OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Ihsan Al-Taie

R&D CenterSaudi AramcoDhahranSaudi Arabia

J. Malcolm Gray

Microalloyed Steel Institute Inc.Houston, TXUSA

Gerhard Knauf

Salzgitter Mannesmann ForschungGmbHEuropean Pipeline ResearchGroup e.V.DuisburgGermany

Minxu Lu

University of Science andTechnology BeijingBeijingChina

Alan Murray

Principia ConsultingCalgary, AlbertaCanada

John O’Brien

ChevronHouston, TXUSA

Bill Santos

NOVA Chemicals Centre ofApplied ResearchCalgary, AlbertaCanada

Joe Zhou

TransCanada PipeLines LimitedCalgary, AlbertaCanada

OIL AND GAS PIPELINES

Integrity and Safety Handbook

Edited by

R. WINSTON REVIE

Copyright 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for.

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

CONTENTS

PREFACE xxxi

CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

PART I DESIGN

1 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS) 3Ray Goodfellow and Katherine Jonsson

1.1 Introduction 31.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline

Integrity 41.3 What Is a PIMS? 41.4 Regulatory Requirements 51.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements 61.6 PIMS Function Map 81.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational 81.8 Do: Execute 91.9 Check: Assurance and Verification 101.10 Act: Management Review 101.11 Culture 111.12 Summary 11References 11

2 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 13Michael VanderZee, Doug Fisher, Gail Powley, and Rumi Mohammad

2.1 Introduction 132.2 SCADA Computer Servers 142.3 SCADA Computer Workstations 142.4 Hierarchy 152.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases 152.6 Fault Tolerance 152.7 Redundancy 16

v

2.8 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis 162.9 Incident Review and Replay 172.10 Data Quality 172.11 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover 182.12 Training 192.13 SCADA User Permissions and AORs 192.14 Web Connection 192.15 SCADA Security 202.16 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems 202.17 SCADA Standards 212.18 Pipeline Industry Applications 21

2.18.1 Leak Detection 222.18.2 Batch Tracking 222.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight 22

2.19 Communication Media 222.19.1 Cat5 Data Cable 222.19.2 Leased Line 222.19.3 Microwave 232.19.4 Dial-Up Line 232.19.5 Optical Fiber 232.19.6 Satellite 23

2.20 Communications Infrastructure 232.21 Communications Integrity 242.22 RTUs and PLCs 242.23 Database 252.24 User-Defined Programs 252.25 RTU/PLC Integrity 25References 26

3 Material Selection for Fracture Control 27William Tyson

3.1 Overview of Fracture Control 273.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation 283.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation 293.4 Toughness Measurement 31

3.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests 323.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA 32

3.5 Current Status 33References 34

4 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines 37Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi

4.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts 374.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design 374.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design

Methods 384.1.3 Limit States 384.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control 384.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications 39

4.2 Strain Demand 394.2.1 Overview 394.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand 39

vi CONTENTS

4.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations 394.3 Strain Capacity 41

4.3.1 Overview 414.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity 424.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity 43

4.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing 454.5 Summary 46References 46

5 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines 49Mavis Sika Okyere

5.1 Introduction 495.2 Design Pressure 49

5.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure 495.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure 505.2.3 Surge Pressure 505.2.4 Test Pressure 50

5.3 Design Factor 505.4 Determination of Components of Stress 51

5.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses 515.4.2 Longitudinal Stress 515.4.3 Shear Stress 555.4.4 Equivalent Stress 565.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress 56

5.5 Fatigue 575.5.1 Fatigue Life 575.5.2 Fatigue Limit 575.5.3 S–N Curve 57

5.6 Expansion and Flexibility 585.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors 58

5.7 Corrosion Allowance 595.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance 595.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance 595.7.3 Formulas 59

5.8 Pipeline Stiffness 595.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness 595.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment 61

5.9 Pipeline Ovality 615.9.1 Brazier Effect 625.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline 62

5.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius 625.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on

Concrete 625.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on

Steel 625.10.3 Installation Condition 625.10.4 In-Service Condition 63

5.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure 635.11.1 Buried Installation 635.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation 64

5.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions 645.13 Summary 64References 65

CONTENTS vii

6 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications 67Ayman Eltaher

6.1 Introduction 676.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility 686.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications 68

6.3.1 Design Challenges 686.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges 686.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges 69

6.4 Typical Pipe Properties 706.5 Technology Qualification 706.6 Additional Resources 716.7 Summary 71References 71

7 Residual Stress in Pipelines 73Paul Prevéy and Douglas Hornbach

7.1 Introduction 737.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses 737.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses 74

7.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance 767.2.1 Fatigue 777.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 787.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue 787.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual

Stresses 787.3 Residual Stress Measurement 79

7.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method 807.3.2 Ring Core Method 807.3.3 Diffraction Methods 817.3.4 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full

Stress Tensor Determination 847.3.5 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method 84

7.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses 867.4.1 Shot Peening 867.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity

Burnishing 867.4.3 Laser Shock Peening 877.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief 87

7.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work 877.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue

Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged4340 Steel 88

7.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless SteelWeldments 91

7.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Crackingin P110 Oil Field Couplings 91

7.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion FatiguePerformance and Damage Tolerance of 410Stainless Steel 93

7.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performanceof Downhole Tubular Components 95

References 96

viii CONTENTS

8 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline

Engineering Design and Integrity 99Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes

8.1 Introduction 998.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering

in Relation to Pipeline System ResponseAnalysis 1018.2.1 Overview 1018.2.2 Pipeline Routing 1028.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations 102

8.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design 1038.3.1 Overview 1038.3.2 Physical Modeling 1038.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools 1048.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance

Computational Pipe/Soil InteractionAnalysis 108

8.3.5 Emerging Research 1128.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models 1218.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering

Practice through an Integrated TechnologyFramework 129

Nomenclature 129Acknowledgments 130References 130

9 Human Factors 143Lorna Harron

9.1 Introduction 1439.2 What Is “Human Factors”? 1439.3 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors 143

9.3.1 Example Case Study 1449.4 Human Factors and Decision Making 144

9.4.1 Information Receipt 1469.4.2 Information Processing 146

9.5 Application of Human Factors Guidance 1499.6 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making 150

9.6.1 Satisficing Heuristic 1509.6.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring 1509.6.3 Selective Attention 1509.6.4 Availability Heuristic 1509.6.5 Representativeness Heuristic 1519.6.6 Cognitive Tunneling 1519.6.7 Confirmation Bias 1519.6.8 Framing Bias 1519.6.9 Management of Decision-Making

Challenges 1519.7 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in

the Pipeline Industry 1539.8 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited 1549.9 Summary 154References 155Bibliography 155

CONTENTS ix

PART II MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION

10 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels 159Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray

10.1 Introduction 15910.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development 160

10.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing ofPipeline Steels 162

10.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels 17210.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels 17510.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture

Components 17710.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate

Texture 17710.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling

Texture 17810.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region 181

10.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy 18210.5 Summary 182Acknowledgments 183References 183

11 Pipe Manufacture—Introduction 187Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer

11.1 Pipe Manufacturing Background 18711.2 Current Trends in Line Pipe Manufacturing 187References 188

12 Pipe Manufacture—Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large

Diameter Pipe 189Christoph Kalwa

12.1 Introduction 18912.2 Manufacturing Process 18912.3 Quality Control Procedures 19112.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 19212.5 Typical Fields of Application 192

13 Pipe Manufacture—Spiral Pipe 195Franz Martin Knoop

13.1 Manufacturing Process 19513.2 Quality Control Procedures 19813.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions 19813.4 Typical Fields of Applicability 200References 201

14 Pipe Manufacture—ERW Pipe 203Holger Brauer and Hendrik Löbbe

14.1 Introduction 20314.2 Manufacturing Process 20314.3 Quality Control Procedures 204

14.3.1 Welding Line 205

x CONTENTS

14.3.2 Finishing Line 20614.3.3 Destructive Material Testing 208

14.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 20814.5 Typical Fields of Applicability 208References 209

15 Pipe Manufacture—Seamless Tube and Pipe 211Rolf Kümmerling and Klaus Kraemer

15.1 The Rolling Process 21115.1.1 Introduction and History 21115.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology 21215.1.3 Pilger Rolling 21315.1.4 Plug Rolling 21515.1.5 Mandrel Rolling 21615.1.6 Forging 21815.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing 218

15.2 Further Processing 21915.2.1 Heat Treatment 21915.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks 22115.2.3 Finishing Lines 221

References 222

16 Major Standards for Line Pipe Manufacturing and Testing 223Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer

16.1 API SPEC 5L/ISO 3183 22316.2 CSA Z662-11: Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems 22316.3 DNV-OS-F101-2012: Submarine Pipeline Systems 22316.4 ISO 15156-1:2009: Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries—

Materials for Use in H2S-Containing Environments in

Oil and Gas Production 22316.5 EFC Publication Number 16, Third Edition: Guidelines on

Materials Requirements for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels for

H2S-Containing Environments in Oil and Gas Production 22416.6 NACE TM0284 and TM0177 22416.7 ISO 10893-11—2011 Non-Destructive Testing of Steel

Tubes—Part 11: Automated Ultrasonic Testing of the WeldSeam of Welded Steel Tubes for the Detection ofLongitudinal and/or Transverse Imperfections 224

References 224

17 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines 225Nobuyuki Ishikawa

17.1 Introduction 22517.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation

Method 22517.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test 22517.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method

for HIC 22717.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 227

17.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel for Sour Service 22817.3.1 Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions 22817.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation 229

CONTENTS xi

17.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition 229References 230

18 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity 233David Dorling and James Gianetto

18.1 Introduction 23318.2 Construction Welding Applications 234

18.2.1 Double-Joint Welding 23418.2.2 Mainline Welding 23418.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding 236

18.3 Nondestructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment 23718.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification 239

18.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards 23918.4.2 Welding Procedures 23918.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification 23918.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record 24018.4.5 Qualification of Welders 240

18.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Preventionof Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking 240

18.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Proceduresto a Strain-Based Design 242

18.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines 24318.8 Pipeline Incidents Arising from Welding Defects and Recent

Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action 245Appendix 18.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter 247Appendix 18.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards 247References 248

19 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity 253Robert O’Grady

19.1 Introduction 25319.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation 253

19.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes 25319.2.2 S-Lay Method 25419.2.3 J-Lay Method 25619.2.4 Reel-Lay Method 256

19.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation 25719.3.1 Vessel Restrictions 25719.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria 257

19.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies 25919.4.1 Global Installation Analysis 25919.4.2 Methodologies 259

19.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore 26119.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action 26119.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software 261

19.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation 26119.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling 26119.6.2 Plastic Strains 26219.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure 26219.6.4 Design Implications 262

Reference 262Bibliography 262

xii CONTENTS

PART III THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY

20 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil 267Homero Castaneda and Omar Rosas

20.1 Introduction 26720.2 Background 26720.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines 268

20.3.1 Soil Types and Resistivity 26820.3.2 Water Coverage Due to Vapor Transportation and

Drainage 26920.3.3 pH of Soils 27020.3.4 Chlorides and Sulfates in Soils 27020.3.5 Differential Aeration Corrosion Cells 27120.3.6 Microorganisms in Soils 27120.3.7 Redox Potential 271

20.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments 27120.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents 272References 273

21 Telluric Influence on Pipelines 275David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko

21.1 Introduction 27521.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric

Interference 27521.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity 27621.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity 27821.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields 27821.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment 279

21.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity 27921.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure 28021.6.3 Pipeline Response 280

21.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects 28121.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions 28321.9 Summary 283Acknowledgments 285References 285

22 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and

Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation 289Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy

22.1 Introduction 28922.2 Current Status of In-Line Inspection (ILI) Technologies for

Mechanical Damage Characterization 29022.2.1 Geometry (Caliper) Sensing Technologies 29122.2.2 Coincident Damage Sensing (Dent with Metal

Loss) Technologies 29222.2.3 Capabilities and Performance of the Current In-

Line-Inspection Technologies for Detection,Discrimination, and Sizing of Mechanical Damage 293

22.2.4 Closing Remarks 29822.3 Improved Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage

Characterization 301

CONTENTS xiii

22.3.1 In-Ditch Laserscan Technology 30122.3.2 Application of the State-of-the-Art In-Ditch

Measurement Technology 30522.4 Assessment of the Severity of Mechanical Damage 308

22.4.1 Regulatory and Industry Standard Guidance 30822.4.2 Strain-Based Assessment Methods 31022.4.3 A Combined Approach to Evaluate Dent with

Metal Loss 31522.4.4 Fatigue Assessment of Dents 317

22.5 Mitigation and Repair 31922.5.1 Improved Strain-Based Dent Severity Criteria –

Alternatives 32022.5.2 Repair 321

22.6 Continuing Challenges 322References 322

23 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability

of Welded Steel Pipelines 327Robert E. Melchers

23.1 Introduction 32723.2 Asset Management and Prediction 32823.3 Pitting 328

23.3.1 Terminology 32823.3.2 Initiation and Nucleation of Pits 32923.3.3 Development of Pitting 32923.3.4 Biological Influences 33023.3.5 Trends in Corrosion with Time 330

23.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth 33123.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development 33323.6 Structural Reliability 333

23.6.1 Formulation 33323.6.2 Failure Conditions 334

23.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth 33423.7.1 The Gumbel Distribution 33423.7.2 Dependence between Pit Depths 33523.7.3 EV Distribution for Deep Pits 33523.7.4 Implications for Reliability Analysis 336

23.8 Pitting at Welds 33623.8.1 Short-Term Exposures 33623.8.2 Estimates of Long-Term Pitting Development 33723.8.3 EV Statistics for Weld Pit Depth 338

23.9 Case Study—Water Injection Pipelines 33823.10 Concluding Remarks 339Acknowledgments 339References 339

24 Sulfide Stress Cracking 343Russell D. Kane

24.1 Introduction 34324.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking? 34324.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines 34324.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms 345

xiv CONTENTS

24.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC 34624.5.1 Availability of Liquid Water 34624.5.2 pH and H2S Partial Pressure 346

24.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels 34724.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC 348References 351

25 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service 353Russell D. Kane

25.1 Introduction 35325.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC 353

25.2.1 Environmental Variables in FGE 35425.2.2 Metallurgical Variables 35525.2.3 Mechanical Variables 355

25.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC 35725.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC 358

25.4.1 Identification 35825.4.2 Inspection 35825.4.3 Mitigation 359

25.5 Path Forward 360References 360Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers 361

26 AC Corrosion 363Lars Vendelbo Nielsen

26.1 Introduction 36326.2 Basic Understanding 363

26.2.1 The Spread Resistance 36526.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization 36826.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion—Mechanistic

Approach 37026.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management 373

26.3.1 Criteria 37326.3.2 Current Criteria 37326.3.3 Mitigation Measures 37426.3.4 Monitoring and Management 379

References 382Bibliography 382

27 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 387Brenda J. Little and Jason S. Lee

27.1 Introduction 38727.2 Requirements for Microbial Growth 388

27.2.1 Water 38827.2.2 Electron Donors and Acceptors 38827.2.3 Nutrients 389

27.3 Internal Corrosion 38927.3.1 Production 38927.3.2 Transmission 389

27.4 Testing 39027.4.1 A Review of Testing Procedures 39027.4.2 Current Procedures 39127.4.3 Monitoring 391

CONTENTS xv

27.4.4 Control 39227.4.5 Alter Potential Electron Acceptors to Inhibit

Specific Groups of Bacteria 39327.5 External Corrosion 394

27.5.1 Buried Pipelines 39427.5.2 Submerged Pipelines 395

27.6 Conclusions 395Acknowledgments 395References 395

28 Erosion–Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines 399Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley,

Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon,

Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan

28.1 Introduction 39928.2 Solid Particle Erosion 40128.3 Erosion–Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2

Environment with Sand 40528.4 Erosion–Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron

Carbonate Erosivity 40628.4.1 CO2 Partial Pressure 40728.4.2 pH 40728.4.3 Temperature 40728.4.4 Flow Velocity 40728.4.5 Supersaturation 40728.4.6 Erosion of Scale 40728.4.7 Erosion–Corrosion 40728.4.8 Erosion–Corrosion Model Development 408

28.5 Erosion–Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys 41028.5.1 Erosion–Corrosion of Carbon Steels versus CRAs 41028.5.2 Erosion–Corrosion with CRAs under High

Erosivity Conditions 41228.5.3 Repassivation of CRAs 41328.5.4 Effect of Microstructure and Crystallography on

Erosion-Corrosion 41628.5.5 Summary 416

28.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion–Corrosion 41628.6.1 Effect of Sand Erosion on Chemical Inhibition 41728.6.2 Modeling and Prediction of Inhibited Erosion–

Corrosion 41728.7 Summary and Conclusions 419Acknowledgments 419References 419

29 Black Powder in Gas Transmission Pipelines 423Abdelmounam M. Sherik

29.1 Introduction 42329.2 Internal Corrosion of Gas Transmission Pipelines 425

29.2.1 Siderite-FeCO3 (CO2 Corrosion) 42629.2.2 Iron Sulfides (H2S Corrosion) 42629.2.3 Iron Oxides (O2 Oxidation) 426

29.3 Analysis Techniques 42729.4 Composition and Sources of Black Powder 428

xvi CONTENTS

29.5 Physical and Mechanical Properties 42929.6 Impacts on Operations 43029.7 Black Powder Management Methods 430

29.7.1 Removal Methods 43129.7.2 Prevention Methods 432

29.8 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder 43329.8.1 Workers Protection and Contamination

Control 43429.9 Summary 434Acknowledgments 435References 435

PART IV PROTECTION

30 External Coatings 439Doug Waslen

30.1 Introduction and Background 43930.2 Coating Performance 439

30.2.1 Needs Assessment 43930.3 Product Testing 441

30.3.1 Cathodic Disbondment Resistance 44130.3.2 Adhesion 44130.3.3 Flexibility 44130.3.4 Aging 44230.3.5 Temperature Rating 44230.3.6 Damage Resistance 44230.3.7 Cure 44330.3.8 Electrical Isolation 443

30.4 Standards and Application Specification 44330.4.1 Quality Assurance 443

30.5 Field-Applied Coatings 44330.6 Coating Types and Application 444

30.6.1 Fusion Bond Epoxy 44430.6.2 Extruded Olefins 44430.6.3 Liquid Epoxy and Urethane 44530.6.4 Composite Coatings 44530.6.5 Girth Weld Coatings 44530.6.6 Specialty Coatings 44630.6.7 Repair Coatings 446

Reference 446

31 Thermoplastic Liners for Oilfield Pipelines 447Jim Mason

31.1 Introduction 44731.2 Codes and Standards 44731.3 The Installation Process 44831.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects 44931.5 Liner Materials 45131.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner 45231.7 Lined Pipeline Systems—Application Examples 452

31.7.1 Liners in Hydrocarbon Flow Lines 453

CONTENTS xvii

31.7.2 Grooved PE Liners 45331.7.3 Liners in a Reeled, Water Injection Pipeline 45331.7.4 Liners in Sour Gas and Gas Condensate

Pipelines 45331.7.5 PA11 Liners in Sour Gas Pipelines 454

References 454

32 Cathodic Protection 457Sarah Leeds and John Leeds

32.1 Introduction 45732.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection 45732.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection 458

32.3.1 Mechanism of Cathodic Protection 45832.3.2 E-pH Pourbaix Diagram 460

32.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied 46232.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System 46232.4.2 Sacrificial Anode Design 46332.4.3 Anode Material 46332.4.4 Impressed Current System 46332.4.5 Sacrificial Anode versus Impressed Current

Systems 46632.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection 467

32.5.1 Current Requirement for a Cathodic ProtectionSystem 467

32.5.2 What is the Most Economical Way for SupplyingCurrent? 467

32.5.3 How Is the Protective Current Distributed over theStructure? 468

32.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection 46832.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in

Conjunction with Coatings 46932.6.2 Adverse Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in

Conjunction with Coatings 46932.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems 470

32.7.1 Commissioning of Cathodic Protection System 47032.7.2 Monitoring Test Stations (Test Points) 47032.7.3 Annual Compliance Surveys 47132.7.4 Direct Current Voltage Gradient Surveys—DCVG 47132.7.5 %IR Severity 47232.7.6 Coating Fault Gradient 47532.7.7 Close Interval Potential Surveys - CIPS/CIS 47532.7.8 Soil Resistivity 47632.7.9 Corrosion Coupons 477

32.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria 47832.8.1 �850mV versus Cu/CuSO4 with the Cathodic

Protection Current Applied Criterion 47932.8.2 Polarized Potential of �850mV Measured to a

Cu/CuSO4 Reference Electrode Criterion 48032.8.3 100mV Polarization Criterion 48032.8.4 Net Current Flow Criterion 48132.8.5 Use of Criteria 481

References 482

xviii CONTENTS

PART V INSPECTION AND MONITORING

33 Direct Assessment 487John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski

33.1 Introduction 48733.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA) 488

33.2.1 Overview of Technique/Standard 48833.2.2 Strengths 48933.2.3 Limitations 48933.2.4 Status of Standard 48933.2.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity

Management 48933.2.6 Where ECDA Technique Is Headed 489

33.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA) 48933.3.1 Overview of Technique/Standard 49033.3.2 Strengths 49133.3.3 Limitations 49133.3.4 Status of Standard 49133.3.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity

Management 49133.3.6 Where SCCDA Technique Is Headed 491

33.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA) 49133.4.1 Overview of Technique/Standard 49233.4.2 Dry Gas ICDA 49233.4.3 Wet Gas ICDA 49233.4.4 Liquid Petroleum ICDA 49233.4.5 Strengths 49333.4.6 Limitations 49333.4.7 Status of Standards 49333.4.8 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity

Management 49333.4.9 Where ICDA Technique Is Headed 493

References 493

34 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and

ER Probes 495Daniel E. Powell

34.1 Introduction—Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ERProbes 49534.1.1 Corrosion—A Definition 49634.1.2 Corrosion and Use of Coupons and ER Probes as

Integrity Management Tools 49734.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion

Probes 49734.2.1 Metal Coupons 49834.2.2 Electrical Resistance Probes 500

34.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probeswithin Pipelines 50434.3.1 Placement of the Corrosion Monitoring Point on a

Pipeline 50434.3.2 Orientation of the Corrosion Monitoring Coupons

or Electronic Probes within a Pipeline 507

CONTENTS xix

34.4 Monitoring Results “Drive” Chemical Treatment andMaintenance Pigging Programs 507

34.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal CorrosionMonitoring Techniques 50934.5.1 Precision of UT, RT, or MFL Nondestructive

Inspection Techniques 51034.5.2 Typical Exposure Periods for Coupons or ER

Probes to Detect Active Corrosion 51034.5.3 Relative Time for Coupons, ER Probes, or

Inspection Techniques to Detect ActiveCorrosion 511

34.6 Fluid Sample Analysis to Complement and VerifyMonitoring Results 511

34.7 Summary 51234.8 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms From

NACE 3T199 NACE International 1999 513References 513

35 In-Line Inspection (ILI) (“Intelligent Pigging”) 515Neb I. Uzelac

35.1 Introduction 51535.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management 51535.3 Running ILI Tools 516

35.3.1 Tool Type Selection 51635.3.2 Making Sure the Tool Fits the

Pipeline 51635.3.3 Conducting the Survey 517

35.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose 51735.4.1 Geometry (Deformation) Tools 51735.4.2 Mapping/GPS Tools 51835.4.3 Metal Loss Tools 51935.4.4 Crack Detection 52335.4.5 Other 526

35.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification 52835.6 Integrating ILI Data 529Appendix 35.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire(Nonmandatory) 529References 535Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILIRelated Content 535

36 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection 537Konrad Reber

36.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing 53736.1.1 Introduction 53736.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works 53736.1.3 Limitations for Pipeline Inspection 538

36.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing 53936.2.1 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC) 53936.2.2 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) Testing 53936.2.3 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (SLOFEC or MEC) 540

36.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection 540

xx CONTENTS

36.3.1 Standard EC Applications 54036.3.2 Remote Field and Low Frequency Testing 54136.3.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Applications 54136.3.4 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (MEC, SLOFEC) 541

References 542

37 Unpiggable Pipelines 545Tom Steinvoorte

37.1 Introduction 54537.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline? 54537.1.2 The Main Challenges 547

37.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach 54737.2.1 Pipeline Modification 54737.2.2 Cable Operated Inspection 54837.2.3 Modification of Existing Tools 54837.2.4 Self-Propelled Inspection 54837.2.5 Selection Process 549

37.3 Free Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections 54937.3.1 Bidirectional Inspection 54937.3.2 ILI Tools for Launch Valve Operation 55037.3.3 Low-Flow Low-Pressure Inspection of Gas

Pipelines 55137.3.4 Multi-Diameter Inspection 551

37.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions 55137.4.1 UT-Based Crawlers 55237.4.2 MFL-Based Crawlers 55237.4.3 Other 553

References 554Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information 555

38 In-the-Ditch Pipeline Inspection 557Greg Zinter

38.1 Overview 55738.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines 55738.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program 557

38.3.1 Safety 55838.3.2 Verification and Advancement of Technology 558

38.4 Pipeline Coatings 55838.4.1 Asphalt or Coal Tar Enamel 55838.4.2 Tape Wrap 55938.4.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) 559

38.5 Types of Anomalies 55938.5.1 Introduction 55938.5.2 Volumetric 55938.5.3 Planar 56138.5.4 Geometric 561

38.6 NDE Measurement Technologies 56138.6.1 Visual Assessment 56238.6.2 Manual Measurement 56238.6.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection 56338.6.4 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT) 56338.6.5 Laser Profilometry 564

CONTENTS xxi

38.7 Excavation Package 56438.8 Data Collection 56538.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment 56638.10 Data Management 567

38.10.1 Quality Control 56738.10.2 Reporting 567

38.11 Recent Technological Developments 56838.11.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) 56838.11.2 Structured Light 56838.11.3 Ultrasonic 56838.11.4 Eddy Current 568

38.12 Summary 568Acknowledgments 568Reference 569Bibliography 569

39 Ultrasonic Monitoring of Pipeline Wall Thickness with

Autonomous, Wireless Sensor Networks 571Frederic Cegla and Jon Allin

39.1 Introduction 57139.2 The Physics of Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging 57139.3 Autonomous Sensor and Network Considerations 57239.4 Test Results 574

39.4.1 Lab Tests 57439.4.2 Operating Experience 575

39.5 Applications 57639.6 Summary 576Acknowledgments 577References 577

40 Flaw Assessment 579Ted L. Anderson

40.1 Overview 57940.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental? 57940.1.2 Material Properties for Flaw Assessment 57940.1.3 Effect of Notch Acuity 580

40.2 Assessing Metal Loss 58140.3 Crack Assessment 582

40.3.1 The Log-Secant Model for Longitudinal Cracks 58240.3.2 The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD) 58340.3.3 Pressure Cycle Fatigue Analysis 585

40.4 Dents 585References 586

41 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities 587Keith G. Leewis

41.1 Overview 58741.2 Outline 58841.3 Scoping a Facilities Integrity Plan 588

41.3.1 Generic Threats 58841.3.2 Interactive Threats 58841.3.3 Root Cause 592

xxii CONTENTS

41.3.4 Failure Frequency 59341.4 Specific Facility Threats 593

41.4.1 Fatigue 59341.4.2 Temperature 59341.4.3 Complexity 593

41.5 Facility Safety Consequences 59441.5.1 Environmental Consequences 59441.5.2 Business Consequences 59441.5.3 Reputation Consequences 594

41.6 Building a Facility Integrity Plan 59541.7 Integrity Assurance 595Bibliography: Essential Reading 596

PART VI MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT,

AND ABANDONMENT

42 Pipeline Cleaning 601Randy L. Roberts

42.1 Introduction 60142.2 Contaminates 60142.3 Progressive Pigging 60242.4 Pig Types 602

42.4.1 Poly Foam 60242.4.2 Unibody 60342.4.3 Steel Mandrel 60342.4.4 Polyurethanes 603

42.5 Durometer 60442.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning 60442.7 On-Line or Off-Line 60442.8 Cleaning a Pipeline 604

42.8.1 Typical Pigging Procedures 60542.8.2 Pipeline Cleaners and Diluents 605

42.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be? 60642.9.1 Single Diameter Pipelines 60642.9.2 Multi-Diameter Pipelines 606

42.10 Summary 607References 607

43 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure 609Brian N. Leis

43.1 Introduction 60943.2 Background 60943.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline

Construction 61143.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for “Older”

Pipelines 61443.4.1 System Expansion and Construction Era 61443.4.2 Qualitative Assessment of Construction Era and

Incident Frequency 61643.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Construction Era and

Incident Frequency 616

CONTENTS xxiii

43.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, andRegulations 61843.5.1 Pipeline Codes and Standards 61843.5.2 Pipeline Regulations 619

43.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines 61943.6.1 “Early” Construction Practices 62043.6.2 “Vintage” Construction Practices—An Era of

Change 62443.6.3 Summary and a Brief Look Forward at the

“Modern” Construction Era 62743.7 Management Approach and Challenges 629

43.7.1 Threat Identification and Assessment 63043.7.2 Inspection and Condition Monitoring 63043.7.3 Life-Cycle Management 631

43.8 Closure 631Acknowledgments 633References 633

44 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves 635William A. Bruce and John Kiefner

44.1 Introduction 63544.2 Background 63544.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves 636

44.3.1 Type A Sleeves (Reinforcing) 63644.3.2 Type B Sleeves (Pressure Containing) 64144.3.3 Installation and Inspection of Full-Encirclement

Sleeves 64644.3.4 Defect Repair Using Composite Materials 648

44.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced CompositeRepairs 64944.4.1 Applicability to Various Defect Types 64944.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 650

44.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline 65144.5.1 Primary Concerns 65144.5.2 Preventing Burnthrough 65144.5.3 Preventing Hydrogen Cracking 652

44.6 Summary and Conclusions 654References 654

45 Pipeline Repair 657Robert Smyth and Buddy Powers

45.1 Introduction 65745.2 Background 65745.3 Safety 65745.4 Protocols 65845.5 Pipe Replacement 65845.6 Grinding/Sanding 65945.7 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves 66045.8 Epoxy-Filled Shells 66045.9 Steel Compression Sleeves 66145.10 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves 661

45.10.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair 661

xxiv CONTENTS

45.11 Hot Tapping 66245.12 Direct Deposition Welding 66245.13 Temporary Repair 66245.14 Temporary Repairs of Leaks 66445.15 Applicability to Various Defect Types 664References 664

46 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup 665Merv Fingas

46.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview 66546.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur? 66546.1.2 Pipelines 666

46.2 Response to Oil Spills 66746.2.1 Oil Spill Contingency Plans 66746.2.2 Activation of Contingency Plans 66846.2.3 Training 66946.2.4 Supporting Studies and Sensitivity Mapping 66946.2.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives 66946.2.6 The Effectiveness of Cleanup 669

46.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties 66946.3.1 The Composition of Oil 66946.3.2 Properties of Oil 670

46.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment 67046.4.1 An Overview of Weathering 67046.4.2 Evaporation 67046.4.3 Emulsification and Water Uptake 67146.4.4 Biodegradation 67146.4.5 Spreading 67146.4.6 Movement of Oil Slicks on Water 67146.4.7 Sinking and Over Washing 67146.4.8 Spill Modeling 672

46.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills 67246.5.1 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 67246.5.2 Detection and Surveillance 672

46.6 Containment on Water 67246.6.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction 67346.6.2 Uses of Booms 67346.6.3 Boom Failures 67346.6.4 Sorbent Booms and Barriers 673

46.7 Oil Recovery on Water 67346.7.1 Skimmers 67446.7.2 Sorbents 67446.7.3 Manual Recovery 674

46.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal 67446.8.1 Temporary Storage 67546.8.2 Pumps 67546.8.3 Vacuum Systems 67546.8.4 Recovery from the Water Subsurface 67546.8.5 Separation 67546.8.6 Decontamination 67546.8.7 Disposal 676

46.9 Spill-Treating Agents 67646.10 In Situ Burning 676

CONTENTS xxv

46.10.1 Advantages 67646.10.2 Disadvantages 67646.10.3 Ignition and What Will Burn 67746.10.4 Burn Efficiency and Rates 67746.10.5 Use of Containment 67846.10.6 Emissions from Burning Oil 678

46.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration 67846.11.1 Behavior of Oil on Shorelines 67846.11.2 Types of Shorelines 67946.11.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) 67946.11.4 Cleanup Methods 67946.11.5 Recommended Cleanup Methods 680

46.12 Oil Spills on Land 68146.12.1 Behavior of Oil on Land 68246.12.2 Movement of Oil on Land Surfaces 68246.12.3 Habitats/Ecosystems 68346.12.4 Cleanup of Surface Spills 68446.12.5 Natural Recovery 68446.12.6 Removal of Excess Oil 68446.12.7 Other Cleanup Methods 68546.12.8 Cleanup of Subsurface Spills 685

References 687

47 Pipeline Abandonment 689Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes

47.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment? 68947.2 Abandonment Planning 689

47.2.1 Removal or Abandon in Place 68947.2.2 Consultation 69047.2.3 Abandonment Plan Outline 690

47.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities 69147.3.1 Contamination Remediation 69147.3.2 Pipeline Cleaning 69147.3.3 Removal of Facilities and Apparatus 69247.3.4 Water Bodies 69347.3.5 Transportation and Utility Crossings 69347.3.6 Right-of-Way Restoration 693

47.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues 69447.4.1 Ground Subsidence 69447.4.2 Pipe Deterioration and Collapse 69447.4.3 Pipe Exposure 69447.4.4 Water Conduit Effect 69547.4.5 Slope Stability 695

47.5 Post-Abandonment Care 69547.5.1 Monitoring and Maintenance 69547.5.2 Land Use Changes 69547.5.3 Liability 69647.5.4 Financial Resources 696

References 696

xxvi CONTENTS

PART VII RISK MANAGEMENT

48 Risk Management of Pipelines 699Lynne C. Kaley and Kathleen O. Powers

48.1 Overview 69948.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines 69948.1.2 Scope 70048.1.3 Risk Analysis 70048.1.4 The RBI Approach 70248.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning 703

48.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches 70348.2.1 API Industry Standards for RBI 70348.2.2 Basic Risk Categories 70548.2.3 Alternative RBI Approaches 70548.2.4 Qualitative Approaches to RBI 70648.2.5 Quantitative RBI Analysis 709

48.3 Development of Inspection Programs 71248.3.1 Introduction 71248.3.2 Inspection Techniques and Effectiveness 71348.3.3 Damage Types 71348.3.4 Probability of Detection 71748.3.5 Reducing Risk through Inspection 717

48.4 Putting RBI into Practice 71848.4.1 A Continuum of Approach 71848.4.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Examples 71848.4.3 Qualitative Example 71948.4.4 Quantitative Example 72148.4.5 Optimizing the Inspection Program 72348.4.6 Example Problem Conclusions 723

48.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies 72448.5.1 Summary 72448.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate

Level of RBI 72448.5.3 Justifying Costs 725

References 726

49 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity

Management 727Binder Singh and Ben Poblete

49.1 Introduction 72749.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions 72849.3 Life Cycle 733

49.3.1 Fitness for Corrosion Service 73349.3.2 Conventional and Performance-Based Corrosion

Management 73349.3.3 Corrosion Risk-Based Performance Goals 73349.3.4 Inherent Safe Design (ISD) and Project Phases

of a Production Development 73449.3.5 Link between ISD and Corrosion Management 73549.3.6 Risk-Based Inspection and Monitoring 73549.3.7 Life Extension 736

CONTENTS xxvii

49.4 Case Histories 73649.4.1 Fit-for-Purpose Solutions 73649.4.2 Methods and Techniques of Failure Analysis 73749.4.3 Failure Mechanisms and Excursions outside

the Design Envelope 73749.4.4 Corrosion and Integrity Risk 73849.4.5 Corrosion Failures 73949.4.6 Localized Corrosion Mechanisms in the Offshore

Oil and Gas Industry 74049.4.7 Pictorial Gallery of Localized Corrosion

and Cracking 74049.4.8 Failure Analysis Check Sheet Listing 742

49.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations 74449.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring

Methodologies 74449.6.1 Risk and Reliability in the Corrosion Context 74549.6.2 Safety Management Systems and Corrosion Risk 75049.6.3 Formal or Structured Hazard or Risk Assessment 750

49.7 Summary: Recommendations and Future Strategies 755Acknowledgments 755References 755Bibliography 756

PART VIII CASE HISTORIES

50 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study—

Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions 761Arnold L. Lewis II

50.1 Introduction 76150.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem 76250.1.2 Observations 762

50.2 Study Conclusions 76550.2.1 Conclusions for Sources of Hydrogen in an

Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve 76550.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from

inside the Pipeline into an Annulus 76550.2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from

outside the Repair Sleeve into an Annulus 76550.2.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Annulus Pressure

Increase 76650.2.5 Factors Affecting the Time Required for a Buckle/

Collapse Failure 76650.2.6 Main Sources and Considerations for Hydrogen

Gas Trapped in the Annulus of a Pipeline RepairSleeve 766

50.2.7 Solutions to Mitigate Buckle/Collapse Failuresunder Pipeline Repair Sleeves 767

50.3 Summary 767Acknowledgment 767References 767

xxviii CONTENTS