaire.Cross-sectionalstudiesinvolvingtheegoidentityinterview were conductedbyMeil-man(1979) and Archer(Note 2). Thepar-ticipantsinMeilman'sstudywerecollege-boundmalesaged12,15,and18years.2Thosein Archer'sstudy were malesandfe-males fromGrades6, 8,10, and12, withoutrestriction as to future plans. In bothstudies,attheyoungestagelevelvirtuallyallpar-ticipantswereintheforeclosureand/oridentitydiffusionstatuses.Theforeclosurestatuswas more frequentin theareas of sexroleattitudes(includedonlyinArcher'sstudy),avocational choice(includedonly inMeilman'sstudy), andreligiousbeliefs (in-cluded in both studies),and theidentity dif-fusionstatuswas mostfrequent intheareaofpoliticalideology (includedinbothstud-ies).Incomparison,theoldesthighschoolsamplesevidencedmoreinstancesoftheidentityachievement statusinbothstudies,and these increases with age were distributedacrossallcontentareas.Therewerecorre-sponding decreasesin instances of theiden-titydiffusionstatus,alsodistributedacrossthevariouscontentareas.Thefrequenciesofthemoratoriumandforeclosurestatusesdidnotchangesubstantiallyduring thepe-riodconsideredhere.Hauser(1971)conductedalongitudinalstudy with a small sample of white and blackmale high schoolstudentsfromlowersocio-economicstatusbackgrounds.Heusedacombinationofinterview andQ-sortproce-duresovera3-yearperiod.Hefoundthewhite adolescentsto show a patternof"pro-gressiveidentityformation"characterizedbyfrequentchangesinself-conceptduringtheearlyhighschoolyearsfollowedbyin-creasing consistency and stability as theper-sonapproachedhighschoolgraduation.Incontrast,theblackadolescentsshowedageneralstabilityintheiridentityelementsoverthe entire study period,a patternHau-ser termed"identityforeclosure."Heinter-pretedthislackofchangeasreflectingaproblemindevelopmentinthatimportantdevelopmental issues had been dodgedratherthanresolved.Manyofthestableidentityelementsweredefinedinthenegative;thatis, the adolescent knew what he did not wanttobecomeratherthanwhatalternativeheactively wanted topursue. Theresultwas arigid and impoverished self-definition.3Hau-serspeculatedthattheseracialdifferencesmayhaveresultedfromgreaterdiscrimi-nationdirectedtowardpoor blacksthanto-wardwhitesfromthesamebackground.Developmentduringthecollege years.Itis during thecollegeyears thatthe greatestgains in identity formation appeartooccur.College environments provideadiversityofexperiencesthatcanservebothtotriggerconsiderationofidentityissuesandtosug-gestalternativeresolutions foridentity con-cerns.Theresultsofnumerous studiescon-firmthat, in general, senior men and womenhaveastrongersenseofpersonalidentitythandotheirfreshmancounterpartsandthattheidentitycommitmentsheldasse-niorsaremorelikelytohavebeenarrivedatthrough thesuccessful resolutionof iden-titycrises.Cross-sectionalstudiesusingpaper-and-pencil measures of identity yield a consistentpatternoffindings,withhighscoresasso-ciatedwithadvancing ageand/oryearsin2 Meilman(1979)alsoincludedsamplesofmalesaged21 and24years.3 InMarcia's(1966)classificationsystem,suchin-dividualswouldprobablyhavebeentermedidentitydiffuse.IDENTITYDEVELOPMENT 347college. Such results have beenfound for theDignanEgoIdentityScale(Dignan,1965;Stark&Traxler,1974;Thompson,1963)andtheStage5scaleoftheInventory ofPsychosocialDevelopment(Constantinople,1969;Whitbourne,Jelsma,&Waterman,1982),thoughtheeffectswerenotalwaysstatisticallysignificant.4Longitudinalstud-iesusing theInventory ofPsychosocialDe-velopmentprovidefurtherevidenceofiden-titydevelopmentduringthecollegeyears(Constantinople, 1969,1970;Whitbourne etal., 1982). Fry (1974) found significant gainsontheStage5 componentsforasample ofcollege students fromrural backgrounds butaretrogressiveshiftforthosefromurbanbackgrounds.There have been three longitudinal studiestracingidentity developmentamongcollegestudents using the ego identity interview pro-cedure.AdamsandFitch(inpress)inter-viewed males and females fromdifferentcol-lege cohorts at a state university insuccessiveyears. In the otherstudies, changes fromthefreshmantothesenioryearwereassessedamongmalestudentsatatechnologicalin-stitute(Waterman&Waterman,1971;Waterman, Geary,& Waterman,1974) andataprivateliberalartscollege(Waterman&Goldman,1976).Ineachof thestudies,theinterview covered theareas of vocationalchoice,religiousbeliefs,and politicalideol-ogy. The resultsfromthe three schools werequite similar.1.Collegeclearlyfacilitatesidentityde-velopmentintheareaofvocationalplans.Inbothstudiescovering the4-yearperiodfromthefreshman tothesenior year,thereweresignificantincreasesinthefrequencyofstudents intheidentityachievementsta-tusanddecreasesinthefrequencyofstu-dentsin the moratoriumstatus.Inaddition,there was a decreasein the frequency of stu-dentsintheidentitydiffusionstatusattheliberal arts college. In the 1-year study, therewasasignificant decreaseinthefrequencyofidentitydiffusionsandanonsignificantincreaseinthefrequencyofidentityachievers.2.Collegeexperiencesappeartounder-minetraditionalreligiousbeliefswithoutnecessarilyhelping thestudents to establishalternate beliefsystems. At all threecollegesthereweresignificant decreasesinthefre-quency of students in theforeclosure status.At the state university there was an increaseinthefrequency ofstudentsintheidentityachievement status,and at thetechnologicalschool there was an increase in the frequencyofidentitydiffusions.3.Althoughthedevelopmentofnew,clearercommitments in theareaof politicalideologywasobservedtooccurduringthecollege years, a substantial proportion of thestudentsdemonstratedlittleinterestinthetopic.Significant increasesinthe frequencyoftheidentityachievement statuswere ob-served over 1 year at the state university andover4yearsatthetechnologicalinstitute.Atthestateuniversitytherewas also asig-nificantincreaseinthefrequencyofthemoratoriumstatus.Significantdecreaseswerefoundfortheidentitydiffusionstatusatthestateuniversityandtheforeclosurestatusatthe technological institute. No sys-tematic changeswere found for the studentsattheprivateliberalartscolleges.Inboth4-yearstudies, more than halfof the partic-ipants were approaching graduation withoutclearbeliefs in thisareaandwithout tryingtoformany commitments.Thepatternsofidentity development ob-servedwere relativelyconsistentacrossthethreestudies,butsome differenceswere ev-ident.The differencesmay have been due tothedistinctive characteristicsof thestudentpopulationsat the three schools. Differencesinthetiming ofthestudiesmayalsohaveaffectedtheresults,particularlyin theareaofpoliticalideology.Forexample,thefirst4-yearstudywasconductedatthetechno-logicalinstitutefrom1968to1972 duringthe height of the antiwar protest. The secondstudy,conductedattheprivateliberalartscollege,tookplacefrom1970 to1975, withthesenior-yearinterviewsconductedafterthe issue of the war had largely subsided andfollowingtheWatergatescandal.Itshouldalso be noted that in all three studies,fcillow-up data were only obtainedfromindividuals4Protinsky(1975)foundasimilardifferenceinacomparisonof juniorhighschool studentsandcollegestudentsfortheStageS itemsoftheRasmussen EgoIdentityScale.However,thebroadagerangeoftheparticipants in the study does not permit a determinationas tothetiming of development.348 ALANS.WATERMANwhocontinuedattheirrespectiveschoolsthroughouttheperiodoftheresearch.Asyet,nothing isknown aboutthepatternsofdevelopmentofthosewhowithdrawfromcollege.Developmentduringthe adultyears.Todateonlylimitedresearchhasbeencon-ductedconcerningidentityamongadults.Watermanand Waterman (1975) comparedthedistributionof theidentitystatusofcol-lege males and their fathers.They found thatthefathers (men between theages of 40 and65years)were morefrequentlyin thefore-closurestatusinthethreetopicareascov-eredintheinterview (vocationalchoice,re-ligious beliefs, andpoliticalideology).Theirsonsweremorelikelytobeinthemorato-riumandidentitydiffusionstatuses.A veryhighpercentageofforeclosureswasalsofoundinasampleofmarriedadultwomenbetween the ages of 23 and50 years (Water-man,Note3).All of thewomenwerefrommiddle-class communities, were in theirini-tial marriage, and had at leastone childaged17 years orless living athome. Thegreatestconcentrationsof foreclosure decisions werein the topic areas of family/careerpriorities,religiousbeliefs,andsexroleattitudes.Itseemsreasonabletosuggestthatthehighpercentage of foreclosures among these adultmenandwomenwereafunctionoftheso-cietal conditions that were present when theywerein thestagesof adolescenceandyouth(e.g.,thedepression,WorldWarII,ortheKoreanWar).Thesestudiesmaytellusmoreabouttheimpactofsociohistoricalevents thanaboutontogeneticdevelopment.O'Connell(1976)conductedaretrospec-tivestudyofidentitysynthesisinmarriedwomenwithschool-agedchildren.Thewomenwereclassifiedastraditional(full-timehomemakers),neotraditional(havingresumedacareerafteraninterruptionforchildbearing),ornontraditional(continu-ouslycommittedtotheircareers).OntheSenseofIdentityInventory,womeninallsamplesindicatedtheyhadexperiencedanincreasinglystrong senseof identityastheymoved fromadolescence through theperiodswhenthey were first married,hadtheir firstchild,andtheirchildrenwereofpreschoolage,tothepointwheretheirchildrenwereofschoolage. O'Connell observed thataftermarriage"traditionalandneotraditionalwomen'ssenseof identityseemstoundergoamoratorium[i.e.,ahiatus]whichisnotterminateduntil theschool children stage ofthelifecycle,whilenontraditionalwomendeveloptheirsenseofidentityinamorestraightforwardprogression"(p.683).Two longitudinal studies have traced iden-tity development from the college years intoadulthood.WhitbourneandWaterman(1979),using theInventory ofPsychosocialDevelopment,conductedafollow-upwithmaleandfemalecollegealumni10yearsaftertheyhadcompletedtheinstrumentasundergraduates.Asignificant increasewasfoundfor the Stage 5 scale assessing identityversus identity diffusion.Marcia(1976), us-ingtheegoidentityinterview,followedupon30menwhohadoriginallybeeninter-viewed6yearsearlierwhile incollege.Allwerelivingwithina50-mileradiusofthecityin whichtheir college was located.Theresults were reportedin termsof changes inoverallidentitystatus,ajudgmentarrivedatbycombininginformationfromthevo-cational,religious,and politicalcontentareasof theinterview. Theidentitystatuses,asidefromthe moratoriumstatus,were fairlysta-ble (70%). The individuals in theforeclosureandidentitydiffusionstatuses werefoundtobe morestable thanwerethose in theiden-tity achievementstatus.Six of the7 identityachieversatthetimeofthefirstinterviewwerecommitted,aswell,inthefollow-up.However,3ofthemenwereclassifiedasforeclosures.Thesemustbeconsideredasanomolous changes, since once a person goesthroughanidentity crisis,heorshecannolonger fit thetechnical definitionof the fore-closurestatus.5Fiveofthe7moratoriumsincollegehadfirmcommitmentsatthefol-low-up,and2hadbecomediffuse.Only1ofthe16participantswhowereforeclosedordiffuseatthebeginningof thestudyhadbecomeanidentityachiever,while 2otherswere going through an identity crisis6 yearslater.Thusitappearsthattheadultyears5 Waterman etal.(1974)analyzed instances ofan-omolous scoring and foundthem due to (a) respondents'failingtoreportsomesignificantpieceofinformationinoneinterviewthatwas reportedin another interviewand (b) inconsistent application of the scoring standards.IDENTITYDEVELOPMENT 349area periodof strengtheningof identitybutnotatimewhenmanynewidentityissuesareraisedornovel possibilities considered.6ComparativeStabilityoftheIdentityStatusesThethreelongitudinal studiesof identitydevelopmentduringthecollegeyearshavealsoprovideddataontherelativestabilityof theidentitystatuses. Comparisonsofrel-ativestabilitycanbemadefora1-yearpe-riod at the stateuniversity (Adams& Fitch,in press) and for a 4-year periodat the tech-nologicalinstitute(Waterman&Water-man,1971; Watermanet al,1974) and theprivateliberalartscollege(Waterman&Goldman,1976).Table1 containstheper-centageofinstancesinwhich anindividualwasinthesameidentitystatusatboththebeginningandendofthestudyperiodinaparticularcontentareaof theinterview.7Asexpected,themoratoriumstatuswastheleaststableofthefourstatusesacrosstheperiodfromthefreshman tothesenioryearandwas thesecondleaststablestatusintheshorterstudy. In thetwo 4-yearstud-ies, there were 34 instances of identity crisesinparticularinterviewareasfoundatthestart of thefreshmanyear.Notone of thesecrises was continuing during the senioryear.Of these crises over three quarters endedintheformation ofclearlydefined,personallymeaningfulcommitments.At thetechnolog-icalinstitute76%ofthemoratoriumshadbecomeidentityachievers,andthecorre-spondingfigureattheprivateliberalartscollegewas 85%. Consideringonly thosein-stances in the1-year study in which theper-son hademergedfromthemoratoriumsta-tus,in85% ofcasesfirmcommitmentshadbeendeveloped.Thus,thereisavery highprobabilitythatidentitycrisesexperiencedincollegewillbesuccessfully resolved.The stability of the other identitystatuseswasgenerallycomparable.Itwasevidentthatin instances where individuals had firmcommitmentsatthestartof thestudy,ap-proximatelyonethirdtoonehalfwerenolonger in the same identity status by thetimeof the follow-up. This finding for the identityachievementstatusmakesitclearthatthesuccessfulresolutionofanidentitycrisisdoes not giveapermanenceto thecommit-ment formed. Although the achievementsta-tusis slightlymorestablethantheforeclo-surestatus,bothstatusesareaffectedbyfactorsleadingto the initiation of a crisis ortoregression.Whenthecomparativestabilitydataareanalyzed separatelyfor thedifferentcontentareasoftheinterview,somedifferencesemerged. The identity achievement and fore-closure statuses were more stable in the areaofvocationalplansthanintheothertopicareas.Conversely, the identitydiffusionsta-tuswas more stablein theareasof religiousbeliefs and political ideology than in theareaofvocationalplans.Themoratoriumstatuswashighly unstable inallinterview areas.SexDifferencesin IdentityDevelopmentThepaper-and-pencilmeasuresoftheidentityconstructindicatefewdifferencesbetweenmalesandfemales.Sex differenceshavenotbeenfoundontheidentityitemsoftheInventoryofPsychosocialDevelop-ment(Constantinople,1969;Waterman&Whitbourne,1981;Whitbourne&Water-man,1979); theIdentityAchievementSta-tusScale(Simmons,1970);theTexasPsy-chosocial IdentityScale (Dunivant& Bieri,Note 4); the Objective Measure of Ego Iden-tityStatus(Adams,Shea,& Fitch,1979);Rasmussen'sEgoIdentityScale(Pomer-antz,1979);orMarcia'sEgoIdentity-In-6 Thelimited number of instances in whichtheadultmen (Waterman & Waterman, 1975) and adult women(Waterman,Note3)werefoundtobeintheidentityachievementstatus forthemost partdidinvolvecrisesoccurringduringtheadultyears.Becausethesefre-quencies were small, however, the findings can be viewedasconsistentwiththeconclusion thattheadultyearsdonotconstituteaperiodofextensiveredirectionofidentitychoices.Inthisregard,thephenomenonofmidlifecrisis should bestudiedfromanidentitystatusperspective. If such crises are or become frequent withinthesociety, andif such crises entail thereflective con-siderationof identityalternatives, the above stated con-clusionwillhave tobemodified.7 The relative stability percentagesreported hereareunderestimates of theactual extent of change,since in-dividuals who wentthrough several changes during thestudy period and who resumed the same status they wereininitially wouldbecountedasstable.Thecontent oftheidentity elements atthesecondinterview may havebeen thesameor different fromtheir initial ideas.350 ALANS.WATERMANTable1PercentStabilityoftheEgoIdentityStatusesin LongitudinalResearchIdentitystatusIdentity achievementMoratoriumForeclosureIdentitydiffusion1-year stabilityatstateuniversity"685061424-yearstability attechnologicalinstituteb59944504-year stabilityat privateliberalarts college'5404667" DatafromAdams andFitch,inpress.bDatafromWaterman andWaterman, 1971, andWaterman, Geary, andWaterman, 1974.'DatafromWaterman and Goldman,1976.completeSentencesBlank (LaVoie,1976).Dunivant and Bieri (Note 4) did find femalesto score higher than males on Gruen's (1960)Ego IdentityScaleandBlock's(1961)RoleConsistencyIndex.Atleast10 studieshavebeenconductedthatcanbe usedforcomparisonsof thedis-tributionof thevarious identity statusesbe-tween males and females. Two involved sam-plesof highschoolupperclassmenorrecenthigh school graduates (Waterman& Archer,1979;Grotevant,Note5);sixinvolvedcol-legesamples(Adams&Fitch,inpress;Hodgson&Fisher,1979;Orlofsky,1978;Poppen,1974;Waterman&Nevid,1977;Rothman,Note6);oneinvolvedasampleof17-to18-year-oldDanishstudents(Matteson,1977);andoneinvolvedadults(Tesch,1980).Somedifferencesemergedinparticularcontentareas.Vocationalchoice.Nosexdifferenceswereobservedineitherhighschoolsampleorin five ofthesixcollegesamples.Inonecollegesample,maleswere more frequentlyintheidentityachievementstatus,andfe-malesweremorefrequentlyforeclosedordiffuse(Hodgson& Fisher,1979). Also,theDanishmalesshowedmoreexplorationofoccupationalalternativesthandidthefe-males(Matteson,1977).Nodifferencewasfoundfortheadultsample.Religiousbeliefs.Among the high schoolstudents,WatermanandArcher(1979)foundthatmalesweredisproportionatelypresentintheforeclosurecategoryandfe-maleswereoverrepresentedintheidentitydiffusionstatus.Grotevant(Note5)foundnodifferenceinthisarea.Atthecollegelevel,twostudiesindicatedtendenciesformalestomorelikelybeidentityachievers(Adams&Fitch,inpress;Hodgson&Fisher,1979);oneshowedasignificant ef-fectfor females to be more frequently intheachieverstatus(Orlofsky,1978);andthreerevealednodifferences(Poppen,1974;Waterman&Nevid,1977; Rothman, Note6).Theadultsampledidnotyieldasignif-icantdifference.Politicalideology.Priortothecollegeyears,Grotevant(Note5)foundmalestobemorefrequently intheidentityachieve-mentstatusandfemalesmoreofteninthemoratoriumstatus.Incontrast,WatermanandArcher(1979)foundmalestobe over-representedintheforeclosurecategoryandfemalestobemorefrequentlydiffuse.Sig-nificant differenceswere also observed in twoof the collegestudies,with males moreoftenintheidentityachievementstatusandfe-males overrepresentedin the foreclosuresta-tus(Adams&Fitch,inpress;Hodgson&Fisher,1979).Nodifferenceswere foundintheotherfourcollegestudies,norwere anyfoundinthestudyofadults.Attitudestoward premaritalintercourse.Inthreeof the five collegestudiesthatin-cludedthistopicarea,femaleswerefoundtobemorefrequentlyreportedasidentityachieversthanweremales,whereasthemalesweremorefrequentlyforeclosedordiffuse(Orlofsky,1978;Poppen,1974;Waterman& Nevid, 1977). Rothman (Note6)foundtheidentityachievementstatustobe themostfrequent for bothmalesandfe-males,withmalesmorelikelytobeinthemoratoriumstatusandfemalesmorelikelytobe foreclosed.NodifferenceswerefoundbyHodgsonandFisher(1979).MattesonIDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 351(1977)reportedthatamongDanishstu-dents,females were morelikely thanmalestoundergoexplorationofsexualidentityalternatives.Sexroleattitudes.Atthehighschoollevel,nosexdifferenceswereobservedineither study. Onlyone of the college studiesincluded thetopic of sex roles,andas inthearea of sexualattitudes, femalesweremorelikelyto bein theidentity achievementandmoratoriumstatuses,whereasthemaleswere more likelytobeforeclosedordiffuse(Hodgson&Fisher,1979).Tesch(1980)founda trend toward a sex differencein thisarea for adults, with females somewhat morelikelytobeinthemoratoriumstatusandmales overrepresented in the foreclosurecat-egory.Psychologicalsignificanceoftheidentitystatuses formales and females.Theresultsoftheseanalysesforsex differences suggestthat in most interview topic areas, males andfemalesundergo similar patternsofidentitydevelopment.Onlyintheareaofattitudestowardsexualbehaviorwastheregeneral,thoughnot complete, consistency amongthestudies,indicatingtheuseofdifferentpro-cesses.(Notenoughresearchonsexroleattitudes has been conducted to reach a con-clusion regarding this topic.) Itis clear thatmalesandfemalesaremoresimilarthandifferentin theiruse ofdevelopmentalpro-cesses, but there is reason to believe thattheidentity statuses may nevertheless havedif-ferentpsychologicalimplicationsforthesexes(Marcia,1980).Forbothsexes,theidentityachievementstatusisassociatedwithrelativelygoodadaptivecapacities,whereas theidentity diffusionstatusisoftenassociatedwith difficultiesin coping.Forthemoratoriumandforeclosurestatuses,how-ever, sex differences emerge.Amongmales,individualsinthemoratoriumstatuslookgenerally similar in behavioral traits to iden-tityachievers,andbothstandincontrastwithmalesintheforeclosureandidentitydiffusionstatuses.Amongfemalesthepat-ternsaremore complex,with women intheforeclosureandidentityachievementsta-tuses looking most similar on somequalities,while on others it is the identity achievementandmoratoriumwomenwhoappearmostsimilar.Marcia(1980)suggeststhat"therelative adaptivenessof the MoratoriumandForeclosurestatusforwomen isafunctionbothofthedependentvariablesusedinaparticularstudy andof the existingculturalsupportsforwomen'sexplorations ofalter-natives"(p.175).AntecedentConditions RelatingtoIdentityDevelopmentAlargenumberofhypotheseswereof-feredregardingvariablesthatmaycontrib-utetodeterminingthecourseofidentitydevelopment,butonlyafew havebeenin-vestigated.Thesearchforantecedentinflu-enceshasfocusedonfamilyvariables,de-velopmentalcharacteristicsbelievedtobehierarchicallyrelatedtoidentity,andper-sonalactivitiesandinterests.Familyvariables.Considerableatten-tion has been directedtoward identifyingthenatureofdifferencesinfamilyrelationshipsandparentingstylescharacteristicofindi-viduals in the various identity statuses. SinceMarcia(1980)hasreviewedthisliteratureinsomedetail, onlya briefsummaryofthefindingswillbepresentedhere.Aswouldbeexpected,foreclosureshavebeenfoundto have theclosestrelationshipswith their parents. Bothsonsand daughtersevaluatetheirparentsmostfavorablyanddescribe their families as child centered. Thefathersof foreclosures areseenasrelativelypossessiveandintrusivetowardtheirsonswhile beingmoresupportiveandencourag-ingoftheirdaughters.Inturn,foreclosuresonsarethemostwillingtoinvolvetheirfamiliesinmaking importantlifedecisions.Incontrast,identitydiffusionsof bothsexesreportedthemostdistancefromtheirfam-ilies.Theparentsof identitydiffusionswereseenasindifferent,inactive,detached,notunderstanding,andrejecting.Bothmalesandfemales in themoratoriumandidentityachievementstatuseswere relativelycriticaloftheirparentsandwerelikelytoreportthemselvestobein conflictwiththeirfam-ilies.Sonsinthesestatuseswerenotlikelytoturntotheirfamilieswhenmakingim-portant life decisions. This tension within thefamily appears related to ambivalenceon thepartofbothparentsandoffspringoverthelatter's attempts atindividuation.Withthe352 ALAN S.WATERMANsuccessfulresolutionofanidentitycrisis,betterfamilyrelationshipsmaybeestab-lished. Finally, there is evidence that, in gen-eral,thenatureof therelationshipwiththeparentofthesamesex ismorestronglyre-latedto identity status thanis the relation-shipwiththeopposite-sexparent.It is an attractive hypothesis thatparentalbehaviorcontributestoidentityformation,andthepatternof researchresultsobtainedprovidesreadilyinterpretablelinksbetweenfamilyfunctioningandthevariousidentitystatuses.However, forbothmethodologicalandconceptualreasons,itcannotbecon-cludedthatthefamilyvariablesstudiedac-tuallydoinfluencetheprocessofidentitydevelopment.Inmoststudies,theresearch-ershave reliedsolely on verbalreportmea-sures obtainedfromadolescentoryouthre-spondents.Thesemeasuresaresubjecttoerrorsofmemory, defensive distortion,andconscious impression management. The sameproblems existinthosestudies whereinfor-mation was obtainedfromtheparents. Evenif theaccuracyof thereportswere assumed,itwould stillnot be possible to reachacon-clusionconcerninganycausalcontributionoffamilyvariables.Thetypeofbehaviorshownbyason ordaughtermaywellhaveelicitedparticularresponsesfromthepar-ents,whichcouldaccountfortheobservedrelationships. It is far easierto provide a sup-portive,child-centeredenvironmentwhenchildrenidentifystronglywiththeparentsandfollowfamilytraditionswithoutques-tioning.Incontrast,theambivalenceandconflictfoundinthefamilybackgrounds,ofmoratoriumsandidentityachieversmaybearesponsetothesometimesextremeshiftsin behaviorengagedin by a son or daughtergoingthroughastressful,andstressing,identitysearch.Similarly,itis possiblethatthe lack of involvement shown by theparentsofidentitydiffusionsmaybeatleastpar-tiallytheresultofachild'sgivingfewstrongly directedbehavioral stimuli to whichtheparentscanrespond.Itis probablynotpossibletoentirelyunravelthecomplexcausaleffectspresentinanyrelationshipoflong duration.Long-term,longitudinal,pre-dictive studies appear necessary if any mean-ingfulevaluationis tobemadeofthelike-lihoodthatparentingbehaviorscontributetotheprocessbywhichidentityis formed.Alonganotherline,WatermanandWaterman(1975) hypothesized thatparentsmayserve asrolemodelsforthetype of de-cision-makingprocesses involvedin identityformation.However, they foundno relation-ship between theidentitystatusesshown bya sample of fathers and theircollege-attend-ingsons.Variables relating to family stability havealsobeeninvestigatedaspossiblecontribu-tors to identity development with conflictingresultstodate.OshmanandManosevitz(1976) foundthata sample of collegemaleswho experiencedfatherabsencefroman av-erage age of about10 years had significantlylower fullscale scores on the Rasmussen EgoIdentityScalethan didsamplesfromintactfamiliesandfamiliesinwhichthemothershadremarried.The directionsofdifferenceswere the same on all Ego Identity Scale stagescales, but the effectfor the Stage 5 (identityvs.identitydiffusion)itemswasnotsignifi-cant. Jordan (1970) found that collegemalesintheidentitydiffusionstatusweremorelikely to have come frombroken homes thanwere thosein the otherstatuses.Incontrast,St.ClairandDay(1979)reportedthatinasampleof highschoolfemales,twothirdsof the students in the identity achieverstatuscamefromhomesdisruptedbydivorceorthedeathofoneparent,whereaslessthanone fifth of thestudentsin eachof theotherstatuseswerefrombrokenhomes.Also,Grossman,Shea,andAdams(1980)foundthatmalecollegestudentswithahistory ofparentaldivorcescoredhigheronMarcia'sEgoIdentity-IncompleteSentencesBlankthandidmalesfromintactfamiliesorfe-males from either divorced or intact families.Developmentalcharacteristics.Onetestoftheepigeneticprinciple thatthesuc-cessfulresolutionofthecrisisassociatedwitheachof theearlierstages ofpsychoso-cial development provides the foundation forthesuccessfuldevelopmentofidentity isfurnishedby thepatternofintercorrelationsamongthestagescalesoftheInventory ofPsychosocialDevelopment(Constantinople,1969).This instrument is designedtoassessthepersonalitycomponents associatedwithIDENTITY DEVELOPMENT 353eachof thefirstsix stages inErikson'sthe-ory.As expected,thescoreson theStage5scaleforidentityversusidentitydiffusionhavebeenshown toyieldsignificantcorre-lations witheachof theearlierstage scalesinsamplesofundergraduatesdrawnfromfive collegesandasampleofadultcollegealumni (La Voie & Adams, in press;Water-man,Buebel,&Waterman,1970;Water-man&Whitbourne,1981).MarciaandMiller(Note7),working withasample ofadultwomen,comparedtheidentitysta-tuses,as assessedby theego identityinter-view,withregardtoscoresfromtheInven-toryofPsychosocialDevelopment. Womenintheidentityachievementstatushadthehighestscoresoneachoftheearlystagescales, whereas those in the identitydiffusionstatusconsistentlyhadthelowestscores.Rothman(1978) conductedasimilarstudywith a college student sample using theRas-mussenEgoIdentityScaleinsteadoftheInventoryofPsychosocialDevelopment.Againtheidentitydiffusionstatuswasas-sociatedwiththelowestscoresoneach oftheearlystage scales, butno clearpatternexistedamong the otherstatuses.Thestagecomponents of autonomy andindustry mostclearly discriminatedamongthe statuses.Egoidentityhasalsobeenpresumedtorestuponadevelopmentalfoundationpro-videdbyotheraspectsofegofunctioningthanthosefocusedonbyErikson.Effortshave been made to relate progress in identityformationtoLoevinger'segostages,Kohl-berg'sstagesofmoralreasoning,andPia-get's stages of cognitivefunctioning.In eachinstancethere is a possibility thata certainlevelofstagefunctioningmayconstituteanecessarybutnotsufficientconditionforadoptingaparticularpathofidentityfor-mation.ApositiverelationshipbetweenidentityandLoevinger's ego stageswas obtainedbyAdams and Shea (1979) in a sample of maleandfemalecollege students.Theyreportedthatwhile 20% of individuals in theidentitydiffusionstatuswere intheA stageofself-protectivefunctioning (theloweststageob-servedin thesample),less than4% of thoseineachoftheotherstatuseswereatthatlevel.Incontrast,only5%ofidentitydif-fusionswereatorabovethe1-4stageofconscientious functioning; the correspondingpercentagesfortheotherstatuswere 19%forforeclosures,29% formoratoriums,and37% for identityachievers.Theonly two in-dividuals at the1-6 stage of integratedfunc-tioning were in the identity achievement sta-tus.Thesedatasuggest that theattainmentof Stage 1-4 could constitutea necessarybutnotsufficientcondition formovement outoftheidentitydiffusionstatus.(Thefewex-ceptionsfoundinthestudymayhave beenafunctionofmeasurementerroron eithervariable.)ThepossibilityalsoexiststhatStage1-6isanecessaryconditionforbe-cominganidentityachiever,buttheex-tremelysmallsampleinvolved renderssucharelationshiphighly speculative.AdamsandFitch(1981)conducteda1-year follow-up with the sample fromthe pre-vious study. They found considerable changein bothidentity statusand ego stage. Cross-laggedcorrelationsusingcontinuousmea-suresonbothvariablesyieldedevidence ofcontemporaneouschangebutnotsequen-tially. (Itshouldbe notedthatthecontin-uous measure of identity did not preserve theuniqueness of the differentidentity statuses.)Apositiverelationshipbetweenidentitystatus andlevel ofmoralreasoningwas ob-tainedinthreestudiesofcollegesamplesusingKohlberg'sinterview procedureoramodificationofit(Podd,1972;Poppen,1974; Rowe& Marcia,1980). Theidentityachievementstatuswas moststrongly asso-ciatedwithpostconventional moralreason-ing,whereastheforeclosureandidentitydiffusionstatuseswereoverrepresentedatthepreconventional and conventional levels.Cauble(1976)didnotfindadifferencebe-tweenthecombinedidentityachievementandmoratoriumstatuses and thecombinedforeclosureandidentitydiffusionstatusesusing Rest's Defining Issues Test as the mea-sureof moral reasoning.Thestudy byPoddprovideddatainaformmostsuitablefordeterminingwhetherthepostconventionallevelof reasoning servesasanecessarybutnot sufficientcondition for entering the mor-atoriumand/oridentityachievementsta-tuses.Hefound51%oftheparticipantsintheidentity achievement statustobefunc-354 ALANS.WATERMANtioningatthepostconventionallevel.Thecorresponding percentagesfor the othersta-tuseswere31%formoratorium,12%forforeclosure,and9%foridentitydiffusion.Thus,althougharelationshipbetweenthetwodevelopmentalschemesisapparent,postconventionalreasoningdoes not serve asanecessaryconditionforenteringorsuc-cessfullyresolvinganidentitycrisis.Ithasalso beenhypothesized thatformaloperationalthoughtis relatedtothelikeli-hood of undergoing and resolving an identitycrisis(Inhelder&Piaget,1958;Kohlberg&Gilligan,1971).However,theresearchresultsobtainedtodatehavebeenlargelynegative.NeitherBerzonsky,Weiner,andRaphael(1975) nor Cauble (1976) have ob-tained support for thehypothesis. Rowe andMarcia(1980)obtainedsupportiveresults,but their sample size was too small for mean-ingfulstatisticalanalysis.Marcia(1980)suggestedthatmethodologicalproblems inthe earlier research may accountfor the neg-ativeresults.Sincevirtuallyallof theresearchonde-velopmental characteristicshasinvolved as-sessment atonly a singlepointin time, it isnotpossible to conclude thatthesevariablesactuallyconstituteantecedentsofprogressinidentityformation.Theassociationsob-served could be operating in eitherdirection,orthechangemaybeoccurringsimulta-neously ratherthan sequentially. Again, lon-gitudinalresearchisneededtoestablishwhether any of thestageconstructsarepre-dictiveantecedentsof identity development.Interestsand activities.Alarge numberofcorrelatesoftheidentitystatuseshavebeen identified,anyof which mightcontrib-utetotheprocessofidentity development;however,inonlyacoupleofinstancesistherereason to believe thata sequentialar-rangementmayexist.Inthelongitudinalstudies conducted atthetechnological insti-tuteandtheprivateliberalartscollege(Waterman& Waterman,1971;Watermanet al,1974;Waterman& Goldman,1976),theCollegeStudentQuestionnaire-Part1(Peterson,1965)wasgiventoallpartici-pantsatthebeginningoftheirfreshmanyear.TheCulturalSophisticationscale,whichtapsaninterestinsuchareasasart,music,literature,andforeignfilms,wasfoundtobe predictive of identity formation.At both schools,freshmenwho were identityachievers scored higher on the scale than didfreshmenwhowerenotidentityachievers.Moreimportantly,studentswhobecameidentityachieversduring their collegeyearshad more cultural interests as freshmen thandidstudentswho didnotenterthestatus.Culturalinterestsmaycontributeeithertothecreationofidentitycrisesand/ortheirresolution. The exposure to new ideas throughculturalmediamayservetochallengetheviewswithwhichapersonwasraisedandsuggestmore promisingidentityalternativestowhichcommitments canbe formed.Apossiblyrelatedvariableshowntobeassociatedwithidentity developmentisex-pressivewritingactivity.Amongsamplesofboth high school and college students, malesand females who wrote poetry were farmorelikely to be in the identity achievement statusthanwerestudentswhohadneverwrittenpoetry(Waterman& Archer,1979;Water-man,Kohutis,&Pulone,1977).Nodiffer-ences were foundbetween students who hadkeptapersonaljournalordiaryandthosewhohadnot.Sinceexpressivewriting wasfoundto have startedrelativelyearlyin ad-olescence,thepoetrywriting activitieswerealmost certainlyantecedentto theachievingofastablesenseof identity.It had been originally expected that poetrywriting and journal keeping would yield sim-ilarresults.Thedifferencesmaybeex-plainedintermsofthewaysinwhichthestudents approachedthe two types of expres-sion. Both groups saw their writings as help-ing to increase their level of self-understand-ing, but there were differencesin thethemeswrittenaboutandintheperceptionsofthefunctionsthewriting served(Waterman&Archer,1979).Journalkeepingappearedtobeusedprimarilyformakingarecordofcurrentactivitiesandfordescribingrela-tionshipswithfriendsandparents.Incon-trast,poetrywritingwasseenasavehicleforthecreative expression of moreabstract,emotionalconcerns.Further,poetry writerswere much more likely to want to share theirwritingsthanwerejournalkeepers.Thus,poetrywritingmaybeatechniquethatisIDENTITYDEVELOPMENT 355instrumentalin working throughanidentitycrisis by aiding in the exploration of possibleidentityalternativesandbyservingasameans for gainingfeedbackfrom others.Ratherthantherebeingadirect,facili-tative connection between culturalinterests,poetrywriting,andidentityformation,it ispossiblethatallthreemayrelatetosomecommonunderlyingpsychologicalqualityinvolving curiosityand exploration. The im-petus to explore therealm of ideasandfeel-ingsthroughculturalmediaandpersonalemotionalstates through poetry writing mayalso beinvolved in thetendency toconsideravariety ofidentityalternatives.Oneothervariable thatmayserveasanantecedentofidentityformationisthein-dividual'swork history.MunroandAdams(1977)reportedacomparison ofthedistri-butionof theidentity statuses between sam-plesofcollegestudentsandworkingyouthofequivalent age.Theyfoundthe workingsample to be morefrequentlyin theidentityachievementstatusandthecollegesampletobemoreoftenintheidentitydiffusionstatus. The groups differedsignificantly withrespect toidentitystatusin theareasof re-ligious beliefs andpolitical ideology butnotwith respect to vocationalchoice. Munro andAdams (1977) suggestedthatfull-timeem-ployment "mightstimulate rapid movementtowardidentityformation,while college at-tendance might be seen as an extended mor-atoriumperiod"(p.523).ConcludingCommentsThebasichypothesisembodiedinErik-son'stheoryofidentitydevelopment thatmovementfromadolescencetoadulthoodinvolveschangesinidentitythatcanbecharacterizedasprogressive developmentalshifts faresverywellinempiricalstudies.Substantialevidenceexistsforbothanin-creasedprobabilitythatconsiderationwillbegiven toidentityalternativesandanin-creasedprobabilitythatpersonallymean-ingfulcommitments willbeformed.Withrespect to thetimingof development,itap-pearsthatonlylimitedchanges occurpriorto or during the high school years. The mostextensiveadvancesin identityformation oc-curduringthetimespentincollege.(Notenoughresearchhasbeenconductedwithnoncollege samples of equivalentagetode-terminetherelative contributionof ontoge-neticandsituationalvariablestosuchchanges.) The period immediatelyaftercol-legeappears mostoften to involve aconsol-idationofthesenseofidentityratherthanthecontinuedexplorationofidentityalter-natives.Ofthetopicareasthatmaybecomethefocusofidentityconcern,thegreatestdoc-umentationofprogressivedevelopmentalshiftsexistsforvocationalchoice.Identityquestionsconcerningsexualexpressionhavenot been studied longitudinally, butthe highprobabilityof theidentityachievementsta-tus,at leastamongwomen, indicate similarprogressinthisarea.Lessconsistencyhasbeenobservedforthepatternsofidentitychangeintheareas ofreligiousbeliefsandpoliticalideology,perhapsasafunctionofdifferencesin the background characteristicsoftheparticipantsinvariousstudiesorchangingsociohistoricalconditions.Comparisonsofthepatternsofidentityformationshown by males and femalesyieldfarmoreevidenceofsimilaritiesthandif-ferences.Withrespecttotheprocesses ofdevelopment,thesexes show generallysim-ilar probabilities of considerationof identityalternativesandestablishmentofcommit-ments. Only intheareaof attitudestowardpremaritalsexualactivityaredifferencesevident.Here,femalesappearmorelikelytogothroughaperiodofmoratoriumandachieveidentitycommitments;malesaremorelikelytomaintaintheearlycommit-mentsonwhichtheyhadforeclosed.Thesimilaritiesbetweenthesexesindevelop-mental processesdo not contradictthesub-stantialevidencefromotherresearchthatmalesandfemalesdifferinthecontentoftheir identity choices (Frieze,Parsons, John-son,Ruble,&Zellman,1978).To date the researchhas yieldedonlylim-itedinformation with regardto theanteced-ents of developmental change. Althoughthefindings concerning the relationship betweenparentalbehaviorandtheidentitystatusesofsonsanddaughtersareconsistentwiththeoretical expectations, there are a number356 ALAN S.WATERMANofalternativeexplanationsavailablethatdonot involve a causalinfluence of theparentalvariables.Similarly,extensivedatathatareconsistentwithahierarchicalarrangementofErikson'spsychosocialstagesexist,butthemethodologicallimitationsofthere-searchdo notpermitadeterminationofthedirection of effect.Onlya couple of person-alityoractivityvariableshavebeenidenti-fiedaspredictiveofthedirectionoffutureidentityformation.Whatis neededatthepresenttimeis re-search that traces identitydevelopmentoverarelativelybroadrange ofages.Inpartic-ular,more information is neededaboutboththeroots of identityin theyearsbeforeandduring high schooland the nature of identitychangesduringtheadultyears.In addition,developmental researchis particularlyneededonsamplesthatdonotattendcollege.Theuseofcohort-sequentialmethodology(Schaie,1965,1970)wouldaidin theiden-tificationof thegeneralityofdevelopmentalpatternsacrosscohorts.Itisalsorecom-mended that longitudinalstudiesonidentitydevelopmentincludetheassessmentofpos-siblepredictorvariablesofidentitychange.ReferenceNotes1.Marcia,J.E.Studiesinegoidentity. 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DevelopmentalPsychology,^Eriksonianmeasure' ofper;onaiitydevelopment...Ac< o.i.C-vTUi.incollegestudents:AreexaminationofConstant!-Waterman, A. S& Whitbourne, S. K. TheInventory^ fd; ,lication. DevelopmentalofPsychosocialDevelopment: Areviewand evalua-Psvcnoiof,y1982;369-371tion.JSASCatalogofSelectedDocumentsin Psy-^ycnoiogy,wvi, is, iwill.chology,1981, //,5. (Ms.No.2179)Whitbourne, S.K.,&Waterman,A.S.PsychosocialWaterman,C.K.,Buebel,M. E.,&Waterman,A. S.developmentduringtheadult years: Age andcohortTherelationshipbetweenresolutionoftheidentitycomparisons.DevelopmentalPsychology,1979,IS,crisisandoutcomesofpreviouspsychosocialcrises.373-378.Proceedingsofthe78thAnnualConventionoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,1970,5,467-468.(Summary)ReceivedJune 4, 1981 ManuscriptsAcceptedfor PublicationStagesofDrug Usein Adolescence: Personality, Peer,andFamily Correlates.Judith S.Brook (MountSinaiMedical Center,OneGustave L. Levy Place,Annenberg 22-74, NewYork, NewYork10029),MartinWhiteman,andAnnScovellGordon.Effectsof Maternal Age on Parenting Role. Arlene S. Ragozin (Department of Psychiatry and BehavioralSciences,ChildDevelopmentandMentalRetardationCenter,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington 98295), Robert B. Basham, Keith A. Crnic, Mark T. Greenberg,and Nancy M. Robinson.Left-RightMemoryinTwo-Year-OldChildren:ANewLookatSearchTasks.LilaGhentBraine(Departmentof Psychology-Hollingworth Laboratories,Barnard College,ColumbiaUniversity, NewYork,NewYork10027)andRebeccaA.Eder.CharacteristicsofHiding PlacesandtheTransition to StageIV Performance.CarlJ.Dunst, PenelopeH. Brooks (George Peabody College for Teachers, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee 37203),andPamelaA.Doxsey.ClinicalExamination of Visual andSocialResponsesinInfantRhesus Monkeys. MortonJ.Mendelson(DepartmentofPsychology,StewartBiologicalSciencesBuilding,1205DocteurPenfieldAvenue,Montreal,PQ,CanadaH3A1B1).ADevelopmentalStudyofRecallFromNaturalCategories.JosephM.Fitzgerald(DepartmentofPsychology,WayneState University,Detroit,Michigan48202).Reasoning,Prohibitions,andMotivationsforCompliance.LeonKuczynski (LaboratoryofDevelop-mentalPsychology,Building 15K,9000Rockville Pike,Bethesda,Maryland20205).ANaturalisticStudyof Children's SocialUnderstandingasExpressedinReflectiveInterviews, GroupDiscussions, and Group TaskNegotiations.RobertL. Selman(JudgeBaker Guidance Center, Boston,Massachusetts02115),MiraZamansky Schorin,CarolynR.Stone,andErinPhelps.Sex Roles asSocialConventions: TheDevelopment of Children's Conceptionsof Sex-RoleStereotypes.D. Bruce Carter(SyracuseUniversity, Department of Psychology, 331 Huntington Hall,150 MarshallStreet, Syracuse, NewYork13210) andCharlotteJ.Patterson.NetworkRepresentationofaChild'sDinosaurKnowledge.MicheleneT.H.Chi(Learning ResearchandDevelopmentCenter,UniversityofPittsburgh,LRDCBldg.,3939O'HaraStreet,Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania15260) andKandiDaimonKoeske.TemporalInferences byYoungChildren.DanielM.Fajardo(TheCommonwealth ofMassachusetts,University of Massachusetts,Department of Psychology, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003) and BensonSchaeffer.TheRoleofManipulationinInfants'DetectionofInvariantPropertiesofObjects.HollyA.Ruff(DepartmentofPediatrics,AlbertEinsteinCollegeofMedicine,1300Morris ParkAvenue, Bronx,NewYork10561).(Continuedon page430)