On Pragmatic Modules

8/15/2019 On Pragmatic Modules

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Journ a l o f P rag ma t i c s 16 (1991) 381-397

N o r t h - H o l l a n d

381

O n the pragm atic m odu les A lecture

A s a K a s h e r *

In memory of Yehoraz my son my son 1966-1991

Th e g i s t o f wha t we i n t end t o c l a i m is : F i r s t , t ha t t he core o f l anguag e use is d iv i ded be t ween t w o

di f fe ren t p rag m a t i c com pe t ences : a pure l y l i ngui s ti c p ragm a t i c com pe t ence , o f a c e r t a in na t ure ,

and a non- l i ngui s t i c p ragma t i c compe t ence , r e l a t ed t o gene ra l cogni t i ve sys t ems , such a s t ha t o f

i n t en t i ona l a c t i on i n gene ra l . Secondl y , t ha t t he re a re rea sons t o be l i eve t ha t t he l i ngui s t i c

pragm a t i c com pe t enc e is r epre sen t ed i n o ur mi nd s a s a c l us t e r o f modu l e s , i n a c e r t ai n , r ev i sed

sense of t he t e rm. And t h i rd l y , t ha t a t l e a s t pa r t o f t he c l us t e r o f p ragma t i c modul e s i s r e l a t ed t o

t he l e f t hemi sphe re of t he bra i n , whi l e t he r i gh t hemi sphe re , he l d by some t o be t he re s i dence of

pragma t i c s , i s r e l a t ed t o p ragma t i c compe t ences i n an u t t e r l y d i f fe ren t way .

1 P r a g m a t i c s

T h e f ie ld o f p r a g m a t i c s h a s e x p e ri e n c e d a r e a l m e t a m o r p h o s i s : A s G r e g o r

S a m s a a w o k e o n e m o r n i n g f r o m u n e a s y d r e a m s h e f o u n d h i m s e lf t r a n sf o r m e d

in h i s bed in to a g igan t i c in sec t . Ve te ran s o f the b a t t l e s o f p ragmat ics ( fo r

i n s ta n c e , J a c o b M e y , K u n ~ L o r e n z , D o r o t h e a F r a n c k a n d m y s e l f, t o m e n t i o n

those who pa r t i c ipa te in the p resen t sympos ium) used to exe r t themse lves to

s e e t h e i r o w n p r a g m a t i c s t u d i e s o f l a n g u a g e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a j o r t r e n d s i n

the s tudy o f l anguage . How ever , p resen t ly , some o f us exe r t themse lves to s ee

t h e i r o w n b r a n d o f p r a g m a t i c s r a t h e r d i s so c i a te d f r o m s o m e c u r r e n t t r e n d s i n

p ragm at ics it s e lf . Th us , a t the ou t s e t o f ou r p res en ta t io n , we wou ld l ike to

m a k e t w o r e m a r k s o f d i ss o c i a ti o n .

Th e g i st o f wh a t w e in tend to c la im i s : F i r s t, t h a t th e co re o f l anguage use is

d iv ided be tween two d i f f e ren t p ragmat ic compe tences : a pu re ly l ingu i s t i c

p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e , o f a c e r ta i n n a t u r e , a n d a n o n - l i n g u is t ic p r a g m a t i c

com pe tence , r e l a ted to genera l cogn i t ive sys tems , such as tha t o f in ten t iona l

ac t ion in genera l . Second ly , tha t the re a re r easons to be l i eve tha t the l ingu i s t i c

p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e i s r e p r e se n t e d i n o u r m i n d s a s a c l u s t e r o f m o d u l e s , i n

* A u t h o r ' s a d d r e s s : A s a K a s h e r , A . H o r o d i s c h C h a i r o f P h i l o s o p h y o f L a n g u a g e , D e p a r t m e n t

o f P h i l o s o p h y , T e l - A v i v U n i v e rs i ty , T e l- A v i v 6 9 97 8 , I s r a e l: e -m a i l : A S A 0 4 2 5 ~ T A U N I V M . B i t n e t

The pre sen t pape r i s a r ev i sed ve rs i on of a l e c t ure de l i ve red dur i ng t he Te l -Avi v Uni ve rs i t y

C ogn i t ive Sym pos i um 3 , Text and C ont ex t , Ju l y 1988 . The s t y l e o f a l e c ture ha s , howeve r , been

retained and is reflected in the t i t le .

T h e a u t h o r w i sh e s to t h a n k t h e p a r ti c i p a n t s in t h a t s y m p o s i u m f o r t h e i r h e l p fu l c o m m e n t s a n d

e n c o u r a g e m e n t .

0378-2166/91/ 03.50 ~ 1991 - - Elsevier Sc ience Pub l i shers B.V. (N or th- H ol la nd )


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A Kasher / On the pragm atic modules

c o g n i t i v e s t u d i e s . T h i s m a y s o u n d a s a m e r e l y c l a s s i f i c a t o r y r e m a r k , b u t i t i s

f a r f r o m b e i n g m e r e t r i c i o u s l y t a x o n o m i c a l i n n a t u r e .

O n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g r e s u l ts o f w o r k t h a t h a s b e e n d o n e w i t h in t h e

b r o a d f ie ld o f co g n i t i v e s t u d i e s , i n c lu d in g g en e ra t i v e l i n g u i s ti c s an d t h e

a s s o c i a te p h i l o s o p h y o f la n g u a g e , is t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f

' m o d u l a r i t y ' . P r e s e n t l y , o u r i n i t i a l , f u n d a m e n t a l h y p o t h e s i s w i t h r e s p e c t t o

a n y i n t e r es t in g f a m i l y o f c o g n i t iv e p h e n o m e n a w o u l d b e t h a t i t s h o u l d b e

e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f ' m o d u l e s ' , h i g h l y in d e p e n d e n t s y s t e m s o f k n o w l e d g e ,

each w i th i ts o wf i d i s t in c t i v e p ro p e r t i e s . T h e p r i n c ip l e s o f a m o d u le s p ec i fy i ts

c o n t e n t a s a s y s t e m o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e y a l s o e n t e r i n to t h e p ro c e s s e s o f

a c q u i s it io n o f t h is k n o w l e d g e a n d o f i ts e m p l o y m e n t .

W i t h in t h e a r e a o f l a n g u a g e s t u d i e s, t h is m o d u l a r a p p r o a c h s e e m s t o b e a

d i st in g u is h in g f e a t u r e o f t h e r e se a r c h p r o g r a m o f C h o m s k y a n g e n e r a t iv e

l in g u is ti cs a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e , ~ a n d i t w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e ,

b e p a r t ic u l a r l y i n t e re s t in g , f r o m o u r p o i n t o f v ie w , to s e e w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n

w e p u r s u e t hi s m o d u l a r p a t h i n o u r s t u d y o f p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n ce .

4 P r a g m a t ie s a n d m o d u le s

A m a j o r i ss u e i n c o g n i t iv e p r a g r n a t i c s , a s p r e s e n tl y p o r t r a y e d , i s w h e t h e r t h e r e

is a n y p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e . D e m o n s t r a t i o n o f a n a f f ir m a t iv e a n sw e r , a t h e o r e ti -

c a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f e v id e n t im p o r t a n c e , w o u l d b e t a n t a m o u n t t o e s t a b -

l is h m e n t o f th e a u t o n o m y o f p r a g m a t i c s . A p r o o f o f a n e ga t iv e a n s w e r , a l so a

t h e o r e ti c a l a c h i e v e m e n t o f si g n if ic a n c e , m i g h t c a s t d o u b t o n t h e v e r y c o h e r -

e n c e o f t h e w h o l e f i e l d o f p r a g m a t i c s .

I t w o u l d , i n d e e d , b e in a d v i s a b l e t o s e t o u r s e lv e s t o l o o k f o r a ' p r a g m a t i c

m o d u l e ' w i t h o u t h a v i n g in m i n d s o m e c le a r n o ti o n o f 'p r a g m a t i c s ' a n d s o m e

d i s ti n c t n o t i o n o f a ' m o d u l e ' . S e e m i n g l y c o n fl ic t in g a n s w e r s t h a t c a n b e g i v e n

t o t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r a p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e e x i s t s , i n v o l v e , a s a m a t t e r

o f f a c t , d i f f e r e n t d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s o r d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f

m o d u l a r i t y .

W e h a v e a l r e a d y s u g g e s t e d w h a t s e e m s t o u s t o b e a s e n s i b l e d e l i m i t a t i o n o f

' p r a g m a t i c s ' , o n e w h i c h w i l l b r i n g u s c l o s e r t o a n a n s w e r t o o u r q u e s t i o n ,

s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t i s g o i n g t o r e n d e r c l e a r e r t h e q u e s t i o n i t s e l f . H o w e v e r ,

w i t h o u t s o m e c l a r if i c a ti o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f ' m o d u l e ' a s w e l l, th e q u e s t i o n i s

g o i n g t o r e m a i n h o p e l e s s l y a m b i g u o u s .

I t w o u l d b e n a t u r a l t o c o n s i d e r, f i r st o f al l, F o d o r ' s n o t i o n o f ' m o d u l e ' , a s

p re s en t ed i n h i s odularity o f mind ( 1 9 8 3 : 4 7 - 1 0 1 ) . O n F o d o r ' s v i e w , i n p u t

s y s t e m s a r e m o d u l a r , s i n c e t h e y a r e d o m a i n - s p e c i f i c , m a n d a t o r y , i n f o r m a -

t i o n a ll y en cap s u l a t ed , ex h ib i t ch a rac t e r i s t ic an d sp ec if ic b re ak d o w n p a t t e rn s

6 Se e Ne w me ye r 1983: 2 -3) .


3/13

A K a s h e r / O n t h e p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e s

387

(1983: 99 ) an d hav e s evera l o th e r p rop er t i e s . I t i s a 'm a in thes is ' o f F od or ' s

M odularity o f m ind t h a t i n g e n e r a l ' c e n t r a l ' c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m s d o n o t s h a r e

w i t h s o m e i n p u t s y s t e m s t h e p r o p e r t i e s i n v i r t u e o f w h i c h t h e l a t t e r a r e

m n d u l a r .

I f a m o d u l e i s a n input sys tem which has some spec ia l p roper t i e s , then the re

i s n o p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e t h a t e m b o d i e s t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h w e s h o u l d , o r

e v e n c o m m o n l y w i ll fi nd u n d e r ' p r a g m a t i c s' . C o n d i t i o n s o f a p p r o p r i a t e u se o f

s e n te n c e s i n c o n t e x t s i n v o l v e n o t o n l y a s y n t a c t ic a n a l y s is o f a n i n p u t s e n t e n ce

a n d a p e r c e p t u a l a n a l y s is o f s o m e c o n t e x t u a l f e a tu r e s, b u t a l s o a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l

a n a l y s is o f t h e c o n t e x t o f u s e, t h e r e b y a l u d i n g t o b e li e fs e n t e r t a i n e d b y t h e

u s e r a t t h e c o n t e x t . M a n y o f t h e s e b e l ie f s b e l o n g t o s o m e c e n t r a l c o g n i t iv e

sys tem ra the r than to any inpu t dev ice . Fo r in s tance , the speaker ' s be l i e f s

r equ i r ed by ru les wh ich a re cons t i tu t ive o f p romis ing , such as "S be l i eves H

w o u l d p r e f e r h i s d o i n g A t o h i s n o t ~do ing A" (Sea r le 1969 : 58 ) , s eem to be

b e l i e f s t o w h i c h i n p u t s y s t e m s d o n o t h a v e a c c e s s . G e n e r a l l y , c o n d i t i o n s o f

a p p r o p r i a t e u s e o f s e n te n c e s in c o n t e x t s i n v o l v e b e l ie f s w h i c h a r e m a n u f a c -

tu red , r ev i sed and s to red by a ge nera l cen t r a l system, and a re no t acces sib le to

t h e i n p u t s y s t e m s o f p ro c e s si n g . H e n c e , p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e c o u l d n o t b e

f u ll y e m b o d i e d i n a m o d u l e , i f a l l m o d u l e s a r e i n p u t s y st e m s .

I f a m o d u l e i s n o t n e c e ss a ri ly a n i n p u t s y s te m , b u t d o e s h a v e a ll t h e o t h e r

p r o p e r t ie s b y w h i c h F o d o r c h a r a c t e r iz e d m o d u l e s , t h e r e s t il l is n o p r a g m a t i c

m o d u l e t h a t e m b o d i e s e a c h p a r t o f o u r p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e dg e .

C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e k n o w l e d g e u s e d i n d e r i v i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n a l

i m p l i ca t u re s . It w o u l d b e p l a u s i b l e t o t a k e t h i s k n o w l e d g e t o c o n s t i t u t e p a r t o f

o u r p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e . W e h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e t h a t G r i c e ' s m a x i m s

fo l low f rom som e ra t ion a l i ty 'm os t e f fec tive, l eas t cos t ' p r inc ip les . ~ Eac h o f

these p r inc ip les app l i e s to va r ious in ten t iona l ac t s , inc lud ing ac t s o f l anguage

use bu t a l so a r t i s t i c ac t s, to m en t i on ju s t on e exam ple . Acco rd ing ly , a

cogn i t ive sys tem which de r ives conver sa t iona l imp l ica tu res invo lves app l i ca -

t ion , to the ou tpu t o f some l ingu i s t i c sys tem, o f some genera l cen t r a l p r inc i -

p le s o f r a t i o n a l i t y i n i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n . H e n c e , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t s ee m s

p l a u si b le t o a s s u m e t h a t s u c h r a t i o n a l i t y p ri n c i p le s b e lo n g t o a c e n t r a l

cogn i t ive sys tem, i t wou ld be implaus ib le to a s sume tha t some doma in specific

cogn i t ive sys tem p roduces conver sa t iona l imp l ica tu res . Domain - spec i f i c i ty

be ing a p roper ty sha red by modu les , in Fc~dor ' s s ense o f the t e rm, i t fo l lows

t h a t t h e r e is n o p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e t h a t e m b o d i e s a l l p a r t s o f o u r p r a g m a t i c

k n o w l e d g e, i n c l u d i n g t h a t e m p l o y e d i n p r o d u c t i o n o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l i ca -

tures .

R e c a l l , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h a t c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t u r e s h a v e b e e n s h o w n b y

G r i c e t o b e c a n c e l a b l e ( ' J o h n r e a d t h e b o o k a n d i n t e n d e d t o s e e t h e m o v i e ,

b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n t h i s o r d e r ' ) . T h i s p r o p e r t y o f c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l i c a -

t u re s m a k e s i t i m p l a u s ib l e to a s s u m e t h a t t h e y a re g e n e r a l ly p r o d u c e d b y s o m e

Kasher 1976, 1982, and forthcoming).


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388 A Kasher / On the pragm atic modules

m nd tory c o g n i ti v e s y st e m . A g a i n , m a n d a t o r i n e s s i s a p r o p e r t y s h a r e d b y

m o d u l e s , a c c o r d i n g t o F o d o r ' s c o n c e p t i o n .

A n a d d i t i o n a l a r g u m e n t r e st s o n t h e c a s e o f th e s o - c a ll e d ' i n d i re c t s p e e c h

a c t s '. I t is c o m m o n l y h e l d t h a t f u l ly u n d e r s t a n d i n g s u c h s p e e c h a c t s in v o l v e s

p u t t i n g t o u se p a r t o f o n e ' s p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e . U n d e r s t a n d i n g a n ' in d i r e c t '

s p e e ch a c t i s, i n o u r v ie w , a n a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d a u s e o f a s e n t e n c e a s

m e a n t t o a t t a i n m o r e t h a n o n e e n d . F o r e x a m p l e , a n u t t e r a n c e o f t h e s e n t e n c e

' I t is m u c h t o o d a r k h e r e ', a s m a d e i n s o m e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t , w i ll i n v o l v e

two t heo re t ica l , p ragm at i c l eve ls . F i r s t , t he re i s t he ' l i t e ra l end ' , t he o ne

de t e rm ined by t he ru l es gove rn ing t he po in t o f a s se r t o r i c u se o f t h i s s en t ence .

T h e n , f o r s o m e r e a s o n o r o t h e r , t h i s l i t e r a l e n d i s u n d e r s t o o d a s a n i n t e r m e -

d i a t e o ne , a s u b - go a l , a n d a n a t t e m p t i s m a d e t o f i n d a n o t h e r e n d , a ' h i g h e r '

i n t e n d e d e n d , i n o u r c a s e , a n e n d w h i c h c o u l d h a v e s e rv e d a s t h a t o f a c e r t a i n

r e q u e s t . A t t a i n m e n t o f t h e ' h i g h e r ' i n t e n d e d e n d w o u l d b e s e r v e d b y a t t a i n i n g

t h c q i t e r a l ' o n e . I n d e e d , u n d e r q u i t e o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , s u c h a n a t t e m p t

requ i res acces s t o on e ' s gene ra l sys t em o f be li ef s. Th us , i f t he add res see

b e l i e v e s t h a t s h e c a n d o s o m e t h i n g i n o r d e r t o l i g h t e n t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e

r o o m , a n d s h e h a s n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t t h i s b e l i e f i s p a r t o f th e m u t u a l

b e l ie f o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d h e rs e lf , th e n s h e m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r ' s

~h igher ' i n t ended end was t ha t she wi l l do someth ing i n o rder t o l i gh t en t ha t

d a r k n e s s . I f t h e a d d r e s se e b e l ie v e d t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h a t s h e c a n d o a b o u t

i t and t ha t t he speaker sha res wi th he r t h i s be l i e f , she wou ld no t r each t ha t

conc lus ion , a s t o t he ' h i ghe r ' i n t ended e nd o f t he as se r t o r i c speech ac t , i f

i ndeed i t has one und er such c i r cums tan ces o f u se . He nce , no

inform tion lly

enc psul ted c o g n i ti v e sy s te m c o u ld e m b o d y t h e k n o w l e d g e r e q u i r e d f o r

fu l l - f l edged unders tanding of ind i rect speech act s , that i s to say , unders tanding

which i nc ludes i den t i f i ca ti on o f ' h i gher i n t ende d ends . Ag a in , i t fo l lows t ha t

t h e re i s n o p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e , i n F o d o r ' s s e n se o f t h e t e r m , t h a t e m b o d i e s a l l

p a r t s o f o u r p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e , in c l u d i n g p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s

employed i n unders t and ing ' i nd i rec t ' speech ac t s .

S o m e o f y o u m a y h a v e c o n c l u d e d b y n o w t h a t o u r o b s e r v a t i o n s ~ h o ul d b e

t aken t o l ead one t o suspec t t he sugges t ed com bina : . ion o f ou r . t i on o f

p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e w i t h F o d o r ' s n o t i o n o f m o d u l a r i t y . E i t h e r o f t h e s e

no t i ons migh t , i ndeed , be fo und t o be t o o s t rong , 8 bu t p resen t l y the re s eems

t o b e a b e t t e r w a y o f o b v i a t i n g t h e a p p a r e n t i n c o m p a t i b i l i ty o f th e s e n o t i o n s .

O ur p roposa l has t h ree pa r t s , t he f ir s t two o f wh ich a re i n t rodu c to ry .

The f i rs t pa r t o f ou r p ro posa l i s t he i n t rodu c t i on o f a d i s t i nc t i on be tween

d i ff e re n t ty p e s o f p h e n o m e n a t h a t h i t h e r t o h a v e b e e n m i n g l e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r

u n d e r t h e v a g u e h e a d i n g o f p r a g m a t ic s '. F o r e x a m p l e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , w e

have knowledge o f bas i c speech ac t t ypes , such as a s se r t i on and ques t i on ,

w h i c h i s d e f in i te l y p a r t o f o n e ' s k n o w l e d g e o f l a n g u a g e , w h i le o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , w e h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f p r i n c ip l e s o f i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n . T h e c a t e g c. ry o f

8 thank No am Cho ms ky and Zenon Pylyshyn for he lpfu l d iscussions o f th i s po in t .


5/13

A . K a s h e r / O n t h e p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e s 3 8 9

p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h g o v e r n i n t e n t i o n a l a c t iv i t y in g e n e r a l i s, o f c o u rs e , m u c h

m o r e g e n e r a l t h a n t h e c a t e g o r y o f p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h g o v e r n l i n g u i s ti c a c t i v i t y ,

b u t t h e t w o a r e c l o se l y r e la te d . A c t u a l l y , w e h a v e c l a im e d t h a t s o m e a s p e c t s o f

l i n g u i s ti c a c t i v i t y a r e g o v e r n e d b y p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f a p p l y i n g

g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t o p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s o f l i n g u i s t i c

a c t iv i t y . I n a s e n s e , t h e fi rs t p a r t o f o u r p r o p o s a l a m o u n t s t o a n i n t r o d u c t i o n

i n to p r a g m a t i c s o f a d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n t h e ' a n a l y t i c ' k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h i s

p u r e l y l i n g u i s t ic i n n a t u r e , a n d t h e ' s y n t h e t i c ' k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h is n o t .

T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f o u r p r o p o s a l i s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n e w n o t i o n o f

" m o d u l e ' . W e l e p a e e t h e n o t i o n o f ' m o d u l e ' a s a n i n p u t c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m o f

c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s b y a n o t i o n o f ' m o d u l e ' a s a c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m t h a t i s

i n d e p e n d e n t , i n s e v e r a l s i g n i f i c a n t r e s p e c ts :

( I ) i t i s d o m a i n s p e c if ic ( = p r o p e r t y ~ I II.I, in F o d o r ' s l i s t) ;

(2 ) i t i s i n f o r m a t i o n a l l y e n c a p s u l a t e d ( = I I I. 5 ) ;

(3 ) i t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f ix e d n e u r a l a r c h i t e c t u r e ( = I I I .7 ) ;

(4 ) i t h a s s p e ci fi c b r e a k d o w n p a t t e r n s ( = I I I. 8 ) ;

(5 ) i ts o n t o g e n y h a s a c h a r a c t e r is t i c p a c e a n d s e q u e n c i n g ( = I II .9 ) . 9

T h e m a j o r p a rt o f o u r p r o p o s a l c an n o w b e p u t f o r w a r d :

The Modularity o f Pragmatic Knowledge Hypothesis

T h e p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e , o f a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n se n t e n ce s

a n d c o n t e x t s o f u s e , c o n s i s t s o f t w o s e p a r a t e p a r t s :

( I) M o d u l a r , p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h i s p u r e l y l in g u i s ti c a n d

( II ) C e n t r a l , p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h is n o t p u r e l y l in g u i s t ic .

W h a t a b o u t t h e r e s t o f th e p r o p e r t ie s o f F o d o r ' s m o d u l e s ?

A p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e w h o s e p r o c e s s in g d o m a i n i s b a s ic sp e e c h a c ts m a y w e ll h a v e m a n d a t o r y

a s p e ct s, b u t t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t u n le s s th e o p e r a t i o n o f a s y s te m i s m a n d a t o r y

( = I . 2 ) i t i s n o t s u f fi c ie n t ly a u t o n o m o u s , n o t a m o d u l e .

F o d o r ' s n e x t r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h a t t h e r e b e o n l y l i m i t e d c e n t r a l a c c e s s t o i n t e r m e d i a t e r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n s t h a t a s y s te m c o m p u t e s , f o r i t t o b e a m o d u l e ( I I I . 3 ) . R e c a l l t h a t F o d o r ' s d i s c u s s io n i s

c o n f i n e d t o m a n d a t o r y , f a s t in p u t s y s t e m s . T h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t s u c h s y s t e m s b e " r e l a t i v e l y

i n a c c e s s i b l e t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ibid., 5 5 f .) is in t e r e s ti n g a n d p l a u s ib l e , b u t w h e n w e m o v e f r o m

i n p u t s y s t e m s t o o n e s t h a t a r e c l a s e r t o t h e g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e - c e n t e r b u t s t il l a r e n o t p a r t s o f i t, it is

n o m o r e r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e s u c h in a c ce s si b il it y . W e d o n ' t k n o w m u c h a b o u t i n t e r m e d i a t e

r e p r e s en t a t io n s t h a t a r e c o m p u t e d b y a p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e , i f t h e r e a r e a n y . i f s u c h i n te r m e d i a t e

s t a g e s d o e x i st a n d a r e r e l a t ed t o t h e d i ff e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f b a s i c s p e e c h ac t s , e . g ., t h e

p o i n t o f t h e a c t o r i t s b a c k g r o u n d b e l ie f s, t h e r e s e e m s t o b e r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e l a t e d

i n t e r m e d i a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e c e n t e r .

F o d o r ' s m o d u l e s a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e f a st ( - - Il l .4 ) a n d t o h a v e ' s h a l lo w ' o u t p u t ( - - Il l .6 ) b u t w e

d o n ' t s e e w h y t h es e s h o u l d b e c o n s ti tu t iv e e l e m e n t s o f m o d u l a r i ty , r a t h e r t h a n o f j u s t i n p u t

m o d u l e s .


6/13

390 4 . K a s h e r / O n t h e p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e s

A c c e p ti n g o u r M o d u l a r i t y o f P r a g m a t i c K n o w l e d g e H y p o t h e s i s c o m m i t s o n e

to admi t the ex i s t ence o f a t l eas t one p ragmat ic modu le . The ques t ion whe the r

t h e w h o l e m o d u l a r p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e is e m b o d i e d i n o n e p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e

o r r a the r in s evera l ones r emains open . Each d i f f e ren t pa r t o f p ragmat ic

knowledge shou ld be s epara te ly examined in o rde r to f ind ou t whe the r i t i s

e m b o d i e d i n a p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e o f it s o w n , s o t o s p e ak , w h e t h e r it f o r m s j u s t

p a r t o f th e p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e e m b o d i e d i n s o m e p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e , o r

wh e the r i t be longs to a cen t r a l cogn i t ive system. T he fo l lowing pa r t s o f

p ragm at ic know ledge a re sugges ted as p ro per sub jec ts fo r such an inqu i ry :

a) Core-Pragmatics, b y w h i c h w e m e a n k n o w l e d g e o f b a s i c s p e e c h a c t

types , e .g . , a s s e r t ion , ques t ion and command . Knowledge o f these types i s

u n i v e rs a l ly r e q u i re d a n d a s l o n g a s o n e h a s n o t m a s t e r e d t h e m o n e i s t a k e n

n o t t o h a v e f u l ly m a s t e r e d o n e s l a n g u a g e . T h e r e a r e r e a s o n s t o p u t f o r w a r d

the Core-Pragmatics M odularity H ypothesis, n a m e l y t h a t t h e r e is a p r a g m a t i c

m o d u l e t h a t e m b o d i e s j u s t t h e p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e o f b a s ic s p e e ch a c t t y p e s.

b) Amplified Core-Pragmatics, b y w h i c h w e m e a n k n o w l e d g e o f a ll t h e

s y st e m s o f ru l es g o v e r n i n g t h i n g s d o n e w i t h w o r d s w h i c h a r e n o t o f b a s ic

speech ac t types , e .g . cong ra tu la t io n an d p roc lam at ion . He re the re s eem to be

reasons to pu t fo rward a d i f f e ren t hypo thes i s , the Amplified Core-Pragmatics

Centrality Hypothesis, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h t h e s e p a r t s o f p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e

d o n o t c o n s t i t u t e a m o d u l e a n d r e st o n s o m e c e n t r a l c o g n i t i v e sy s te m s , l o

c) Talk-in-Interaction Prag ma tics, which i s p ragmat ic knowledge govern ing

bas ic a spect s o f conver sa t ion , such as o rgan iza t ion o f tu rn - tak ing , o rgan iza t ion

of s equences and o rgan iza t ion o f r epa i r. 11 S tud ies o f these types o f ac t ion s eem

to lend p laus ib i l i ty to the Talk-in-lnteraction M odularity Hyp othesis, a c c o r d i n g

to wh ich th i s pa r t o f p ragm at ic knowledge is em bod ied in a s epara te modu le .

Thu s , the d i s t inc t ion be tween l ingu i s ti c p ragm at ics and non- l ingu i s t i c p rag -

m a t i c s a n d o u r r e v is e d n o t i o n o f m o d u l e c a n b e us e d in f o r m u l a t i n g a n e w

fami ly o f theo re t i ca l hypo theses , wh ich m ay we l l tu rn ou t to p lay a s ign i f ican t

r o l e in d e e p e n i n g o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p r a g m a t i c s .

5 Cen tral pragm atics

I n a d d i t i o n t o c o r e - p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e , a m p l i f i e d c o r e - p r a g m a t i c k n o w l -

1o To be sure, t he i npu t o f a c e n t ra l c ogni t i ve sys t e m ma y we ll be t he ou t pu t o f a c e r t a i n

p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e . T h e s u p p o s e d l y c e n t ra l s y s t e m s o f r u le s w h i ch g o v e r n s p e ec h a c t t y p e s s u c h a s

t e s ti fy ing , a dmi t t i ng a nd c onfes si nt ~, m a y b e p l a us i b l y a s sum e d t o be a mp l i f ic a t i ons o f t he sy s t e m

whi c h g ove rn s a s se r t ion .

11 See , for exam ple , Sch egloff 198 7, 1988) .


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A Kasher / On the pragmatic modules

391

e d g e a n d t a l k - i n - i n t e r a c t i o n p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e, w e w o u l d l ik e t o i n t r o d u c e

t w o o t h e r p a r t s o f p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e w h i c h se e m t o b e r e la t e d t o t h e

genera l cen te r o f cogn i t ion .

W e w ou ld l ike to s tr ess the d i f f e rence be tween th e na tu re o f cen t r a l

p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e a n d t h a t o f m o d u l a r p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e dg e . T h e c e n t e r is

a genera l -pu rpose dev ice , wh i le the modu les a re spec ia l -pu rpose dev ices . In

the cen te r w e f ind , fi r st and fo rem os t , p r inc ip les o f genera l cogn i t ive sys tems ,

s u ch a s p e r f o rm i n g h u m a n i n t e n t i o n a l a c t io n o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n i n te n -

t iona l ac t ion , and such as fo rming and r ev i s ing be l i e f s . P ragmat ic knowledge

in the cen te r i s r e l a ted to these genera l cogn i t ive sys tems , on the on e ha nd ,

a n d t o l a n g u a g e u s e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d .

d) Central Pragmatics,

b y w h i c h w e m e a n p r a g m a t i c k n o w l ed g e w h i c h

invo lves app l i ca t io n o f som e genera l p r inc ip les o r s t ra teg ies, such as those

g o v e r n i n g r a t i o n a l i n t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n i n g e n e r a l, t o c a s es o f s p e ec h a c t i v it y , o r

i n v o lv e s u s e o f i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d i n s o m e g e n e ra l c o g n i t iv e sy s te m t o c a s e s o f

s p ee c h p r o ce s s in g , i n p r o d u c t i o n o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

Th is i s how (and , in a s ense , where ) con ver s a t ion a l imp l ica tu res a re

g e n e r a t e d a n d w h e r e t h e h i g h e r i n t e n d e d e n d s o f i n d i r e c t s p ee c h a c t s a r e

iden t if i ed . 12 Th i s i s a l so where po l i t enes s , r eg i s try a nd s ty le cons ide ra t ion s

par t ic ipa te in speech act iv i ty . 13

e) Interface Pragmatics,

b y w h i c h w e m e a n p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e w h i c h

i n v o lv e s i n t e g r a t i o n o f d a t a f r o m a l in g u i st ic c h a n n e l w i t h d a t a f r o m o t h e r

channe l s . Fo r example , under s tand ing ce r t a in index ica l expres s ions , such as

s h e o r t h e r e , i n v o lv e s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e o u t p u t o f a l a n g u a g e m o d u l e w i t h

t h e o u t p u t o f s o m e p e r c e p t i o n m o d u l e , e a c h s e rv i n g a s i n p u t f o r s o m e c e n t r a l

u n i t w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t h a s b e e n sa i d i n t h e

con tex t o f u t t e rance . 14

N o t i c e t h a t c e n t r a l p r a g m a t i c s a n d i n t e rf a c e p r a g m a t i c s se em t o i n v o l v e

t y p e s o f p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o n t e x t i n

which a speech ac t i s pe r fo rm ed . T hey a l so a re r espec t ive ly r e la ted to d i f f e ren t

theo re t i ca l opera t ions wh ich t ake p lace when the cen te r i s ac t iva ted in

l a n g u a g e u se , n a m e l y i n t e g r a t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n .

T o b e s u r e , b o t h p e r f o r m a n c e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s p e e c h a c t s w h i c h

s u gg e st s o m e c o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l i c a tu r e s o r o f i n d i r e c t s p ee c h a c t s a re n o t

t 2 A f u l l -f l e d g e d t h e o r y o f

cognitive modularity

w i ll h a v e t o t a c k l e t h e p r o b l e m o f w h e t h e r a

d o m a i n o f a p p l i c a ti o n s o f s o m e g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e t o a p a r t i c u la r c a s e o f a c e rt a in f a m i ly c o u l d

b e g o v e rn e d b y a m o d u l e o r n o t . C o n v e r s a t i o n a l i m p l ic a t u re s a r e, o n o u r a c c o u n t , p r o d u c t s o f

a p p l y i n g g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f i n t e n t io n a l a c t i o n t o p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s o f l a n g u a g e u s e .

a a O n t r e a t i n g p o l it e n e s s a n d r a t i o n a l i t y t o g e t h e r w i t h in t h e p r e s e n t f r a m e w o r k , s e e K a s h e r

( 1 98 6 ). F r a s e r s ( 1 9 9 0 : 2 8 7 ) s u m m a r y o f i t h a r d l y b e a r s a n y s i m i l a r it y t o t h e p a p e r i t se l f.

x 4 F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s p o i n t , s ee K a s h e r (1 9 8 4 ) .


8/13

39 A Kasher / On the pragmatic modules

pur ly

c e n t r a l , s i m p l y b e c a u s e i n e a c h c a s e a m a j o r r o l e i s b e i n g p l a y e d b y a

s e n t e n c e w h i c h h a s p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e , l ex i ca l e l e m e n t s , c o m p o s i t i o n a l l it e r a l

m e a n i n g a n d l i t e ra l f o rc e . A s s u m i n g t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e n te n c e a r e

id en t i f i ed b y s o m e l i n g u i s t i c m o d u le s , t h e o v e ra l l o p e ra t i o n s eem s t o i n v o lv e

s o m e m o d u l e - c e n t e r i n t e r a c ti o n . I t r e m a i n s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e r t h i s

p r a g m a t i c i n t e r a c t i o n t a k e s th e f o r m o f a s p e ci a l p r a g m a t i c i n t e r a c t i o n d e v i c e .

S u c h a d e v i ce , i f i t e x i st s, e m b o d i e s p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e o f a n i n t e r e s t in g

i n t e r m e d i a t e n a t u r e , n a m e l y p r a g m a t i c p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f

a p p l y i n g g e n e r a l p r i n c ip l e s o f in t e n t i o n a l a c t i o n t o t h e c a s e o f li n g u is t ic

a c t i o n . A l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s w o u l d n o t p o s i t a s e p a r a t e p r a g m a t i c i n t e r a c -

t io n d e v i c e, b u t e i t h e r a d e v ic e w h i c h i s m o r e g e n e r a l i n n a t u r e o r o n e w h i c h i s

m o r e s p e c i f i c . A m o r e g e n e r a l d e v i c e w o u l d e m b o d y g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o n l y

a n d a p p l y t h e m e a c h t i m e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o n h a n d . M o r e p l a u s i b l y ,

p e rh ap s , a l es s g en e ra l d ev i ce wil l i n c lu d e a v a r i e ty o f l in g u i s ti c s t r a t eg i e s

w h i c h e m b o d y a p p l i c a t i o n s o f g e n e r a l p r in c i p le s t o c e r t a i n c a s e s th a t h a v e o r

m i g h t h a v e a r i s e n .

W e m o v e n o w f r o m o u r d is c u ss io n o f p r a g m a t i c s in t h e m i n d t o a n e v e n

b r i e f e r d i sc u s s io n o f p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e b r a i n .

6 A p u z z l e : N e u r o p r a g m a t ic r e s u l ts

A n a p p a r e n t p o r t r a y a l o f p r a g m a t i c s in t h e b r a in w h i c h s e e m s to e m e r g e f r o m

c u r r e n t l i te r a t u r e i n n e u r o p s y c h o l o g y o f l a n g u a g e i s q u i t e p u z z l in g .

R o u g h l y s p e a k i n g a n d a s f a r a s w e c a n te ll, p r a g m a t i c s i s p o r t r a y e d a s

f o r m i n g a n in d e p e n d e n t p a r t o f l a n g u a g e w h i c h o p e r a t e s i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s -

p h e r e o f t h e b r a i n ( o f r i g h t - h a n d e d p e r s o n s ) . T h u s , S h e i l a B l u m s t e i n o f f e rs th e

f o l lo w i n g c o m p a r i s o n o f th e r o le o f t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e p r o c e s s i n g t o t h a t o f

t h e l e f t o n e : " W h i l e t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e s p e c i a l i z e d f o r p r o c e s -

s i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c g r a m m a r p e r s e . . . t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e

" p r a g m a t i c s " o f la n g u a g e u s e, o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e i n t e g ra t i o n o f th e

l i n g u i s t i c g r a m m a r w i t h c o g n i t i v e ( n o n v e r b a l ) p r o c e s s e s , o n t h e o t h e r "

( B l u m s t e in 9 8 i , q u o t e d b y N e w m e y e r 1 9 8 3 : 2 5 - 2 6 ) .

A l t h o u g h i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e h a s

co n s id e rab l e l in g u i st ic ab i li ty , ~ s t h e i d ea t h a t t h e r i g h t h em i s p h e re co n t a in s t h e

p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e i s r a t h e r p u z z li n g . I f a c c o r d i n g t o o n e ' s g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i o n

o f l a n g ua g e , o r d i n a r y u s es o f s e n te n c es i n v o lv e b o t h t h e g r a m m a t i c a l c o m p e -

t e n c e a n d t h e p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e , i t w o u l d f o l l o w t h a t c o m m o n u s e o f

s e n te n c e s b y s u b j e c ts w i t h c o m p l e t e c e r e b r a l c o m m i s s u r o t o m y 16 w o u l d

i n vo l ve m i n u t e c o o r d i n a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f in f o r m a t i o n a U y d i sc o n n e c te d

is Se e, for example, Er an Zaidel's survey 0985).

x~ I.e.,split bra in subjects


9/13

A K ashe r / On t he pragma t i c modul e s

393

c o m p o n e n t s , g r a m m a r i n t h e l e f t h e m i s p h e r e a n d p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e r i g h t

h em is p h e re .

H o w e v e r , t h e p u z zl e o f p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e d i s a p p e a r s w h e n

th e ev id en ce i s m o re c lo s e ly s c ru t i n i zed .

W h a t a r e t h e m a i n t y p e s o f e v i de n c e ?

F i r st , H o w a r d G a r d n e r a n d h i s a s s o ci a te s f o u n d t h a t r i g h t- b r a in d a m a g e d

s u b j e c t s h a v e d e f i c i t s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g m e t a p h o r s a n d i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n s , i n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a r c a s t i c o r h u m o r o u s t e x t s a s w e l l a s c a r t o o n s , a n d i n r e t e l l i n g

s to r ie s an d g e t t i n g t h e i r p o in t , x7

S e c o n d l y , H e e s c h e n , G a r d n e r a n d o t h e r s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t r i g h t - b r a i n d a m -

a g e d s u b j e c t s h a v e s e v e r e d e f i c i t s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' i n d i r e c t ' s p e e c h a c t s . F o r

e x a m p l e , w h e n s u c h s u b j e c t s e n c o u n t e r a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e u s e d a s a n

in d i r ec t r eq u es t , t h ey co n s i s t en t l y r e s p o n d t o t h e l i t e r a l i n t e rp re t a t i o n r a th e r

than fu l f i l l the in tended reques t .

T h e s e a r e h i g h ly i n te r e s ti n g p h e n o m e n a , b u t w i t h t h e v i ew o f d e f e n d i n g t h e

h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e is e m b o d i e d i n t h e r ig h t h e m i s p h e r e

th e ev id en ce s eem s r a th e r weak i n s ev e ra l r e s p ec t s .

F i r s t, i f t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e w a s t h e b e s t

e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e d e f i c i t s , f o u n d i n r i g h t - b r a i n d a m a g e d s u b j e c t s , o n e

w o u l d h a v e e x p e c t ed t h a t i n a c a s e o f c o m p l e te c e r e b r a l c o m m i s s u r o t o m y t h e

d i s c o n n e c t e d l e f t h e m i s p h e r e w o u l d m a n i f e s t t h e s a m e d e f i c i t s i n a n e v e n

g r e a t e r m e a s u r e . T h i s is n o t w h a t h a p p e n e d , w h e n t h e 'R i g h t H e m i s p h e r e

C o m m u n i c a t i o n B a t t e r y " w a s r e c e n t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d t o L B , a s p l i t - b r a i n

s u b j ec t, a t U C L A , a s we ll a s t o o th e r s p l i t -b ra in s u b j ec t s . 18 W h er ea s r i g h t -

b ra in d am ag ed s u b j ec t s s h o w s ev e re d e f i c i t s i n a l l t h e s u b t e s t s , L B s h o wed

s ev e re d e f i c i t s o n ly i n a f ew o f t h em , i n c lu d in g s t o ry r e t e l l i n g an d i n t e rp re t a -

t io n o f i n d i r ec t s p eech ac t s . On ly m i ld d e f ic i ts h av e b een fo u n d i n o th e r

s u b t e s t s , s u c h a s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a r c a s m a n d p i c t o r i a l m e t a p h o r s . S i m i l a r

r e s u l t s h o l d f o r o t h e r s p l i t - b r a i n s u b j e c t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

p r a g m a t i c s i s e m b o d i e d i n th e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e s h o u l d b e s ig n i fi c a n tl y r e v is e d

o r e v e n r e p l a c e d b y a n u t t e r l y d i f f e r e n t o n e . A , : t u a i l y , o u r r e c e n t e x p e r i m e n t s

s h o w t h a t t h e a b i l i t i e s e x a m i n e d b y t h a t b a t t e r y a r e n e i t h e r p u r e l y r i g h t

h e m i s p h e r e o n e s n o r a r e t h e y p u r e l y l e f t h e m i s p h e r e o n e s .

S e c o n d l y , n o t ic e t h a t m o s t f n o t a ll o f t h e d ef ic i ts f o u n d b y a d m i n i s t e r i n g

t h a t b a t t e r y t o r i g h t - b r a i n d a m a g e d s u b j e c t s i n v o l v e p h e n o m e n a w h i c h a r e

h a r d l y w e l l u n d e r s t o o d o n a n y a b s t r a c t t h e o r e t i c a l l e v e l . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f

a p p r o p r i a t e t h e or ie s o f m e t a p h o r , s a r c a s m a n d h u m o r , f o r e x a m p l e , it is n o t

c l e a r w h a t e x a c t ly is b e i n g t e st e d . M o r e o v e r , w i t h o u t b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

e a c h o f t h es e p h e n o m e n a t h e re s e em s t o b e n o g o o d r e a s o n f o r c o m b i n i n g

t h e m t o f o r m a s e p a r a t e c o m p e t e n c e . A g a i n , a h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a p r a g m a t i c

17 S e e G a rd ne r e t a l . 1983) , F o l d i e t a l . 1983) a nd Ga r dn e r 1987) .

i s F o r som e p re l i m i na ry r e su lt s , s e e S pe n c e e t a l . 1989).


10/13

394 A Kasher / On the pragm atic modules

c o m p e t e n c e o p e r a t e s i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e c a n n o t b e g r o u n d e d o n h i g h l y

i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s w h i c h , h o w e v e r , p e r t a i n t o s u c h a p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d

c o m b i n a t i o n o f p o o r l y u n d e r st o o d p h e n o m e n a .

T h i r d ly , ev e n i f w e d o c l us te r s uc h p h e n o m e n a u n d e r s o m e n o t i o n o f a

p r a g m a t i c c o m p e t e n c e - i n a m i n u t e w e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e y d o s h a r e s o m e

fea tu res - s ti ll t he p ro b lem a r i ses o f ~ ,he r e la t ion th i s co m pe ten ce bea r s t o

t h o s e v a r i o u s f a m i l i e s o f p h e n o m e n a s u c h a s t h e o n e s w h i c h w e h a v e

d e s c ri b e d a n d e x p l a i n e d i n p r e v io u s s e c t io n s : b a s ic s p e e c h a c t s a n d p e r f o r m a -

t i v e s , c o n v e r s a t i o n a l a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l i m p l i c a t u r e s , p o l i t e n e s s a n d t h e l i k e .

A r e t h e s e a d d i t i o n a l p a r t s o f t h e s a m e c l u s t e r , o r a r e t h e y r a t h e r r e l a t e d t o

a n o t h e r c o : n p e t e n c e , a n d i n a n y c as e , w h y ?

I n o t h e r o r d s , t h e s u g g e st io n t h a t m e t a p h o r s , sa r c a s m a n d h u m o r a r e a l l

s u b s u m e d u n d e r t h e s a m e c o m p e t e n c e , w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , i s e m b o d i e d i n a

p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e o f s o m e s o r t i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e , s e em s t o r e st o n s o m e

d i f f u s e d , u n w a r r a n t a b l e n o t i o n s o f p r a g m a t i c s a n d m o d u l a r i t y .

T h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e r e i s a p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e , i n w h a t w e h a v e t a k e n

t o b e m o r e j u s t i f i a b l e s e n s e s o f ' p r a g m a t i c s ' a n d o f ' m o d u l e ' , a s w e l l a s t h e

q u e s t i o n o f it s l o c a t i o n r e m a i n , t h e n , i n w a n t o f a n a n s w e r o n d i f fe r e n t

~ r o u n d s . I t i s n o t d i ff ic u lt t o m a k e s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y s te p s t o w a r d s a n s w e r i n g

these que s t ions .

F i r st , n o t i ce t h a t p r a g m a t i c k n o w l e d g e as e m b o d i e d i n m o d u l a r D r a g m a ti cs ,

in ou r : , enses o f ' p r agmat ics ' and 'modu le ' , i s invo lved in each case a speech

ac t i s pe r fo rmed . In o the r words , the re i s no

ordinary

e m p l o y m e n t o f

g r a m m a t i c a l k n o w l e d g e w i t h o u t a c c o m p a n y i n g e m p l o y m e n t o f p r a g m a t i c

k n o w l e d g e. S i n c e th e p r i n c ip l e s o f s y n t a x a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f p r a g m a t i c s a r e

q u i t e d i st in c t f r o m e a c h o t h e r , i t is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e y c o n s t i t u t e

d i f f e ren t compe tences , embod ied in d i f f e ren t modu les o r c lus te r s o f modu les .

A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t, t h e re s ee m s t o b e s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a i

ev idence to the e f fec t tha t these comp e tences a re neu ro log ica l ly d i s soc ia ted

f rom each o the r , b u t a fu l l- fl edged inves t iga t ion o f th i s po in t has n o t ye t been

conc luded . 19

I n a n y c a s e, I f th e r e i s n o s p e e ch w i t h o u t e m p l o y m e n t o f p r a g m a t i c

k n o w l e d g e , t h e n i t w o u l d b e o n l y n a t u r a l t o a s s u m e t h a t s o m e p r a g m a t i c

m o d u l e , i n o u r s e n se o f t h e t e r m , o p e r a t e s i n t h e s p e a k i n g h e m i s p h e r e , t h e l e ft

one ( in r igh t -handed peop le ) . Th i s i s the

M odular Pragm at ics in the Le f t

Hem isphere H ypothesis

7 I n d i r e c t a c t s

I n c o n c l u s i o n , w e w o u l d l i k e t o m e n t i o n a t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e

19 A w h o l e b a t t e r y o f n e w p r a g m a t i c t es t s is p r e s e n t l y a d m i n i s te r e d i n Is r a e l a n d t h e U . S . i n a n

a t t e m p t t o i n v e s t ig a t e th i s i ss u e. W e h a v e a l s o s o m e t e st c a se s u n d e r r e e x a m i n a t i o n .


11/13


95

i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s w h i c h l e a d s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o p o s i t a p r a g m a t i c m o d u l e

in t h e r i g h t h em i s p h e re .

M e t a p h o r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s , s a r c a s t i c o n e s a n d ' i n d i r e c t ' s p e e c h a c t s s e e m t o

h a v e a t le a s t o n e f e a t u r e i n c o m m o n . R o u g h l y s p e a k i n g , i n e a c h o f t h e s e c a s e s

t h e re is a ' g a p ' b e t w e e n t h e l it e ra l m e a n i n g a n d w h a t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

t h e ' i n t e n d e d ' o n e . E v e n i f i t i s n o t e a s y t o r e a c h a f i r m a g r e e m e n t a s t o w h a t

i s t h e ' i n t e n d e d ' m e a n i n g o f su c h a n e x p r e s s i o n , i t is a l w a y s c l e a r t h a t i t

i n v o l v e s g o i n g b e y o n d t h e l i t e r a l m e a n i n g , s o t o s p e a k .

N o t i c e t h a t s a r c a s m a s w e l l a s c e r t a i n f o r m s o f ' i n d i r e c t ' s p e e c h a c t ( e . g . ,

" C o u l d y o u . . . ' ) , a r e , i n a s e n s e , c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d , a n d w e w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e ,

n o t b e s u r p r i s e d i f w e f in d t h e m t o b e d i ss o c i a te d f r o m m e t a p h o r i c a l e x p r e s -

s i o n s an d ' l i v e ' , ' i n d i r ec t ' s p eech ac t s .

N o t i c e a l s o t h a t e x c e e d i n g t h e l i t e r a l m e a n i n g d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n

f ir st o f a l l c o m p u t i n g t h e l it e ra l m e a n i n g a n d t h e n , a s a r e s u lt o f s o m e

e v a l u a t i o n , m a k i n g a n a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i fy t h e ' i n t e n d e d ' m e a n i n g . I t m a y w e ll

b e th e c a s e t h a t t h e n e e d t o g o b e y o n d t h e l it e ra l m e a n i n g i s d e t e c te d w i t h o u t

a c o m p l e t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e l it e r a l m e a n i n g b e i n g c o m p u t e d .

N o w , t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g m e t a p h o r i c a l

ex p re s s io n s we em p lo y t h e s am e p r in c ip l e s t h a t i d en t i fy fo r a s t h e ' h i g h e r '

i n t en d ed e n d o f an ' i n d i r ec t ' s p eech ac t o r t h e p r i n c ip l e s t h a t l e ad u s to i n t e rp re t

a r em ark a s b e in g s a rcas t i c , b u t i t wo u ld b e p l au s ib l e t o a s s u m e th a t s i n ce t h es e

p h en o m en a a l l i n v o lv e g o in g b ey o n d t h e l i t e r a l m ean in g t h ey a l s o a l l i n v o lv e

s o m e m o n i t o r i n g : i f g o i n g b e y o n d t h e l it er a l m e a n i n g is g o i n g 's o m e w h e r e '

b ey o n d t h e l i t e r a l m ean in g , t h en s o m e m o n i to r s h o u ld t e l l u s 'wh e re ' t o g o .

I f w e a s s u m e ( w i t h E r a n Z a i d e l, p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) t h a t a m o n i t o r o f

a l e f t h em i s p h e r i c d ev i ce can o p e ra t e i n t h e r i g h t h em i s p h e re , t h en an

ex p l an a t i o n s u g g es t s i t s e lf o f s ev e ra l ex p e r im en ta l r e s u l ts "

( ) T h e o b s e rv a t i o n t h a t s p l i t -b ra in s u b j ec ts , s u ch a s L B , ex h ib i t a s ev e re

d e fi ci t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' i n d i r e c t' s p e e c h a c t s ( t h o u g h n o t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

s a rcas t i c ex p re s s io n s ) .

( 2 ) R e s u l t s o f e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t s h o w t h a t s u b j ec t s w i t h r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e

d a m a g e p r e f e r li te r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f m e t a p h o r s a n d i d i o m a t i c e x p re s s i o n s

( s u c h a s ' a h e a v y h e a r t ' ) o v e r t h e i r ' i n t e n d e d ' m e a n i n g s .

( 3 ) R e s u l ts o f e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t s h o w t h a t s u b j e c ts w i t h r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e

d a m a g e , w h e n a s k e d t o j u d g e t h e a p p r o p r i a te n e s s o f a n a c t i o n i n re s p o n s e t o

a ' C a n y o u . . .' - q u e s t io n , " j u d g e d t h a t i n a p p r o p r i a t e a c t io n s w e r e a p p r o p r i a t e

m o r e o f t e n t h a n w o u l d b e e x p e c te d f r o m r a n d o m g u e s si n g a lo n e " ( H i r s t e t al .

1984: 30).

( 4 ) R e s u l t s o f e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t s h o w t h a t s u b j e c ts w i t h r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e

d a m a g e h a d a s e l e c t i v e d i f f i c u l t y a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e i n d i r e c t c o m m a n d s , t h e i r

p re fe ren ce o f t h e l i t e r a l i n t e rp re t a t i o n s b e in g " s ig n i f i can t l y d i f f e ren t t o t h a t o f

a p h a s i c s o r n o r m a l c o n t r o l s " ( F o l d i 1 9 8 7 : 8 8 ) .


12/13

396


I f t h is e x p l a n a t i o n i s i n t h e r ig h t d i r e c ti o n , t h e n t h e q u e s t i o n w h e r e i s

p r a g m a t i c s i n t h e b r a i n ? t a k e s a n u n e x p e c t e d l y in t r i g u i n g f o r m : s o m e p r a g -

m a t i c m o d u l e , i n o u r s e n s e o f t h e t e r m , m a y b e p l a u s i b l y a s s u m e d t o r e s i d e i n

t h e le ft h e m i s p h e r e ( o f r ig h t - h a n d e d p e r s o n s ) . H o w e v e r , a n y d e t e c t i o n o f a

n e e d t o g o b e y o n d t h e lit er a l m e a n i n g o f e x p r e s s io n s , t h a t is , o f a n e e d t o

e m p l o y a c e n t ra l d e v ic e o f i n t e r p r et a t io n o f s e n t e n c e s i n c o n t e x t s o f t h e i r u s e ,

i n v o l v e s a m o n i t o r i n g d e v i c e w h i c h r e s i d e s i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e . A c o n c l u d -

i n g s p e c u l a t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t w h e r e a s m o d u l a r p r a g m a t i c s i s i n t h e l e f t

h e m i s p h e r e , p a r t s o f c e n t r a l p r a g r n a t i c s a r e i n t h e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e .

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On Pragmatic Modules