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AGRI 2002, 32: 73-86
Summary
The small East African short horned Zebu(SEAZ) is an important source of animalprotein in Kenya. This indigenous genotype iswell adapted to environmental stressesincluding endemic diseases of the tropics.However, literature available on its geneticpotential is scarce. The Government of Kenya,in order to study this valuable germplasm ina systematic manner, has recently initiatedsome research and breed improvementprogrammes. This paper reports on some ofthe results of this work. Information wasobtained-using a structured questionnaireadministered to 430 farmers in Makueni,Kitui, Taita Taveta and Kajiado districts,Kenya. A multi-level stratified samplingtechnique was used to select the farmers to beinterviewed. Utilization and reasons forpreference of SEAZ cattle differed across andwithin districts in rankings. Generally, theSEAZ cattle are kept as multi-purposeanimals and were mainly preferred to theexotic breeds due to their superior adaptivecapacity to the local environmental stresses.Herd structures differed between the agro-pastoral and pastoral herds, but showed amanagement system that is subsistenceoriented with milk production and draughtpower being the main objectives of herdowners. Breeding bulls were sourced fromwithin or obtained from other herds forpure- or crossbreeding by natural,uncontrolled mating. Natural pastures, undercontinuous grazing were the main source oflivestock feeds. The herds surveyed hadadvanced ages at first calving and prolonged
calving intervals. The average milkproduction per day was 1.6 litres withsignificant differences being observedbetween districts, and hence Zebu strains, atthe start and peak of lactation.
Résumé
La race de Zébu de petite taille à cornescourtes de l’Est africain (SEAZ) est uneimportante source de protéines au Kenya. Legénotype indigène est bien adatpé aux stressenvironnemental, y compris les maladiesendémiques des tropiques. Cependant, ilexiste peu de litérature disponible sur sonpotentiel génétique. Le Gouvernement duKenya, pour pouvoir étudier ce germoplamsde grande valeur d’une façon systématique, ainitié récemment quelques programmes derecherche et d’amélioration. Cet articleprésente les résultats de ce travail etl’information obtenue à travers unquestionnaire soumis à 430 éleveurs dans leszones de Makueni, Kitui, Taita Taveta etKajiado au Kenya. On a utilisé une techniqued’échantillonage stratifié à différents niveauxpour sélectionner les éleveurs. L’utilisation etles raisons pour la préférence du SEAZdiffèrent à travers les zones et à l’intérieurmême de celles-ci. En général, le SEAZ estutilisé à double propos et on les préfèrent auxraces exotiques car plus adaptés aux stress dumilieu. La strcture des troupeaux aussi diffèreentre agro pastorale et pastorale, mais montrede prévalence une conduite de subsistencebasé sur la production de lait et la traction.Les mâles reproducteurs sont choisi parmi letroupeau ou obtenu à travers d’autres
On-farm characterization of the indigenous smallEast African Shorthorn Zebu cattle (SEAZ) in the
Southeast rangelands of Kenya
J.M. Mwacharo1 & J.E.O. Rege2
1National Range Research Centre-Kiboko P.O. Box 12 Makindu, Kenya2International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. BOX 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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74East African Shorthorn zebu (SEAZ) in S-E Kenya
troupeaux de race pure ou de croisementnaturel non contrôlé. Les pâturages naturelssont la source principale d’alimentation de cetélevage. Les troupeaux contrôlés présentaientun âge avancé à la premiére mise bas et uninterval entre mise bas prolongé. La moyennede production laitière par jour était de 1,6litres avec des différences importantes entreles zones observées et les lignées de Zébu, audébut et au maximum de la période delactation.
Keywords: Characterization, Functions, Herdstructures, Management, Preferences, Zebu.
Introduction
The Small East African shorthorned Zebu(SEAZ) is the main type of cattle in Kenya.This type, represented by several strains(Rege and Tawa, 1999), plays varioussocio-cultural and economic roles in thelivelihoods of a majority of the populace andhas successfully adapted itself to almost alarge range of vegetation and managementsystems. These adaptive characteristics arevery important for the development of alivestock industry that is suitable for resourcepoor farmers whose production system isfairly simple and extensive; with a relativelylow level of managerial skills.
In spite of their ecological and economicimportance, the SEAZ is inadequatelycharacterized. This has indirectly contributedto the lack of sufficient interest to sustainablyutilize, improve and conserve these uniquegenetic resources. Furthermore, literatureavailable relating to the SEAZ has beengathered from unsystematic surveys oranecdotal reports whose reliability isquestionable. There is a need forwell-designed on-farm and on-station studiesto evaluate the SEAZ and to provide aninsight into possible areas for interventions.Documentation of the indigenous knowledgeapplied by farmers to select superior geneticstocks and priorities they attach to eachfunction played by, and the reasons whyfarmers prefer, the SEAZ over exotic cattle, isalso necessary. This study undertook to
address some of these questions byconducting an on-farm survey in fouradministrative districts of the arid andsemi-arid lands (ASAL) of Kenya where thesecattle populations predominate.
Materials and Methods
Study sites
The survey was conducted in four districts inKenya, namely Makueni, Kitui, Taita-Tavetaand Kajiado. The inhabitants of Makueni andKitui (Kamba tribe) and Taita-Taveta (Taitatribe) are agro-pastoralists. The Maasai ofKajiado are pastoralists. The climate of thestudy area has been summarized by Jaetzholdand Schmidt (1983). The study sites arecharacterized by very low agriculturalpotential being mainly arid and semi-aridlands where natural conditions favourlivestock or game ranching and subsistencefarming, given the present level oftechnology.
Data collection, classification andanalysis
Data were collected in 1992, 1998 and 1999. In1992, 185 farmers were interviewed inMakueni and Kajiado. The 1998 survey wasdone in Kitui where 65 farmers wereinterviewed while in the 1999 survey, whichwas deliberately designed to cover multipledistricts, 180 farmers were interviewed,60 each from Makueni, Kajiado andTaita-Taveta. Only in the 1998 and 1999surveys were farmers asked to rank, in orderof importance, the functions and reasons whythey preferred the SEAZ cattle.
Information was obtained on the functions,preferences, management, adaptive traits,herd structures and production andreproductive attributes of the SEAZ cattle,through formal interviews, using a structuredquestionnaire administered to cattle-owninghouseholds. These households were chosen atrandom within a structured, stratifiedframework. That is, in each district, a
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75
Animal Genetic Resources Information, No. 32, 2002
Mwacharo E Rege
multi-level stratified sampling technique wasused based on the local administrativeboundaries. For example, in Kitui, threelocations in each division were chosen atrandom. In these locations, threesub-locations were chosen and in eachsub-location, three farmers were interviewed.For the 1999 survey, only three divisions withthe highest population of the SEAZ cattlewere sampled and farmers having the highestand lowest numbers of cattle in each of thesedivisions were included in the survey.
The functions played by, the reasons forpreferring, individual cattle types/breeds andage-sex classes were each categorized,classified and coded for analysis. Frequencycounts were determined to obtain the numberof individuals in each class. Tests ofindependence were performed by Chi-squareto investigate association of responses acrossand within districts. Milk yield data werecollected based on three stages of lactation(start, peak and end). Farmers were asked toindicate average yields at each of these stages.The mean daily milk yield was calculatedusing the following approach:
“Total” milk yield = x1y1 + x2y2 + x3y3
115 days for Kajiado. Data were analysedusing the GLM procedure of SASÒ release6.12 (SAS Institute, 1993).
Results and Discussions
Functions played by indigenousbreeds
The role of indigenous cattle differed acrossand within districts in their ranking (P<0.05),(Table 1). Within districts, milk productionranked first in Kitui, Taita-Taveta and Kajiadoand second after draught power in Makueni.Slaughter of cattle for home consumption orsale was more common amongst pastoraliststhan agro-pastoralists. This result indicatesmilk production as being the principalfunction of the herd in the study area.Slaughter of cattle either for homeconsumption or sale is uncommon, as manyhouseholds either prefer to slaughter sheepand goats or chicken or even purchase meatfrom butcheries in smaller quantities that caneasily be consumed at the household levelwithout the need for preservation. In Kajiado,cattle are slaughtered during socio-culturalceremonies such as circumcision.
The use of cattle as a source of income(commercial sales) is gaining in importance inthe study area compared to the socio-culturalvalue of cattle (Table 1). Throughout districts,commercial sales were ranked second overallafter milk production in Kitui, Taita-Tavetaand Kajiado, while in Makueni it was rankedthird after draught power and milkproduction. This implies that commercial saleis gradually replacing the socio-cultural valueof cattle as the communities in the study areaare being integrated into cash economy.
Throughout and within districts, draughtfunction had higher priority amongstresidents of Makueni and Kitui district. TheKamba community have traditionally beenknown to use cattle for draught while Taitasand Maasais have learnt this technologyrecently by interacting with the Kambacommunity. That a few farmers use cattle fordraught in Kajiado was not surprising. This isa more arid and predominantly pastoral
x3) x2 (x1
yieldmilk “Total” yieldmilk mean daily Adjusted
++=
where:y1 = milk yield at the start of lactationy2 = milk yield at the peak of lactationy3 = milk yield towards the end of lactationx1, x2 and x3 denote the interval lengths of thedifferent stages of lactation (start, peak andend) and they sum up to lactation length.Based on farmers’ views, within the first30 days (x1) of lactation, there is a rise in milkproduction, peaking during the second andthird month of lactation (60 days = x2). Theend of lactation, a time when milk productionis declining, was from the beginning of thefourth month to the end of lactation, varyingin length depending on the district surveyedand was x3 = 204 days for Makueni; 150 daysfor Kitui; 112 days for Taita Taveta and
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○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
76East African Shorthorn zebu (SEAZ) in S-E Kenya
Tab
le 2
. Pro
port
ion
of r
espo
nden
ts (%
) usi
ng a
nim
al d
ung
as fe
rtili
zer,
fuel
or
for
build
ing.
Fert
ilize
r Fu
el
Bui
ldin
g D
istr
ict
Yes
N
o Y
es
No
Yes
N
o M
aku
eni
96.0
4.
0 -
100.
0 -
100.
0 K
itu
i 88
.9
11.1
1.
7 98
.3
1.7
98.3
T
aita
-Tav
eta
75.0
25
.0
11.8
88
.2
17.7
82
.3
Kaj
iad
o 42
.2
57.8
26
.3
73.7
92
.5
7.5
Tab
le 1
. Fun
ctio
ns p
erfo
rmed
by
indi
geno
us b
reed
s (p
erce
ntag
e of
res
pond
ents
ran
king
eac
h fu
ncti
on a
s 1,
2 o
r 3)
. D
istr
ict
Mak
ueni
K
itui
Tai
ta-T
avet
a K
ajia
do
Use
s/R
ank
1
2 3
Tot
al
1 2
3 T
otal
1
2 3
Tot
al
1 2
3 T
otal
Dra
ught
21
.1
3.4
6
.1
30.6
1
0.0
6.3
7
.8
24.0
1
.4
5.8
2
.9
10.
1 0
.6
0.6
3
.3
4.4
M
ilk
7.5
17
.0
4.8
29
.3
15.
6 1
3.1
3.1
31
.8
29.5
3
.6
1.4
3
4.5
22.1
11
.6
- 33
.7
Cas
h 4
.8
8.8
10
.9
24.5
6
.8
10.
5 8
.9
26.4
2
.9
8.6
7
.9
19.
4 11
.1
14.9
3
.9
29.8
M
anur
e 0
.7
2.0
10
.2
12.9
1
.6
2.6
9
.4
13.5
-
5.1
10
.1
15.
1 -
- 1
.7
1.7
M
eat
- 0
.7
- 0
.7
- -
1.6
1
.6
0.7
7
.9
2.2
1
0.8
- 5
.5
15.5
21
.0
Soci
al
valu
e -
2.1
-
2.1
-
1.6
1
.6
3.2
0
.7
2.9
5
.8
9.4
-
0.6
5
.5
6.1
By
prod
ucts
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
- 0
.7
0.7
0
.6
0.6
2
.2
3.3
Tot
al
34.1
34
.0
31.9
10
0.0
33.9
33
.9
32.3
10
0.0
35.3
33
.8
31.0
1
00.0
34
.4
33.8
32
.1
100
.0
77
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
district where extensive cattle grazing ispractised. Crop farming is limited toNgurumani escarpments along the riverEwaso Nyiro South and the Kimana irrigationscheme. Moreover, among the Maasai, theuse of cattle for draught is still not acceptableto a large measure: such practice is equated toslavery. In Taita-Taveta, the use of cattle fordraught is confined to the lowlands ofMwatate and Taveta Divisions, due to thesteep and rugged topography of theremainder of the district.
The majority of the animals used forploughing and transportation were maleZebu cattle and donkeys (data not shown).This is related to the commonly held beliefthat female animals should not beoverburdened, that is to produce milk, calvesand till land. Generally, animals are preferredas a source of draught power due to theireasy availability and affordability, in terms ofthe initial purchasing costs and maintenancerequirements compared to tractors.
Animal dung was predominantly used asmanure in Makueni, Kitui and Taita-Tavetaand for building and partly as a source ofenergy in Kajiado (Table 2; Figure 1).Agro-pastoralists have long recognized thevalue of animal dung as manure due to theneed to improve soil fertility as chemical(inorganic) fertilizers are unaffordable. Theresult that only a few farmers in Kajiado usedanimal dung, as manure was not surprising.It reflects the diversification of the Maasailifestyle from one traditionally dependent onlivestock to that increasingly embracingarable farming. The use of animal dung forbuilding by the Maasai is a long tradition ofthis community (Figure 2).
Preference for the indigenous breeds
Indigenous cattle were preferred over exoticbreeds due to their superior adaptation tolocal environmental stresses especiallyextensive droughts and endemic diseases and
Figure 1. Taita zebu, commonly found in Tantia-Taveda District.
78
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Tab
le 3
. Pro
port
ion
(%) o
f res
pond
ents
ran
king
eac
h pr
efer
ence
as
1, 2
or
3 in
eac
h di
stri
ct.
Pref
eren
ce
Dis
tric
t R
ank
Surv
ival
du
ring
d
rou
ghts
Res
ista
nce
to d
isea
ses
and
para
site
s
Bet
ter
drau
ght
anim
al
Abi
lity
to
wor
k fo
r lo
ng h
ours
Bett
er
milk
ing
anim
al
Hig
hly
Fert
ile
Bett
er
carc
ass
Oth
ers
Tota
l 1
13.9
8.
0 10
.2
1.4
- -
- -
33.8
2
17.5
6.
6 2.
6 5.
1 2.
2 -
- -
34.1
3
21.2
7.
3 1.
5 2.
2 -
- -
- 32
.2
Mak
ueni
Tota
l 52
.6
21.9
14
.3
8.8
2.2
- -
- 10
0 1
11.8
2.
9 2.
1 -
- 2.
6 -
2.1
21.3
2
22.8
12
.4
2.6
- -
1.3
- 0.
5 39
.3
3 23
.4
10.4
4.
6 -
- -
- 1.
0 39
.4
Kitu
i
Tota
l 58
.0
25.7
9.
3 -
- 3.
9 -
3.6
100
1 9.
0 12
.6
- 0.
9 10
.8
- -
1.8
35.1
2
11.7
12
.6
- 1.
8 4.
5 -
- 4.
5 35
.1
3 13
.5
9.0
- 2.
7 0.
9 -
- 3.
6 29
.7
Tai
ta
Tav
eta
Tota
l 34
.2
34.2
-
5.4
16.2
-
- 9.
9 10
0 1
24.9
3.
0 -
- 4.
2 -
1.8
1.2
35.1
2
18.8
6.
7 -
- 3.
0 -
3.6
1.2
33.3
3
19.3
8.
5 -
- 1.
2 -
0.6
1.8
31.5
Kaj
iado
Tota
l 63
.0
18.2
-
- 8.
4 -
6.0
4.2
100.
0 N
ote:
Oth
ers
1.
Kit
ui
= B
ette
r m
ilkin
g an
imal
, bet
ter c
arca
ss q
ualit
y, d
ocile
, hig
h ca
lf su
rviv
al, b
ette
r m
othe
ring
abi
lity
2 .T
/Tav
eta
=
Bet
ter
carc
ass
qual
ity,
doc
ile, b
ette
r dr
augh
t ani
mal
, hig
h ca
lf su
rviv
al, b
ette
r m
othe
ring
abi
lity,
hig
h fe
rtili
ty r
ates
3.
Kaj
iado
=
Doc
ile, b
ette
r dr
augh
t ani
mal
, abi
lity
to w
ork
for
long
hou
rs, h
igh
calf
surv
ival
, hig
h fe
rtili
ty r
ates
79
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
parasites (Table 3). These two main reasonsgiven for the preference of indigenous breedsof cattle were not surprising. These are lowrisk, low investment animals capable ofsubsisting on poor quality forages withoutsupplementation and minimal levels ofveterinary care.
Apart from the adaptive traits, farmers inMakueni and Kitui preferred the SEAZ cattleas better draught animals, pointing out theirability to work for long hours. That, farmersin Makueni, Taita-Taveta and Kajiadopreferred the SEAZ cattle to exotic breeds formilk production was interesting, but nottotally surprising. This result reflects theability of Zebu cattle to produce milk inextreme conditions under which their exoticcounterparts are totally unproductive orunable to survive.
Herd structures
Two types of sex structures were observed,one in Taita-Taveta and Kajiado and the otherin Makueni and Kitui (Table 4). The formershowed a male:female ratio of 1:1.8. This typeof sex structure is common in most livestockproduction systems in Africa, where theprincipal function of the herd is milkproduction (Pullan, 1979). In Makueni andKitui, the ratio of males to females was1:1.1 and 1:1.4, respectively indicating aproportionately larger number of maleanimals. This is expected in systems wherethe main function of the herd is to supplymilk and draught power (de Leeuw andWilson, 1987).
The number of adult breeding bulls in eachherd gave a mating ratio of one bull to under10 breeding females: 1:2.1 in Makueni; 1:2.4 inKitui; 1:4.8 in Taita-Taveta; and 1:7.2 inKajiado. Similar ratios have also beenobserved in Ethiopia and Sudan (Wilson andClarke, 1975; Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1981). Theneed for draught animals in Makueni, Kituiand Taita-Taveta accounts for this high bullratio while in Kajiado it may arise from theneed to guard against unexpected losses ofbreeding bulls as a result of prolongeddroughts due to the aridity of the district.
Adult animals, over three years of age,formed the highest proportion in the herdssurveyed (49.2 percent in Makueni,66.3 percent in Kitui, 54.3 percent inTaita-Taveta and 56.7 percent in Kajiado),with the majority being mature females(Table 4). This high percentage of maturefemales is essential where the main objectiveof the household is to ensure an adequateyear-round supply of milk and allow forgrowth in animal numbers. High mortalityrates approaching 20 percent amongimmature animals in the study area mayexplain the low proportion of young animalsin the herds surveyed.
Breeding and nutrition management
Both straight- and crossbreeding, usingnatural uncontrolled mating (Table 5), werepractised. Farmers sourced breeding bullsfrom their own or neighbours’ herds(Table 5). Under communal grazing,controlled mating is impossible.Crossbreeding is done between SEAZ andSimmental, Freisian, and Sahiwal breeds toimprove milk and beef production. However,farmers interviewed indicated that crossbredsdid not compare favourably with the SEAZ infitness traits.
No distinct calving season was observed(Table 5). This was expected under naturaluncontrolled mating. The strategy is toencourage non-seasonal calving to ensureyear round supply of milk and calves. This iscommon with most communities found intropical Africa (Wilson and Clarke, 1975, deLeeuw and Wilson, 1987). However, due tothe effect of climate on pastures, there isusually a tendency for more calvings betweenMarch to May and November to December.
Inhabitants of the study area generallyselect animals for breeding. However, therewas a preference for the selection of maleanimals only in Kitui and Kajiado and bothmales and females in Makueni and TaitaTaveta (Table 5). Farmers in the study area donot keep written records but rely on theirmemory. This is a common situation indeveloping countries (e.g. Nuru and Dennis’,
80
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Table 4. Age and sex structure of cattle herds in the study area (%).
District Age – sex structure Makueni Kitui Taita-Taveta Kajiado Males 46.9 41.8 36.0 36.1 Adult males (> 3yrs) 13.9 18.0 8.4 5.4 Adult castrates (> 3yrs) 6.2 5.2 5.6 11.9 Young intact males (1-3yrs) 9.6 8.9 11.8 5.7 Young castrates (1-3yrs) 1.0 0.8 2.6 4.2 Immature (0-1yrs) 16.0 8.9 7.7 8.8 Females: 53.1 58.2 64.0 63.9 Mature (> 3yrs) 29.0 43.1 40.3 39.3 Young (1-3yrs) 12.1 8.1 14.0 12.1 Immature (0-1yrs) 12.0 7.0 9.6 12.4 Average herd size (numbers) 5.2 7.9 22.3 53.9
1976). Under on-farm conditions, lack ofperformance recording is a major handicap tobreed improvement.
Qualitative and quantitative traits wereused for selecting breeding animals (Table 6).However, selection criteria differed betweenand within districts in ranking. Milkproduction, body size and coat colour formedthe selection criteria for breeding animals inMakueni, Taita Taveta and Kajiado. In Kitui,milk production, coat colour and horn shapeand size were traits of importance. In TaitaTaveta, fertility and in Kajiado horn shapeand size were additional traits used to selectanimals for breeding. Farmers favoured highmilk producing animals as this ensuredself-sufficiency both for the calf and thefamily, while larger bodied animals fetchedbetter market prices. Brighter coloured coatswere preferred as these are considered not toattract tsetse flies and thus act as a naturalcontrol against trypanosomosis. Thepreference for horn shape and size in Kituiand Kajiado was for socio-cultural reasons.
The average age at culling (AAC) breedinganimals was 7.2 years and 11.3 years for maleand female animals, respectively (Table 7).Significant differences were observed for the
latter (P<0.05) between: Kitui and Makueni,Kitui and Taita Taveta and Kitui and Kajiado.Generally, there was some culling of bulls.However, cows were maintained in the herdsup to the end of their reproductive life. This isattributed to the important functions cowsplay in the households, the low replacementpotential due to high calf mortality and theneed to reduce risk by holding onto survivingadult female animals.
Livestock production is based on naturalpastures under a continuous grazing system(Table 7). Tethering, practised to a smallextent in the Kitui District, is done during theplanting and harvesting when farmingactivities are at their peak and herding labouris scarce. Feeds are conserved in the form ofcrop residues (cereal straws) in Makueni,Kitui and Kajiado and also as hay in the KituiDistrict (Table 7). Supplementation usingconcentrates and mineral licks is rare due tothe additional cost involved which farmersare either not willing or able to incur(Table 7). However, animals exploit naturalsalt deposits within the grazing fields or atwatering points.
81
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Table 5. Proportion of respondents (%) for each breeding management system. Breeding management Districts 1. Breeding system Makueni Kitui Taita-Taveta Kajiado
Straightbreeding 77.6 79.7 55.1 26.7 Crossbreeding 10.2 15.6 26.5 58.3 Both straight- and crossbreeding
12.2 4.7 18.3 15.0
2. Mating system Natural uncontrolled 88.9 66.7 63.0 82.7 Natural controlled 11.1 28.6 37.0 17.3 Artificial insemination (A.I.) - 4.8 - -
3. Source of breeding bulls Own herd 88.9 57.1 57.7 97.7 Neighbours’ herd 11.1 42.7 42.3 2.2
4. Calving season Wet 11.4 49.2 36.5 27.4 Dry 4.2 15.9 23.1 12.9 Year round 84.4 34.9 40.4 59.7
5. General selection of breeding animals Yes 90.0 42.0 77.6 93.6 No 10.0 58.0 22.4 6.4
6. Selection based on sex Male animals only 37.3 67.7 12.5 49.1 Female animals only 2.3 6.5 20.8 25.4 Both sexes 60.4 25.8 66.7 25.9
Age at first parturition and calvinginterval
The mean age at first calving (AFC) was4.5 years, but there were substantialdifferences between districts: Makueni(4.3 ± 0.14) vs Kitui (5.3 ± 0.14) (P<0.001),Makueni vs Kajiado (4.4 ± 0.14) (P<0.001),Taita-Taveta (4.0 ± 0.16) vs Kajiado (P<0.05)and Taita-Taveta vs Kitui (P<0.001). Theseresults show the expected patterns in whichconditions in Kitui (nutrition stress) andKajiado (nutrition stress and trekking longdistances in search of pastures and water) areassociated with delayed AFC (Ward et al.,1988).
The mean calving interval (CI) was16 months with significant differences beingobserved between districts: Makueni(14.9 ± 0.93) vs Taita-Taveta (18.5 ± 0.92)(P<0.01), Kitui (16.7 ± 0.79) vs Kajiado(13.9 ± 0.81) (P<0.05) and Taita-Taveta vsKajiado (P<0.001). The observed differences incalving intervals between Kajiado and theother districts (e.g. Kitui and Taita Taveta), isin line with short lactation lengths observedamong Kajiado herds, a result linked to thefact that Maasai wean their calves early. Thisfacilitates early return to oestrus and thusconception.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
82East African Shorthorn zebu (SEAZ) in S-E Kenya
Tab
le 6
. Pro
port
ion
of r
espo
nden
ts r
anki
ng e
ach
trai
t as
1, 2
, 3, e
tc.
B
asis
of s
elec
tion
of b
reed
ing
anim
als
Dis
tric
t R
ank
Bod
y si
ze
Milk
P
rod
n.
Coa
t col
our
Hor
n
shap
e Fe
rtili
ty
Oth
er
qual
t. O
ther
s T
otal
M
aku
eni
1 21
.9
9.4
0.6
- -
5.9
1.1
39.0
2 5.
3 4.
7 8.
9 -
- 6.
5 2.
3 27
.8
3
1.8
7.7
3.6
- -
2.3
4.1
19.5
4 3.
0 0.
6 2.
3 -
- -
3.0
8.9
5
0.6
0.6
1.8
- -
0.6
1.1
4.7
T
otal
32
.6
23.0
17
.2
- -
15.3
11
.6
100
Kit
ui
1 -
6.0
- 8.
4 -
7.3
6.1
27.7
2 -
2.4
- 4.
3 -
2.4
1.2
10.3
3 -
- 2.
4 -
- -
- 2.
4
4 -
- 12
.1
6.1
- 3.
6 -
21.7
5 -
2.4
19.3
9.
6 -
3.6
2.4
37.3
Tot
al
- 10
.9
33.8
28
.4
- 16
.9
9.7
100
T/
Tav
eta
1 16
.4
20.2
2.
2 -
0.8
- 4.
4 44
.0
2
10.5
9.
7 5.
2 -
7.5
- 0.
8 33
.6
3
3.7
1.5
3.0
- 7.
4 -
0.8
16.4
4 -
- 1.
5 -
1.5
- 1.
4 4.
4
5 -
- -
- 0.
8 -
0.8
1.5
T
otal
30
.6
31.4
11
.9
- 18
.0
- 8.
2 10
0 K
ajia
do
1 8.
2 15
.2
2.0
2.6
- -
3.1
31.1
2 11
.2
9.2
2.6
- -
- 2.
5 25
.3
3
3.6
1.5
7.1
3.0
- -
1.5
16.8
4 1.
0 -
3.6
11.1
-
- 1.
0 16
.8
5 -
- 7.
1 2.
1 -
- 1.
0 10
.1
T
otal
24
.0
25.9
22
.4
18.8
-
- 9.
1 10
0.0
Not
e: O
ther
qua
lt.=
oth
er q
ualit
ativ
e tr
aits
whi
ch in
clud
e ex
tend
ed d
ewla
p, lo
ng n
eck,
long
tail,
long
pre
puce
, lon
g na
vel f
lap
Oth
ers
= 1
. Mak
ueni
= H
orn
shap
e an
d si
ze, f
erti
lity
2. K
itui
= F
erti
lity
and
bod
y si
ze
3. T
/Tav
eta
= H
orn
shap
e an
d si
ze a
nd o
ther
qua
litat
ive
trai
ts
4. K
ajia
do
= F
erti
lity
and
othe
r qu
alit
ativ
e tr
ait
83
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Average lactation length
The average lactation length (LL) was235 days (Table 7) with significant differences(P<0.05) observed between the followingdistricts: Makueni (9.8 ± 0.32 months or294 days) vs Kitui (8.0 ± 0.41 months or240 days); Makueni vs Taita Taveta(6.7 ± 0.47 months or 202 days); Kitui vs TaitaTaveta; Kitui vs Kajiado (6.8 ± 0.32 months or205 days) and Makueni vs Kajiado Districts.The short LL observed in Taita Taveta isrelated to the practice of partial/restrictedsuckling, as the calf is separated from its damfor part of the day during grazing. Thisencourages early return to oestrus afterparturition. The inhabitants of Makueni, Kituiand Kajiado prolong the lactation lengths bycontinuously milking the dams and sucklingtheir calves. The SEAZ cattle strains analysedin this study showed short or very shortlactation lengths. The SEAZ strains studiedare found in the arid and semi arid lands,
areas characterized by nutritional and climaticstress and are kept by resource poor farmers.These factors account for the short lactationlengths of the SEAZ cattle of the study area.
Milk production
The daily milk yield averaged 1.6 litres withsignificant differences observed betweendistricts, and hence strains, at the start andpeak of lactation (Table 8). For the former,differences were observed between Makueniand Kitui; Makueni and Taita Taveta andbetween Kajiado and Taita Taveta, and for thelatter between Taita Taveta and Kitui andbetween Taita Taveta and Makueni. Thestudy area is characterized by overgrazedpoor quality forage resources, climatic stressand low levels of disease and breedingmanagement. Semenye (1987) observed thatthe lactation curve of the Maasai Zeburesponds to forage availability regardless ofthe month of lactation. In spite of the low
Figure 2. Maasai zebu, commonly found in Kajiado District.
84
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Tab
le 7
. Age
at c
ullin
g of
bre
edin
g an
imal
s (y
ears
) and
nut
riti
on m
anag
emen
ta)
D
istr
ict
M
aku
eni
Kit
ui
Tait
a-T
avet
a K
ajia
do
Bre
edin
g m
anag
emen
t
1.
Age
at c
ulli
ng b
reed
ing
anim
als
Mal
es
6.7
± 0.
52
6.9
± 0.
49
7.3
± 0.
53
8.0
± 0.
46
Fem
ales
11
.1 ±
0.5
5 12
.6 ±
0.4
5 10
.6 ±
0.4
97
10.9
± 0
.44
Nu
trit
ion
man
agem
ent
1. T
ype
of fe
eds
avai
labl
e on
the
farm
N
atur
al p
astu
res
53.1
27
.7
- 88
.5
Sow
n pa
stur
es
6.3
3.0
- 11
.5
Bot
h na
tura
l and
sow
n pa
stur
es
40.5
69
.2
- -
2. T
he c
omm
on g
razi
ng s
yste
m
Con
tinu
ous
98.9
56
.9
- 96
.2
Con
tinu
ous
and
teth
erin
g 1.
1 43
.1
- 3.
8 3.
Fee
d c
onse
rvat
ion
Yes
10
0.0
85.0
-
100.
0 N
o 0.
0 15
.0
- 0.
0 4.
Typ
e of
feed
s co
nser
ved
H
ay
- 15
.0
- -
Cro
p r
esid
ues
10
0.0
30.0
-
100.
0 H
ay a
nd c
rop
resi
du
es
- 55
.0
- -
5. S
upp
lem
enta
tion
of a
nim
als
Yes
33
.8
24.2
19.0
N
o 66
.2
75.8
81.0
a)
Figu
res
in th
e ta
ble
are
perc
enta
ge o
f res
pond
ents
in e
ach
dist
rict
exp
ress
ing
each
leve
l of a
par
ticu
lar
attr
ibu
te
(of n
utri
tion
man
agem
ent)
85
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
milk production levels in Zebu cattle, highwithin-breed variation in milk production hasbeen observed with certain strains orindividuals within the SEAZ type of cattlehaving very high milk production levels(Galukande et al., 1962). Farmers interviewedalso observed this. In their opinion, Zebucattle are capable of high milk yields.However, this high level of milk productionhas declined as a result of inbreeding andpoor feeding. It is, however, possible toidentify farmers with high milk producinganimals. There is a need to identify suchanimals which can form the basis for breedimprovement programmes.
Research and development
The SEAZ cattle have received limitednational attention and no genuine andsystematic attempts have been made for theirimprovement, in spite of its numericalimportance and adaptability to stressfulenvironmental conditions including disease
resistance. Considering the importance ofusing well adapted breeds in the tropics tomeet food requirements, a breeding andgenetic improvement programme for theSEAZ cattle has recently been established bythe Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Atotal of 124 SEAZ cattle (eight bulls and116 heifers) has been procured from Kitui andKajiado districts with the objective ofstudying this valuable germplasm andformulating selection criteria for its geneticimprovement as a dual purpose breed formilk and beef production in the marginalareas of Kenya.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank all the farmers interviewedand the staff of the Ministry of Agricultureand Rural Development for their assistance.European Union/Kenya AgriculturalResearch Institute funded the study under thesecond phase of the Agriculture/LivestockResearch Support Programme.
Table 8. Average milk yields (litres) for Zebu cattle in the study area. Districts surveyed Makueni Kitui Taita Taveta Kajiado 1. Daily milk yields
Lactation start 2.8 ± 0.23 1.9 ± 0.16 1.8 ± 0.18 2.3 ± 0.23 Lactation peak 3.1 ± 0.27 3.2 ± 0.23 2.4 ± 0.25 3.1 ± 0.27 Lactation end 1.0 ± 0.11 1.0 ± 0.10 0.7 ± 0.11 0.9 ± 0.10
2. Adjusted mean daily yields 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.8 3. Lactation milk yields 464.5 410.4 276.7 362.9 4. Annualized milk yields 380.1 299.0 181.6 316.4 5. Amount of milk potentially produced by Zebu cows (annualized)
83 545 980 56 808 100 23 698 800 239 957 760
Annualized milk yield = (actual lactation milk yield * 365)/calving interval 5Based on the proportion (%) of mature (breedable) cows as obtained from the herd structures (Table 4 as follows: Makueni = 29.0; Kitui = 43.1; T/Taveta = 40.3; Kajiado = 39.3. These were used to get the population of adult breedable females in each district). The Zebu cattle population figures Makueni = 219 800; Kitui = 190 000; T/Taveta = 130 500 and Kajiado = 758 400 (MOALD, 1995)
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86East African Shorthorn zebu (SEAZ) in S-E Kenya
References
Galukande, E.B., Mahadevan, P. &Black, J.G. 1962. Milk production in EastAfrican Zebu Cattle. Animal Production 4,329-340
Jaetzold, R. & Schmidt, H. 1983. Farmmanagement handbook of Kenya. Vol IIC.Natural conditions and farm managementinformation. Part C – East Kenya (Eastern andCoast provinces), Kenya Ministry ofAgriculture.
de Leeuw, P.N. & Wilson, R.T. 1987.Comparative productivity of indigenouscattle under traditional management inSub-Saharan Africa. Quarterly Journal ofInternational Agriculture, 2 (4), 377-390.
MoALDM (Ministry of AgricultureLivestock Development and Marketing).1995. Animal Production Division AnnualReport. Government of Kenya Press.
Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. 1981. A study oftraditional livestock production in the Adadistrict of Ethiopia. ILCA, Addis Ababa,Ethiopia, Animal Reproduction and HealthUnit.
Nuru, S. & Dennis, S.M. 1976. Abortionand Reproductive performance of cattle inNorthern Nigeria: A questionnaire survey.Tropical Animal Health and Production 8,213-219.
Pullan, N.B. 1979. Productivity of WhiteFulani cattle on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. I.Herd structures and reproductiveperformance. Tropical Animal Health andProduction. 11, 231-238.
Rege, J.E.O. & Tawa, C.L. 1999. Thestate of African cattle genetic resources II.Geographical distribution, characteristics anduses of present-day breeds and strains.Animal Genetic Resources Information 26,1-25.
SAS Institute. 1993. SAS/STATÒ UsersGuide Version 6.0. 4th Edition, Volume 2,GLM – VARCOMP. SAS Institute Inc.
Semenye, P.P. 1987. Factors influencingMaasai cattle productivity in Kajiado district,Kenya. PhD Thesis University of Nairobi,Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 391.
Ward, P.N., Saeed, A.M., Light, D. &Wilson, R.T. 1988. Reproductive performanceof Kenana cows in Sudan. TropicalAgriculture (Trinidad) 65, 73-76.
Wilson, R.T. & Clarke, S.E. 1975.Studies on the livestock of Southern Darfur,Sudan. I. The ecology and livestock resourcesof the area. Tropical Animal Health andProduction 7; 165 – 187.
87
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AGRI 2002, 32: 87-93
Summary
The Iraqi indigenous chickens (I.I.C.) are welladapted to a wide range of ambienttemperature (-5°C to 50°C). They are foundthroughout the country and are raised formeat and eggs. The birds are active andindependent foragers.
The IPA Agricultural Research Centreplayed a role in the purification andmultiplication of five different genetic linesaccording to feather colour. These lines arethe progeny of segregating populations of thefoundation stock which was a specimencollected from all over the country. Theplumage colour of the I.I.C. lines varied fromwhite to black. Most of the birds have whiteskin colour; comb type is single; egg-shellcolour varied between white, tinted to brown;age at sexual maturity ranged between 162 to166 days; body weight at sexual maturity wasfound to be similar for the different lines(1.4 kg) indicating that I.I.C are small–sizedbirds and variations among lines of the I.I.Cwere significant for egg production, eggweight and feed efficiency.
Resumen
La raza indígena de aves Iraquí (IIC) está bienadaptada a un amplio espectro detemperaturas ambientales que va de –5°C a50°C. Esta raza está presente en todo el país yse crían tanta para producción de carne quede huevos. Los animales se crían al suelo y sealimentan de forma independiente. El IPA ajugado un papel esencial en la purificación ymultiplicación de cinco líneas genéticasdiversas en base al color del plumaje. Estaslíneas son la progenie de poblacionessegregadas del stock original formado por
una serie de especímenes recogidos a travésdel país. El color del plumaje de las líneas IICva del blanco al negro. La mayoría de losanimales poseen la piel blanca, la cresta esúnica, el color de la cáscara de los huevosvaría de blanco, beige a marrón, la madurezsexual se alcanza alrededor de los 162 a166 días, el peso corporal en el momento de lamadurez sexual fue muy similar para lasdiversas líneas (1,4 kg), lo que indica que laIIC es de pequeno tamano y las variacionesentre líneas fueron significantes en cuanto aproducción de huevos, peso del huevo yeficacia alimentaria.
Keywords: Chicken, Indigenous, Iraq, Practices,Production, Characteristics, Morphologicaldescription.
Introduction
The Iraqi indigenous chickens (I.I.C.) have theadvantage of being well adapted to the localenvironmental conditions (high temperature,up to 50°C during summer and lowtemperature, as low as zero centigrade duringwinter, poor farming hygiene and deficientdiet) (Al-Jebouri 1970, Al-Soudi and Sokker1973, Al-Murrani et al., 1997). Anotheradvantage of the I.I.C. claimed by theconsumers is the good taste and flavour ofboth eggs and meat as compared tocommercial chickens. The I.I.C. are spreadthroughout the country, usually in a limitednumber of 20-30 birds per family. They aremainly raised in rural areas in a free-rangesystem. Therefore, they are a good source ofanimal protein and income to most ruralpopulations. Furthermore, I.I.C. arescavengers by nature and as such, provisionof feed or supplementary feeding is a rare
Characteristics of indigenous chicken in Iraq
A.A. Al–Rawi & A.K. Al-Athari
IPA Agric. Res. Center, Abu-Ghraib, Iraq
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88Indigenous chicken in Iraq
Tab
le 1
. Mor
phol
ogic
al c
hara
cter
isti
cs o
f ind
igen
ous
Iraq
i chi
cken
(pre
vale
nce,
per
cent
).
B
row
n B
arre
d
Bla
ck
Whi
te
nake
d
Whi
te
Leg
horn
N
H
Plu
mag
e p
atte
rn
98%
red
B
arre
d 1
00%
98
% b
lack
90
% w
hite
98
% w
hite
97
% w
hite
98
% r
ed
Skin
col
our
100%
whi
te
100%
whi
te
100%
yel
low
10
0% w
hite
10
0% w
hite
10
0% y
ello
w
100%
yel
low
Sh
ank
and
foot
col
our
90%
yel
low
90
% y
ello
w
70%
bla
ck
80%
yel
low
90
% y
ello
w
100%
yel
low
10
0% y
ello
w
Com
b ty
pe
100%
sin
gle
100%
sin
gle
100%
sin
gle
90%
sin
gle
100%
sin
gle
100%
sin
gle
100%
sin
gle
Egg
-she
ll co
lou
r 10
0% ti
nted
10
0% ti
nted
10
0% ti
nted
10
0% w
hite
90
% w
hite
10
0% w
hite
10
0% b
row
n
Tab
le 2
. Sel
ecte
d tr
aits
of i
ndig
enou
s Ir
aqi c
hick
en.
T
rait
B
R
BA
B
L
WN
W
T
LG
N
H
Age
at s
exu
al m
atur
ity
(day
) 16
2 a
(2.6
) 16
5 a
(5.2
) 16
2 a
(3.2
) 16
5 a
(5.0
) 16
3a
(3.3
) 16
2a
(0.4
) 16
6 a
(3.6
) B
ody
wei
ght a
t sex
ual m
atur
ity
(g)
1342
.8 b
(2
0.1)
13
85.4
b
(21.
7)
1457
.6 b
(1
9.1)
13
33.4
b
(22.
0)
1439
.4 b
(2
0.7)
14
00.9
b (1
5.9)
16
85.3
a
(22.
5)
Egg
pro
duc
tion
17
5.1
ab
(6.2
) 16
2.2
bc
(8.1
) 15
6.5
cd
(14.
1)
147.
0 d
(0
.2)
156.
5 cd
(1
3.3)
18
1.5
a (0
.7)
165.
4 bc
(1
0.6)
A
vera
ge e
gg w
eigh
t (g)
54
.1 a
bc
(10.
0)
53.3
bc
(10.
1)
52.5
c
(11.
5)
54.9
ab
(10.
1)
52.9
bc
(11.
1)
55.9
a
(9.0
) 54
.3 a
bc
(7.1
) Fe
ed e
ffic
ienc
y (g
feed
/eg
g)
196.
2 cd
(2
3.4)
22
1.0
ab
(29.
8)
209.
3 bc
(3
2.0)
23
2.2
a (2
2.0)
21
1.7a
bc
(29.
5)
183.
6 d
(1
8.3)
21
2.6a
bc
(26.
0)
Fert
ility
(%)
75.8
85
.7
85.0
90
.0
94.0
77
.3
90.0
H
atch
abili
ty o
f fer
tiliz
ed e
gg (%
) 95
.5
75.3
96
.0
86.1
88
.0
89.8
92
.5
Hat
chab
ility
of e
gg s
et (%
) 75
.1
87.9
82
.0
70.2
83
.0
69.4
82
.6
Egg
mas
s (g
/he
n)
6 08
8.4
b 6
185.
0 b
5 95
4.1
bc
5 53
3.0
c 5
650.
2 c
7 41
4.9
a 7
384.
9 a
Mea
ns in
sam
e lin
e w
ith
dif
fere
nt le
tter
s d
iffe
r (P
<0.0
5)
Figu
res
betw
een
par
enth
eses
are
coe
ffic
ient
s of
var
iati
on (%
)
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practice. The birds scavenge for themselvesfrom morning to evening around backyardsand fields feeding mainly on insects,earthworms, green matters and kitchenleftovers. No commercial diets are given toI.I.C. The eggs are naturally incubated underbrooder hens. There is virtually no poultryhealth programme in existence for I.I.C.under the free-range management systems.Little is known about I.I.C. in terms of howmany lines (or strain) there are and the degreeto which they are genetically adapted todiseases or heat stress and how thesechickens have evolved.
The objective of this report is tocharacterize I.I.C. for egg and meatproduction
Materials and Methods
Efforts have been undertaken to preserve andpurify the I.I.C. since 1986 (Mohammed et al.,1999). Different genetic lines of I.I.C. werederived according to feather colour andnakedness from indigenous foundationpopulation. A total of five genetic lines ofI.I.C. namely, brown (BR) (Figure 1), barred(BA) (Figure 2), black (BL) (Figure 3), whitenaked (WN) (Figure 4) and white (WT)(Figure 1) were developed. The birds of thedifferent lines represent the eighth generationof the foundation population. Three trials ofperformance test were carried out during1993/1994, 1994/1995 and 1995/ 996. Foreach line and within each trial a total of192 twenty-week old pullets, were housedindividually and tested simultaneously for ayear. Twenty-four pullets randomly chosen
Figure 1. Iraqi indigenous chicken: brown line.
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90Indigenous chicken in Iraq
Figure 2. Iraqi indigenous chicken: barred line.
Figure 3. Iraqi indigenous chicken: black line.
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Figure 4. Iraqi indigenous chicken: white naked line.
Figure 5. Iraqi indigenous chicken: white line.
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92Indigenous chicken in Iraq
from each of the five I.I.C. lines in addition totwo exotic breeds, Leghorn (LG) and NewHampshire (NH) known to be well adapted tothe local environment (Al-Jebouri, 1970), wereincluded in a performance test. Performanceevaluation involved several functional traits,including weight and age at sexual maturity(as age in days at first egg), egg production,average egg weight, feed efficiency(g feed/egg), feed intake per day, fertility,hatchability of fertilized eggs, hatchability ofegg set and egg mass.
Result and Discussion
The morphological description of I.I.C. isgiven in Table 1. The plumage pattern wasvery diverse being white in WN (prevalence,P = 90 percent), LG (P = 97 percent) and WT(P = 98 percent), red in BR (P = 98 percent)and black in BL (P = 98 percent). The skincolour was white in BR, BA, WN and WT andyellow in BL, LG and NH, (P = 100 percent).The shank and foot colour was diverse, beingyellow in BR (P= 90 percent), BA(P = 90 percent), WN (P = 80 percent), WT(P = 90 percent) LG and NH (P = 100 percent),whereas, BL was black (P = 70 percent). Combwas of single type in BR, BA, BL, WT, LG andNH (P = 100 percent), and also single withless prevalence (P = 90 percent) in WN.Egg-shell colour varied from white in WN,LG (P = 100 percent) and WT (P = 90 percent),whereas it was tinted in BR, BA and BL(P = 100 percent). However, NH had brownegg-shell colour (P = 100 percent).
There is not much variation in age atsexual maturity among I.I.C. (Table 2). I.I.C.commenced laying eggs (age of sexualmaturity) earlier than that reported by Jensen(2000) but similar to the indigenous chickensof Malawi (Safalaoh, 1997). Body weight atsexual maturity seems similar for BR, BA, BL,WN, WT and LG. On the other hand, NHbirds significantly showed the heaviest bodyweight at sexual maturity. This may indicatethat the I.I.C. are small-sized birds. Al-Rawi(1969) and Al-Jebouri (1970) reported thatindigenous chicken body weight rangedbetween 1.290-1.391 kg. The heavy weight
attained by birds in this study compared toprevious studies may be due to massselection practised during purification offeather colour of the various lines, whereheavier birds were selected for mating. TheC.V. of the body weight was high rangingfrom 15.9 percent (LG) to 22.5 percent (NH).
Wide variation was noticed in eggproduction. Hens laid between 147 (WN) to175 (BR) eggs. The BR, BA and BL were asproductive as NH. These values arecomparable to those found by (Ismail, 1997and Al-Rawi, 2001). The C.V. of eggproduction ranged between 0.2 percent forWN to 14.1 percent for BL. Feed efficiency(g feed/egg) was significantly influenced bygenetic lines. Egg weights were 54.1, 53.3,52.5, 54.9, 52.9, 55.9 and 54.3 g for BR, BA, BL,WN, WT, LG and NH, respectively. The LGhens produced the heaviest egg weightamong I.I.C. (P<0.05). While BL hensproduced the lightest egg weight. The LGbirds are more feed efficient (183.6) followedby BR (196.2). The WN birds need 232.2 gfeed for production of one egg. The C.V. offeed efficiency is relatively high(18.3-32.0 percent). Genetic improvement offeed efficiency may be possible in view of thehigh variability that exists. Fertility variedfrom 75.8 percent (BR) to 94.0 percent (WT).Whereas, hatchability of fertilized eggsranged (χ2 = 30.8, P<0.001) from 75.3 percent(BA) and 95.5 percent (BR). Furthermore,hatchability of the egg set was 69.4 percent forLG, increasing (χ2 = 17.9, P<0.001) to 87.9 forBA line. Fertility and hatchability wereaverage for I.I.C. Egg mass ranged between5.533 kg for WN to 7.415 kg for LG hens.
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Al-Soudi, K.A. & Sokker, I. 1973.Evidence of resistance to Newcastle disease inchickens native to Iraq. Iraqi. J. Agric. Sci.8:10-17.
Jensen, H.A. 2000. Structures forimproving smallholder chicken production inBangladesh breeding strategy. ICAR Tech.Series no. 3, 395-407.
Ismail, I.H. 1997. Estimation of geneticparameters for some quantitative charactersof Iraqi–Brown chickens. Ph.D. thesis, Collegeof Agric., Univ. of Baghdad, Iraq, (In Arabic),pp. 176.
Mohammad, A.H., Al-Athari, A.K.,Al-Rawi, A.A. & Shideed, K.H. 1999.Development of hybrid chicken adaptable torural area and backyard. Arab AgriculturalResearch Journal.2: 94-105.
Safalaoh, A. Ch. 1997. Characteristics ofindigenous chickens of Malawi, AnimalGenetics Resources Information. FAO, Rome,No. 22, 61-69.
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The Mediterranean Rabbit Group is aworking group created in the eighties,supported by the International Centre forAdvanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies(CIHEAM), through its MediterraneanAgronomic Institute of Zaragoza, incoordination with FAO, and whose objectivesare the study and characterization ofMediterranean autochthonous populations,the selection and dissemination of selectedlines throughout the Mediterranean Regionfor productivity and adaptation to theenvironmental conditions of the region, andthe identification and solution of problemswhich are specific to Mediterranean rabbitproduction, such as the variability of heattolerance and the selection of productiveanimals in low-cost production systems.
The exchange of information has been oneof the most important activities of this group.Four seminars have been previouslyorganized, whose Acta were published in thesame series.
Other activities of this group have been theexchange and common testing of geneticmaterial, the submission of Research Projectsto donor bodies, technical stays and training,with two editions of the course on“Production Systems of Rabbit Meat” held inValencia in 1992 and in Zaragoza in 1997.
Given the limited available evaluationreports on local rabbit breed characterizations,production variables, crossbred performances,and environmental factors, the MediterraneanRabbit Group has undertaken the task todevelop standardized descriptors forbreed/strain characterizations of rabbits inMediterranean countries. This publication
Rabbit genetic resources in Mediterranean countriesOptions Méditerranéennes no. 38, series B: Etudes et
recherchesM.H. Khalil & M. Baselga (Eds)
Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza,Apdo. 202, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain
Published in 2002. ISSN: 1016-1228 ISBN: 2-85352-241-5pp. 262
presents the first results obtained, with24 breeds/strains from seven Mediterraneancountries. The content will be included in aweb page (www.iamz.ciheam.org/med-rabbit-genres.htm) that will be updatedwith new information on other Mediterraneanbreeds.
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The Animal Production Society of Kenya(APSK) with the financial support of theEuropean Union under the umbrella of theAgriculture/Livestock Research SupportProgramme held its Annual Symposium on7-8 March 2002 at Egerton University, Njoro,Kenya to debate the effect of drought on cattlepopulation in Kenya.
In fact, drought management is a coreissue in more than 80% of Kenya’s land,which is classified as Arid and Semi-aridLands (ASAL). These areas are characterisedby unpredictable climatic conditions, livestockrustling, food insecurity and low householdincome. Most of the papers in thissymposium have critically attempted toanalyse and evaluate different strategies ofachieving sustainable livestock production byencouraging wider adoption of technologiesand knowledge in the affected area.
One of the major objectives of APSK is topromote interest and to contribute in thedevelopment of livestock production inKenya by, among other things, providing aforum for stakeholders in the sector toexchange ideas, research results andexperiences. The society has endeavoured tomeet its objectives by organising annualsymposium and farmers’ field days. Thepapers in this symposium created stimuliwithin the stakeholders in formulating andimplementing a sustainable policy frameworkto alleviate poverty and improve foodsecurity particularly in ASAL.
From the several papers presented, theissue of technology development and transferto the target group in the animal agriculturewere particularly debated and somesuggestions to overcome this bottle neckswere presented and discussed.
The challenges of drought to livestock production in KenyaProceedings of the Animal Production Society of Kenya (APSK) Annual
Symposium, held in Egerton University, Njoro, Kenia from 7 to 8 March 2001Animal Production Society of Kenya (APSK), P.O. Box 57811, Nairobi, Kenya
Published in 2002, pp.158
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Animal Genetic Resources Information, No. 31, 2001
This singular publication is aimed at all thoseinterested in the use of multipurpose foddertrees and shrubs (TRUBS) in theMediterranean region and brings together,through comments and appraisals, theperspective of the scientist and that of theuser of these species.
The texts accompanying the photographsare condensed extracts of personal experienceof the Author, contrasted with that ofscientists, extension workers, projectmanagers and farmers of the Mediterraneancountries. The photographs have beenselected according to their scientific andtechnical significance, some of them beinggenuine historical documents.
The publication is essentially a catalogue ofrecommended species that containsreflections and recommendations on thestrategies of use for soil rehabilitation andanimal production, based on the bioclimaticconditions and management requirements.Likewise, it includes, which is not usual, abrief discussion on the economic conditioningfactors of their implementation and use,based on practical examples.
This photographic catalogue complementsthe results of studies hosted by thecooperative research networks coordinated bythe Mediterranean Agronomic Institute ofZaragoza, available to the reader in severalpublications.
Multipurpose germplasm of fodder shrubs and trees for therehabilitation of arid and semi-arid land in the Mediterranean
isoclimatic zone. A photographic catalogueOptions Méditerranéennes no. 37, serie B: Etudes et recherches
H. Noël (Ed.)Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Zaragoza,
Apdo. 202, 50080 Zaragoza, SpainPublished in 2002. ISSN: 1016-1228 ISBN: 2-85352-240-7
pp. 118
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Development of successful animal recording systems fortransition and developing countries
ICAR Technical Series no. 8J. Mäki-Hokkonen, J. Boyazoglu, T. Vares & M. Zjalic (Eds)
Proceedings of the FAO/ICAR Seminar held inInterlaken, Switzerland, 27 May 2002
ICAR, Villa del Ragno, Via Nomentana 134, 00162 Rome, ItalyPublished in 2002. ISSN: 1563-2504 ISBN: 92-95014-04-9
pp. 195
The 33rd session of ICAR and Interbullmeeting were held in Interlaken, Switzerlandfrom May 26 to 31, 2002. In this context ICARand FAO organised a joint seminar to discusshow sustainable livestock development canbe enhanced in developing and transitioncountries, through an efficient organisation ofanimal recording.
Some 75 participants, from 42 countries,focused the discussion on commonexperiences about the successful developmentand use of animal recording systems in theircountries. The workshop aimed particularlyat debating the problems of animal recordingorganisations in different and changingeconomic realities.
Several social and economic elementsinfluence the sector and the existingdifferences among the countries reflect on thedistinct systems of animal recordingorganisations. In particular, the increasingdemand for animal products is playing adeterminant role in developing and transitioncountries along with the commercialisationand a more aggressive intensification ofanimal production. Such process occurs bothin the rural family based systems or in privatesector industry, be it in dairy, pig or poultryproduction systems. These basic elements areprevalent factors in many CEE and CIScountries as well as in large areas in thedeveloping world; these problems weredebated and analysed as a common economicreality.
This book is particularly addressed todecision-makers, involved in the outliningand managing animal resources and to local
stakeholders, which need to be moreinformed about the necessary nationalimprovements of recording systems for theiroptimisation. In order to support, communityand national policy-makers on the sustainableuse of animal biodiversity, these proceedingswill certainly assist them in their job and helpthem in the monitoring and developmentprocess of their activities.
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Animal Genetic Resources Information, No. 31, 2001
On-Station characterization of smallruminant breeds in Egypt
S. Galal, F. Abdel-Rasoul, M.R. Anous & I. Shaat (Eds)ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria and
Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, EgyptPublished in 2002. ISBN 977-298-2510-1
pp. 78
This report was commissioned by TheInternational Center for Agricultural Researchin Dry Areas (ICARDA), Aleppo, Syria, as apart of a regional study on the geneticresources of small ruminants in the countriesin the area of interest to ICARDA. The reportis structured to elucidate the characteristics ofthe breeds within the socio-economic contextand ecological considerations of the country.A total of 12 sheep breeds and seven goatbreeds are included in the report; many ofthem are reported for the first time. A veryextensive review of literature was made tocollect information included in the report.Photos are provided for both sexes of most ofthe breeds. Also reported were theinstitutions and workers in the countryinterested in different breeds. Egypt does nothave a census of livestock by breed, but thereport made an attempt to estimate breedpopulations roughly extrapolated from thegeographical distribution of the breeds. Nobreed seemed to be in danger of extinction. Acomprehensive bibliography on Egyptiansmall ruminant breeds is included in thereport.
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Editorial Policies andProcedures
The mission of the Animal Genetic ResourcesInformation Bulletin (AGRI) is the promotionof information on the better use of animalgenetic resources of interest to food andagriculture production, under the GlobalStrategy for the Management of Farm AnimalGenetic Resources. All aspects of thecharacterization, conservation and utilizationof these resources are included, in accordancewith the Convention on Biological Diversity.AGRI will highlight information on thegenetic, phenotypic and economic surveyingand comparative description, use,development and maintenance of animalgenetic resources; and on the development ofoperational strategies and procedures whichenable their more cost-effective management.In doing this AGRI will give special attentionto contributions dealing with breeds andprocedures capable of contributing to thesustainable intensification of the world’smedium to low input productionenvironments (agro-ecosystems), whichaccount for the substantial majority of theland area involved in livestock production;the total production of food and agriculturefrom livestock; and of our remaining farmanimal genetic resources.
Views expressed in the paper published inAGRI represent the opinions of the author(s)and do not necessarily reflect those of theinstitutions which the authors are affiliated,FAO or the Editors.
The suitability of manuscripts forpublication in AGRI is judged by the Editorsand reviewers.
Electronic publication
AGRI is available in full electronically on theInternet, in addition to being published inhard copy, at:<< http://www.fao.org/dad-is>>
Types of Articles
The following types of articles are publishedin AGRI.
Research articles
Findings of work on characterization,conservation and utilization of farm animalgenetic resources (AnGR) in well describedproduction environments, will be consideredfor publication in AGRI. Quality photographsof these genetic resources viewed in theprimary production environment to whichthey are adapted, accompanying themanuscripts are encouraged.
Review articles
Unsolicited articles reviewingagro-ecosystems, country-level, regional orglobal developments on one or more aspectsof the management of animal geneticresources, including state-of-the-art reviewarticles on specific fields in AnGR, will beconsidered for publication in AGRI.
Position papers
Solicited papers on topical issues will also bepublished as deemed required.
Other published material
This includes book reviews, news and notescovering relevant meetings, training coursesand major national, regional and internationalevents and conclusions and recommendationsassociated with the outcomes of these majorevents. Readers are encouraged to send suchitems to the editors.
Guidelines for Authors
Manuscript submission
Manuscripts prepared in English, French orSpanish with an English summary and
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another summary in either French or Spanish,should be submitted to AGRI Editor, AGAP,FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100Rome, Italy. Alternatively a manuscript maybe sent as a WinWord Electronic Mailattachment to < [email protected] >. Photographs,coloured or black and white, and figures mustbe always sent by mail.
Manuscripts should be typeddouble-spaced and with lines numbered inthe left margin. All pages, including those ofreferences, tables etc., must be consecutivelynumbered. The corresponding author isnotified of the receipt of a manuscript.
For manuscripts that are accepted afterrevision, authors are encouraged to submit alast version (3½” disc format) in Word 6.0 forWindows of their revised manuscript alongwith the printed copy.
Preparation of the manuscript
The first page of the manuscript must includethe running head (abbreviated title), title,names of authors, institutions, full addressesincluding postal codes and telephone numberand other communication details (fax, e-mail,etc.) of the corresponding author. Therunning head not exceeding 45 charactersplus spaces, should appear at the top of page1 of the manuscript entirely in capital letters.The title of the manuscript is typed in upperand lower case letters. The title should be asbrief as possible not exceeding 150 characters(including spaces) with species names whenapplicable. Authors, institutions andaddresses are in upper and lower case italics.There is one blank line between the title andthe authors. Addresses are typed as footnotesto the authors after leaving one blank line.Footnotes are designated numerically. Twolines are left below the footnotes.
Headings
Headings of sections, for example Summary,Introduction, etc., are left-justified. Leave twoblank lines between addresses footnotes andSummary and between the heading Summaryand its text. Summary should not exceed 200
words . It should be an objective summarybriefly describing the procedures and findingsand not simply stating that the study wascarried on such and such and results arepresented, etc. Leave one line between thesummary text and Keywords which is writtenin italics as well as the keywords themselves.All headings of sections (14 regular) andsub-sections (12 regular) are typed bold andpreceded and succeeded by one blank lineand their text begins with no indention. Theheading of a sub-subsection is written initalics, and ends with a dot after which thetext follows on the same line. Keywords comeimmediately after the summaries. Theyshould be no more than six, with no “and” or“&”.
Tables and figures
Tables and figures must be enclosed with thepaper and attached at the end of the textaccording their citation in the document.Photos will not be returned
Tables
Tables, including footnotes, should bepreceded and succeeded by 2 blank lines.Table number and caption are written, abovethe table, in italics (12) followed by a dot, thenone blank line. For each column or line title orsub-title, only the 1st letter of the 1st word iscapitalized. Tables should be numberedconsecutively in Arabic numerals. Tables andcaptions should be left justified as is the text.Use horizontal or vertical lines only whennecessary. Do not use tabs or space-bar tocreate a table but only the appropriatecommands.
Figures
Figures including titles and legends should bepreceded and succeeded by two blank lines.Figure number and title are written, below thefigure, in italics (12) and end with a dot. Theterm figures includes photos, line drawings,maps, diagrams etc.
All the submitted diagrams, must be
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accompanied with the original matrix of thedata used to create them. It is stronglyadvised to submit diagrams in Word 6.0 orExcel 5.0. Figures should be numberedconsecutively in Arabic numerals.
References
Every reference cited in the text should beincluded in the reference list and everyreference in the reference list should havebeen mentioned in the text at least once.References should be ordered firstlyalphabetically by the first author’s surnameand secondly by year.
Example for reference in a periodical is:Köhler-Rollefson, I., 1992; The camel
breeds of India in social and historicalperspective. Animal Genetic ResourcesInformation 10, 53-64.
When there are more than one author:Matos, C.A.P., D.L. Thomas, D. Gianola,
R.J. Tempelman & L.D. Young, 1997; Geneticanalysis of discrete reproductive traits insheep using linear and nonnlinear models: 1.Estimation of genetic parameters 75, 76-87.
For a book or an ad hoc publication, e.g.,reports, theses, etc.:
Cockril, W.R., (Ed), 1994; The Husbandryand Health of the Domestic Buffalo. FAO,Rome, Italy, pp 993.
For an article in the proceedings of ameeting:
Hammond, K., 1996; FAO’s programmefor the management of farm animal geneticresources. In C. Devendra (Ed.) Proceedingsof IGA/FAO Round Table on the GlobalManagement of Small Ruminant GeneticResources, Beijing, May 1996, FAO, Bangkok,Thailand, 4-13.
Where information included in the articlehas been obtained or derived from a WorldWide Web site, then quote in the text, e.g.“derived from FAO. 1996” and in theReferences quote the URL standard form:
FAO, 1996; Domestic Animal DiversityInformation System <http://www.fao.org/dad-is/>, FAO, Rome
For all future manuscript dispatch and correspondence regardingAGRI, please use the following mailbox:
Thanks for the collaboration
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Normes et règles éditoriales
L’objectif du Bulletin d’Information sur lesRessources Génétiques Animales (AGRI) estla vulgarisation de l’information disponiblesur la meilleure gestion des ressourcesgénétiques animales d’intérêt pour laproduction alimentaire et agricole, d’après lesrecommendations de la Stratégie Mondialepour la Gestion des Ressources Génétiquesdes Animaux Domestiques. Tous les aspectsrelatifs à la caractérisation, la conservation etl’utilisation de ces ressources seront pris enconsidération, suivant les normes de laConvention pour la Biodiversité.
AGRI désire diffuser de l’information surla génétique, les enquêtes phénotypiques etéconomiques et les desciptions comparatives,l’utilisation et la conservation des ressourcesgénétiques animales, ainsi que touteinformation sur le développement destratégies opérationnelles et de normes quipuissent permettre une meilleure gestion dela relation coût/efficacité. C’est pour cela queAGRI prendra spécialement en considérationtoutes les contributions référées aux races etaux normes capables de permettre uneintensification durable des milieux(agroécosystèmes) à revenus moyens et basdans le monde; qui comprennent la majeurpartie des terres consacrées à l’élevage, à laproduction totale des aliments et l’agricultureprovenants de l’élevage; et tout ce qui restecomme ressources génétiques des animauxdomestiques.
Les opinions exprimées dans les articlespubliés dans AGRI appartiennent seulementaux auteurs et donc ne représentent pasnécessairement l’opinion des instituts pourlesquels ils travaillent, la FAO ou les éditeurs.
L’opportunité ou non de publier un articledans AGRI sera jugée par les éditeurs et lesréviseurs.
Publication électronique
En plus de sa version imprimée, la versiontotale de AGRI se trouve disponible surInternet, sur le site:<<http://www.fao.org/dad-is/>>
Types d’articles
Les articles suivants pourront être publiés surAGRI:
Articles de recherche
Seront prises en considération pour leurpublication sur AGRI les études sur lacaractérisation, la conservation et l’utilisationdes ressources génétiques des animauxdomestiques (AnGR) accompagnées d’unebonne description du milieu. On encourageles auteurs à envoyer des photographies debonne qualité qui montrent les races enquestion dans leur milieu naturel deproduction.
Révisions
Occasionnellement, des articles contenant unerévision des agroécosystèmes, au niveaunational, régional ou mondial, avec un ouplusieurs aspects se rapportant à la gestiondes ressources génétiques animales, ycomprises les mises à jour des différenteszones de AnGR, seront pris en considération.
Articles spécifiques
Ponctuellement, des articles sur des thèmesspécifiques pourront être demandés pour lapublication d’éditions spéciales.
Autre matériel pour publication
Ceci comprend la révision de livres, nouvelleset notes de réunions importantes, cours deformation et principaux évènementsnationaux, régionaux et internationaux; ainsique les conclusions et recommendations parrapport aux objectifs des ces principauxévènements. Les auteurs sont priés d’envoyerce genre de matériel aux éditeurs.
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Guide pour les auteurs
Présentation du manuscript
Les articles se présenteront en anglais,français ou espagnol, avec un résumé enanglais et sa traduction en français ou enespagnol; et seront envoyés à l’éditeur deAGRI, AGAP, FAO, Viale delle Terme diCaracalla, 00100 Rome, Italie. L’autrepossibilité est d’envoyer l’article par courrierélectronique avec le document adjoint enversion WinWord à <[email protected]>. Lesphotographies, en couleur ou en blanc et noir,seront toujours envoyées par courrier normal.
Les manuscripts se présenteront à doubleinterligne et avec le numéro correspondant àchaque ligne sur la marge gauche. Toutes lespages seront numérotées, y comprises cellesavec les références bibliographiques, lestableaux, etc. L’auteur recevra une lettre luidonnant bonne réception de son document.
Lorsqu’un article, après sa révision, seraaccepté, on demandera à l’auteur d’envoyer laversion finale révisée sur disquette (format31/2”) en Word 6.0 x Windows, ainsi qu’unecopie sur papier.
Préparation du manuscript
Sur la première page du manuscript onindiquera le titre de l’article en abrégé, le titreet noms des auteurs, des institutions, lesadresses complètes (y compris code postal etnuméro de téléphone); ainsi que tout autremoyen de contact tel que fax, e-mail, etc. avecl’auteur principal. Le titre abrégé ne devra pasdépasser les 45 caractères, plus les espacesnécessaires, et s’écrira sur la partie supérieurede la page 1 du manuscript en majuscules. Letitre en entier du manuscript sera écrit enmajuscules et minuscules; il devra être aussibref que possible, sans dépasser les 150caractères (y compris les espaces nécessaires),et avec l’indication des noms des espèces. Lesnoms des auteurs, des institutions et lesadresses seront en italique et en lettresmajuscules et minuscules. On laissera unespace en blanc entre le titre et les noms desauteurs. Les adresses seront indiquées comme
des notes à pied de page pour chacun desauteurs après avoir laissé un espace en blancaprès les noms. Chaque note de pied de pagesera numérotée. On laissera deux espaces enblanc après les adresses.
Titres
Les titres de chaque chapitre, par exampleRésumé, Introduction, etc. seront alignés àgauche. Laisser deux espaces en blanc entreles notes de pied de page avec les adresses etle Résumé, et entre le titre Résumé et le textequi suit. Le résumé ne devra pas dépasser les200 mots. Il s’agira d’un résumé objectif quifasse une brève description des processusutilisés et des résultats obtenus, et non pasune simple présentation du travail réaliséavec une description générale des résultats.Laisser un espace en blanc entre la fin dutexte du résumé et les mots-clés, qui serontécrits en italique ainsi que le titre Mots-clés.Les mots-clés seront au maximum six et il nedevra pas y avoir de “et” ou “&”. Tous lestitres principaux de chapitre (14 regular) etsous-chapitre (12 regular) seront en gras avecun espace en blanc avant et après. Le textecommencera sans retrait. Un titre à l’intérieurd’un sous-chapitre s’écrira en italique, suivid’un point, avec le texte à continuation.
Tableaux et figures
Les tableaux et les figures iront à la fin dutexte en suivant l’ordre d’apparition dans letexte. Les photographies ne seront pasdévolues aux auteurs.
Tableaux
Les tableaux, y compris les notes de pied depage, devront avoir un espace en blanc avantet après. Le numéro du tableau et le titres’écriront sur la partie supérieure en italique(12) avec un point à la fin et un espace enblanc en dessous. Sur chaque colonne, titred’en-tête ou sous-titre, seulement la premièrelettre du premier mot sera en majuscule. Lestableaux et leur titre seront alignés à gauche,ainsi que le texte. Les lignes verticales et
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horizontales seront utilisées seulement sinécessaires. Ne pas utiliser les tabs ou la barrede séparation pour créer un tableau.
Figures
Les figures, y compris les titres et leslégendes, seront précédés et suivis de deuxespaces en blanc. Le numéro de la figure et letitre s’écriront sur la partie supérieure enitalique (12) avec un point à la fin. Sous larubrique figure on trouvera lesphotographies, les graphiques, les cartes, lesdiagrammes, etc. Dans le cas desdiagrammes, la matrice originale avec lesdonnées utilisées pour son élaboration devraêtre envoyée. On recommande l’utilisation deWord 6.0 ou Excel 5.0 pour la présentationdes diagrammes.
Références
Toute référence présente dans le texte devraapparaître sur la liste des références, etchaque référence de la liste aura été citée aumoins une fois dans le texte. Les référencesiront en ordre alphabétique du nom del’auteur, suivi de l’année. Example dans le casd’une référence sur une revue:
Köhler-Rollefson, I.,1992; The camel breedsof India in social and historical perspective.Animal Genetic Resources Information 10,53-64.
Lorsqu’il s’agit de plus d’un auteur:Matos, C.A.P., D.L. Thomas, D. Gianola,
R.J. Tempelman & L.D. Young, 1997; Geneticanalysis of discrete reproductive traits insheep using linear and nonnlinear models:1. Estimation of genetic parameters 75, 76-87.
Dans le cas d’un livre ou d’une publicationad hoc, par example un rapport, une thèse,etc.:
Cockril, W.R., (Ed), 1994; The Husbandryand Health of the Domestic Buffalo. FAO,Rome, Italy, pp 993.
S’il s’agit d’un acte d’une réunion:Hammond, K., 1996; FAO’s programme
for the management of farm animal geneticresources. In C. Devendra (Ed.) Proceedingsof IGA/FAO Round Table on the GlobalManagement of Small Ruminant GeneticResources, Beijing, May 1996, FAO, Bangkok,Thailand, 4-13.
Lorsque l’information contenue dansl’article ait été obtenue ou dérive d’un siteWorld Wide Web, il faudra mettre le texteentre guillemets; par example “tiré de la FAO.1996” et indiquer dans les Références la formestandard URL:
FAO, 1996; Domestic Animal DiversityInformation System <http://www.fao.org/dad-is/>, FAO, Rome
Pour tout envoi de manuscripts ou correspondence au sujet d’AGRI, vous êtesprié d’utiliser l’adresse suivante:
Merci pour votre collaboration
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Reglas y normas editoriales
El objetivo del Boletín de Información sobreRecursos Genéticos Animales (AGRI) es ladivulgación de la información sobre unamejor gestión de los recursos genéticosanimales de interés para la producciónalimentaria y agrícola, siguiendo la EstrategiaMundial para la Gestión de los RecursosGenéticos de los Animales Domésticos. Todoslos aspectos referidos a la caracterización, laconservación y el uso de estos recursos serántomados en consideración, de acuerdo con laConvención sobre la Biodiversidad.
AGRI publicará información sobregenética, encuestas fenotípicas y económicasy descripciones comparativas, uso, desarrolloy conservación de los recursos genéticosanimales, así como sobre el desarrollo deestrategias operacionales y normas quepermitan una gestión más eficaz de la relacióncosto/eficacia. Por ello, AGRI prestaráespecial atención a las contribucionesreferidas a razas y normas capaces decontribuir a la intensificación sostenible de losmedios (agroecosistemas) con ingresos medioy bajos en el mundo, que comprenden casi lamayor parte de las tierras dedicadas a laproducción ganadera; la producción total dealimentos y agricultura provenientes de laganadería; y el resto de los recursos genéticosde animales domésticos.
Los puntos de vista expresados en losartículos publicados en AGRI son solamentelas opiniones de los autores y, por tanto, noreflejan necesariamente la opinión de lasinstituciones para las cuales trabajan dichosautores, de la FAO o de los editores.
La oportunidad o no de publicar unartículo en AGRI será juzgada por los editoresy revisores.
Publicación electrónica
Además de su publicación impresa, la versióníntegra de AGRI se encuentra disponibleelectrónicamente sobre Internet, en el sito:<<http://www.fao.org/dad-is/>>
Tipos de artículos
Serán publicados en AGRI los siguientes tiposde artículos:
Artículos sobre investigación
Se tomarán en consideración para supublicación en AGRI los estudios sobre lacaracterización, conservación y uso de losrecursos genéticos de los animales domésticos(AnGR) con una buena descripción delentorno. Se agradecerá el envío de fotografíasde calidad que presenten a las razas encuestión en su ambiente natural deproducción.
Artículos de revisión
Se podrán tener en consideraciónocasionalmente aquellos artículos quepresenten una revisión de losagroecosistemas, a nivel nacional, regional omundial, con el desarrollo de uno o másaspectos referidos a la gestión de los recursosgenéticos animales, incluidas las revisionessobre el estado actual de las distintas áreas deAnGR.
Artículos específicos
Se solicitarán puntualmente artículos sobretemas específicos para ediciones especiales.
Otro material para publicación
Incluye la revisión de libros, noticias y notasreferidas a reuniones importantes, cursos deformación y principales eventos nacionales,regionales e internacionales, así comoconclusiones y recomendaciones relacionadascon los objetivos de estos principales eventos.Se invita a los lectores a enviar este tipo dematerial a los editores.
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Guía para los autores
Presentación del manuscrito
Los artículos se presentarán en inglés, francéso español, junto con un resumen en inglés ysu traducción en francés o español, y seenviarán al editor de AGRI, AGAP, FAO,Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Roma,Italia. Otra posibilidad es enviar el artículopor correo electrónico adjuntando eldocumento en versión WinWord a<[email protected]>. Las fotografías, a color o enblanco y negro, se enviarán siempre porcorreo normal.
Los manuscritos se presentarán con dobleespacio y con el número correspondiente acada línea en el margen izquierdo. Todas laspáginas serán numeradas, incluidas las de lasreferencias bibliográficas, cuadros, etc. Elautor recibirá una notificación sobre larecepción de su documento.
En el caso de aceptación de un artículodespués de su revisión, se solicitará al autoruna versión final de su artículo revisado endisquete (formato 31/2”) en Word 6.0 xWindows, así como una copia impresa delmismo.
Preparación del manuscrito
En la primera página del manuscrito seindicará el título abreviado del artículo, títulosy nombres de los autores, instituciones,direcciones completas (incluido código postaly número de teléfono); así como otros mediosde contacto tales como fax, e-mail, etc., delautor principal. El título abreviado no deberásobrepasar los 45 caracteres más los espacioscorrespondientes, y aparecerá en la partesuperior de la página 1 del manuscrito enmayúsculas. El título entero del manuscritoviene escrito en mayúsculas y minúsculas.Dicho título debe ser lo más breve posible yno sobrepasar los 150 caracteres (incluidos losespacios necesarios), con los nombres de lasespecies, si necesario. Los nombres de losautores, instituciones y direcciones seescribirán en cursiva y en letras mayúsculas yminúsculas. Se dejará una línea en blanco
entre el título y los nombres de los autores.Las direcciones se escribirán como notas depie de página de cada autor después de dejaruna línea en blanco entre los nombres y éstas.Cada nota de pie de página con la direcciónvendrá indicada numéricamente. Se dejarándos líneas en blanco después de lasdirecciones.
Títulos
Los títulos de cada sección, por ejemploResumen, Introducción, etc., vienen alineadosa la izquierda. Dejar dos líneas en blancoentre las notas de pie de página con lasdirecciones y el Resumen y entre el títuloResumen y el texto que sigue. El resumen nodeberá exceder de 200 palabras. Deberá ser unresumen objetivo que describa brevemente losprocesos y logros obtenidos, y no unapresentación de cómo se ha llevado a cabo elestudio y una descripción genérica de losresultados. Dejar una línea en blanco entre elfinal del texto del resumen y las palabrasclave, que se escribirán en cursiva así como eltitulo Palabras clave. No deberán ser más deseis y no deberán contener “y” o “&”. Todoslos títulos principales de capítulo (14 regular)y subcapítulo (12 regular) serán en negrita eirán precedidos y seguidos de una línea enblanco. El texto correspondiente empezará sinsangrado. Un título dentro de un subcapítulose escribirá en cursiva e ira seguido de unpunto con a continuación el textocorrespondiente.
Cuadros y figuras
Los cuadros y las figuras se incluirán al finaldel texto siguiendo el orden de cita dentro delmismo. Las fotografías no serán devueltas asus autores.
Cuadros
Los cuadros, incluidas las notas de pie depágina, deberán ir precedidos y seguidos pordos líneas en blanco. El numero del cuadro ysu título se escribirán en la parte superior encursiva (12) con un punto al final y seguido
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de una línea en blanco. En cada columna otítulo de encabezamiento o subtítulo, sólo laprimera letra de la primera palabra irá enmayúscula. Los cuadros irán numerados deforma consecutiva con números árabes. Loscuadros y sus títulos se alinearán a laizquierda, así como el texto. Se utilizaránlíneas horizontales o verticales sólo cuandosea necesario. No utilizar tabuladores o labarra espaciadora para crear un cuadro.
Figuras
Las figuras, incluidos los títulos y leyendas,irán precedidas y seguidas de dos líneas enblanco. El número de la figura y el título seescribirán en la parte superior en cursiva (12)con un punto al final. La palabra figuraincluye las fotografías, los gráficos, los mapas,los diagramas, etc. En el caso del diagrama seenviará la matriz original con los datosutilizados para crearlo. Se recomiendaencarecidamente la utilización de Word 6.0 oExcel 5.0 para la presentación de losdiagramas.
Referencias
Toda referencia presente en el texto deberáaparecer en la lista de referencias y, de lamisma manera, cada referencia de la listadeberá haber sido citada por lo menos unavez en el texto. Las referencias deben ir enorden alfabético del apellido del autor,seguido por el año.
Ejemplo en el caso de una referencia deuna revista:
Köhler-Rollefson, I.,1992; The camel breedsof India in social and historical perspective.Animal Genetic Resources Information 10,53-64.
Cuando se trata de más de un autor:Matos, C.A.P., D.L. Thomas, D. Gianola,
R.J. Tempelman & L.D. Young, 1997; Geneticanalysis of discrete reproductive traits insheep using linear and nonnlinear models:1. Estimation of genetic parameters 75, 76-87.
En el caso de un libro o de una publicaciónad hoc, por ejemplo informes, tesis, etc.:
Cockril, W.R., (Ed), 1994; The Husbandryand Health of the Domestic Buffalo. FAO,Rome, Italy, pp 993.
Cuando se trate de un artículo dentro delas actas de una reunión:
Hammond, K., 1996; FAO’s programmefor the management of farm animal geneticresources. In C. Devendra (Ed.) Proceedingsof IGA/FAO Round Table on the GlobalManagement of Small Ruminant GeneticResources, Beijing, May 1996, FAO, Bangkok,Thailand, 4-13.
Cuando la información contenida en elartículo haya sido obtenida o derive de unsito World Wide Web, poner el texto entrecomillas; por ejemplo “sacado de la FAO.1996” e indicar en las Referencias la formaestándar URL:
FAO, 1996; Domestic Animal DiversityInformation System <http://www.fao.org/dad-is/>, FAO, Rome
Se ruega enviar los manuscritos o la correspondencia relativa a AGRI a ladirección siguiente:
Gracias por su colaboración
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