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The Association for the Conservation of Energ

Westgate House, 2a Prebend Street, London N1 8PT

Tel: +44 20 7359 8000, Fax: +44 20 7359 0863

Website: http://www.ukace.org

ACEThe Association for the Conservation of Energy

Energy efficiency in

offices:Assessing the situation

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Ene rgy e ffic ien cy in of fices : asse ss ing t h e s i tu a t ion

Authors:

Dr Joanne Wade, Jacky Pett and Lotte Ramsay

Ass ociat ion for th e Cons ervation of En ergy

Westgate Hou se, 2a Prebend Street

Lond on N1 8PT

Tel: 020 7359 800 0 Fax: 020 7359 086 3

Email:joa n n e@u ka ce.o rg Web: www.ukace.org

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Energy Efficiency in Offices: Assessing the Situation

Association for the Conservation of Energy 2003

Th is report u pd at es an d expan ds on th e report Wh ite Collar CO2, written byIvan Scras e, an d p u blish ed by th e Ass ociation for th e Conservation of En ergy,in Au gus t 2000 . Wh ere they rema in relevan t, sections of th e text from th eorigin al report are reprodu ced un altered here. The report was p resented to theCarbon Tru st in J u ly 200 2 as p art of an on-going project. It was fu rth er

updated to reflect the progress of the EU Energy Performance in BuildingsDirective an d th e UK En ergy White Paper an d pu blish ed in March 2003 .

ACE gratefully acknowledge the funding support of the Carbon Trust for the

work described in this report and for permission to publish it. The viewsexpressed however are those of the authors and should not be at tr ibuted tothe Carbon Tru st itself. The infor ma tion is being ma de available to you a s p artof th e Carb on Tru st 's gen eral activity of prom otin g a low carb on fu tu re for th eUK. We also tha n k Rockwool Ltd for sp ons oring th e prod u ction of th ese

reports.

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CONTENTS

Page1. Th e cha llenge 11.1 En ergy u se in the comm ercial sector 11.2 CO2 emissions from commercial sector energy u se 2

2. A focu s on offices 42.1 Why offices? 42.2 Ma jor drivers affecting energy dem an d a n d en ergy efficien cy2.2.1 End-uses2.2.2 Floor spa ce

555

2.3 Office ener gy u se: m ajor end u ses 62.4 Cos t-effective en ergy efficien cy imp roveme n ts 8

3. Moving forward : in itial th ou ghts 103.1 Existin g in itia tives3.1.1 Bu ilding Regu lation s3.1.2 Eu ropean Buildings Directive3.1.3 Clim ate Cha n ge Levy3.1.4 En h an ced Capital Allowan ces

3.1.5 Information provision and advice3.1.6 Bu siness led initiatives

1010101111

1111

3.2 Stakeholders 123.3 Lan dlord-tena nt iss u es 13

3.4 Th e role of th e in su ran ce in du stry 153.5 Und er-sold ben efits of en ergy efficien cy 163.6 Sta keholder comm u nication 17

4. Conclu sion 18

References 19

List of Tables

1. Growth in o ther fin a l energy consu mp t ion in th e UK, 197 3-2000 4

2 . Pro jec ted an nu al increa se in fina l energy dema nd u p to 2010 4

3 . Ene r gy cons u m pt i on a nd CO2 em iss ion s in UK comm ercial offices 6

4. Typical an d good pra ct ice en ergy cons u m ption in offices in th e UK 9

5. CO2 em issions per u n i t of floor ar ea for 4 office types 10

6. Serv ice cha rges in UK offices by compon ent percenta ges in 200 0 16

List of Figur es

1. DTI project ion s for carb on inten si ty in th e electr icity su pp ly indu str y 5

2 . CO2 emiss ion s by end u se in offi ces 7

3. Growth in comm ercial office floor sp ace 8

4 . CO2 em iss ions for differen t office types 10

5. The com m ercial bu ildin g vicious circle of bla m e 15

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1 . THE CHALLENGE

Energy efficiency policies and programmes in the UK have focused on the

domestic and industrial sectors, and have tended to overlook the servicesector. This lack of sp ecific in terest in th e s ector is reflected in th e way energy

consumption data are compiled. In the annual Digest of UK Energy Statistics(published by the Department of Trade and Industry, DTI, and theGovernment Statistical Service), commercial services have often been included

in oth er fina l u ser s, along with pu blic adm in istra tion a n d agricultu realthou gh, since 1997 , there h as been s ome disaggregation of th e figures.

The Energy Review (PIU, 2002) highlights the need to improve energy efficiencyin buildings and recommends action to deliver a phased transition to lowenergy commercial buildings through development of the Building

Regu lation s. Th e Govern m en t cons u lta tion (DTI, 20 02 ) lead ing to th eprodu ction of an Energy White Paper as ks What possible ways are there foren couraging (or requiring) the ow ne rs of the e xisting s tock of dw ellings a nd other

type s of buildings to im prove e nergy perform an ce? (pa ragrap h 2.8)

The rem ainder of this pap er cons iders why this cha llenge has ar isen, an d pu tsforward s ome initial th ough ts on m ovin g forward .

1 . 1 E n e r g y u s e i n t h e c o m m e rc ia l s e c t or

En ergy cons u m ption by other fin al us ers h as not been increasing rapidlycompared to other sectors. From 1973 to 2000 there was a 17.5% increase infinal energy consumption in this sector compared to 24.6% growth in thedomestic sector, and 70.2% growth in the transport sector. (Energy

consu m ption in th e indu str ial sector fell by 44.7% over th e s am e period)(DTI,200 1). However, a ggregation of other final u sers m as ks th e fact th at virtu allyall of the increase in this sector has been in commercial services (privateoffices, ret ail, leisu re, h ospita lity an d wa reh ou ses ).

In commercial services final energy consumption grew by 68.4% from 1973 to2000, compared to a 9.5% decrease in public sector services energyconsumption (DTI, 1997 and DTI 2001 note 4). Table 1 breaks down the growthin oth er fina l us ers into pu blic services, com m ercial ser vices a n d a gricu ltur e.

T a b le 1 : G r ow t h i n o t h e r fi n a l e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n t h e UK , 1 9 7 3 t o 2 0 0 0 .

Million ton n es of oil equ iva lent

Commercial

services

Public1

services

Agriculture

1973 cons u mption 7.5 8.9 2.2

2000 cons u mption 12.6 8.0 1.2

Change 197 3-200 0 +68 .4% -9 .5% -47 .2%

Based on DTI (1997) p. 120. and DTI (2001).

Most critically, there has been no improvement in energy intensity (delivered

energy consumption divided by contribution to GDP) in the UK service sector

1 In th e original reference th is is lab elled private services bu t th e text m ak es it clear th is is a

mispr in t .

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since the late 1980s (DTI, 1997 note 5). This is to say that while there hasbeen rapid growth in economic output from the service sector, energycons u mption has increas ed ju st as rapidly.

DTI projections of energy use in the service sector predict a continuation ofthis t rend with energy cons u mp tion r ising by aroun d 0.7% (in both h igh an d

low price scen arios) per year u p t o 2010. In a h igh price scena rio this ou tstripsgrowth in a ll but th e tran sp ort sector (see ta ble 2).

T a b le 2 : P r o je c t e d a n n u a l in c r e a s e i n f i n a l e n e r g y d e m a n d u p t o 2 0 1 0 b y s e c t o r .

% increa se in f ina l energy dema nd per an nu m (to 2010)

Services Dom es t ic Transpor t Indu s t ry

High Price Scen ar io 0.7 0.4 1.7 0.5

Low Price Scen ar io 0.7 0.8 1.9 0.9

Bas ed on DTI (200 0), pp.22 -31.

In th is ins tan ce th e service sector in clu des both pu blic a nd private services.Bearing in m ind the low/ no growth trends seen over the last 30 years in th epublic sector (see table 1) this will again mask the true extent of final energydema nd in t he p rivate s ervices sector.

An other worrying tren d is th e rat e of in creas e in electricity con su m ption in th e

ser vice s ector. Wh ile total ene rgy u se in th e sector defined as other fin al us ersby the DTI increased by 17.5% from 1973 to 2000, electricity use more thandoubled over the same period, representing 31.4% of total electricityconsumption in 2000 (DTI, 2001 note 4).

1.2 CO2 e m i s s i on s f r o m c om m e rc ia l s e c t o r e n e rg y u s e

Growth in CO 2 emissions from the service sector (public plus private) havebeen kept in check by fu el switching from coal to gas for h eating in bu ildingsan d in th e electricity genera tion sector. The DTI, in 2 000 , projecte d th at totalemissions from the sector would be 4% lower in 2010 than 2000, and wouldthen increase slowly from 2010 (DTI, 2000). This contrasts with thepredictions ma de in 1 995 , for an 1 1% increa se in emission s in th e period 2000

to 2010, followed by a 19% increase in the subsequent decade to 2020 (DTI,1995). The optimistic more recent projections reflect a projected return to theda sh for gas seen in th e 199 0s . Th is is illu str at ed in actu al CO2 emiss ions forthis period, which show a decrease of around 10% between 1990 and 2000

(DEFRA, 2001). Emissions stood at 21.2 MtC in 2000, 15% of total emissions.

The projections, which underpin the UK Climate Change Programme (DETR2000a), assume a continuing decline in carbon intensity in the electricitysupply industry. This is illustrated in Figure 1. While total electricitygeneration is expected to continue its rapid upward trajectory, over the next

decade improvements in carbon intensity keep total emissions in check.However th is a ss u mes a s u bs tan tial ongoing role for nu clear power (thou gh allnuclear capacity except Sizewell B is expected to have closed by 2020),continu ed ra pid ph as e -ou t of coal-fired generation in a n ew das h for gas, an da heroic threefold increas e in th e u se of renewables.

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Figure 1: DTI projections for carbon inten sity in the electricity supply indu stry.Data from DTI 2000 note 8

If there is reason to question these assumptions on the fuel mix in electricitygeneration, then there is real cause for concern over the near futurecontribu tion of th e comm ercial sector to UK CO 2 emissions . Fu rtherm ore, from2010 emissions are set to r ise even und er these as sum ptions , an d th ey will riseparticularly quickly in the rapidly expanding (and electricity intensive) priva te

comm ercial s ector.

0

50

100

150

200250

300

350

400

1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Elec.

Generation

(TWh)

Carbon

intensity

(gC/ kWh)

CO2

emissions

(MtC)

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2 . A FOCUS ON OFFICES

2 . 1 W h y o f f i ce s ?

Within the commercial sector, offices, together with warehouses and retail

premises, are a signif icant contr ibutor to energy use and carbon emissions.From these three sub-sectors, offices seem to offer the greatest potential foraction to achieve significant savings: the range of technical solutions is not toolarge as the nature of energy service demands in offices is relativelyh omogen eou s; a significan t, h igh ly cost-effective tech n ical potential for sa vingscan be identified; th ere is scope for a ran ge of solutions tack lin g the p roblem

from a n u mb er of an gles if a r an ge of the s ignifican t st akeh older grou ps can beengaged, and action by a small group of large stakeholders could significantlychange the market .

DEFRA funded research on energy use in non-domestic buildings (Pout et al,1998) provides a breakdown of energy use and CO 2 emissions by type of

occupier, end use and fuel type. Data for commercial offices are presented inTab le 3. Figu re 2 pr esen ts th e proportion of total CO2 emissions b y end u se inthe s ector . These est imates are ba sed on extensive energy aud its a nd na tionalstock d ata from th e Valua tion Office, an d a re th erefore quite reliable an d

complete. Note that CO2 data include em iss ions from power stations .

Table 3: Energy consum ption and CO 2 emissions in UK commercial offices.

Fossilf

uels(PJ)

Electricity(PJ)

CO2

(kT)

Heat ing 46 5 3680

Hot water 5 0 469

Cater ing 3 3 370

Light - 16 2238

Cooling - 11 1319

S m a l l

power

- 2 250

IT - 12 1031

Ot h e r - 2 184

Process - 3 7

Unkn own - 0 .3 121

T o t a l 5 4 5 6 9 6 6 9

Based on Pout et al. (1998)

In 1996, the CO2 emissions from commercial sector offices amounted toalmost 10 million tonnes per annum. This is equivalent to 2.6 million tonnes

of carbon (MtC).

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Heating and hot water

Light

Cooling

IT

Catering

Smallpower

Other

Unknown

Process

Figure 2: CO 2 emissions by end u se in offices.

Based on Pout et al. (1998)

2 . 2 Ma j or d r i ve r s a f f e c t i n g e n e r g y d e m a n d a n d e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y

The rapid growth in energy consumption in offices over the last three decadesreflects expansion in floor space, and increased heating, lighting, IT and air

cond itionin g (A/ C) load s in in dividu al bu ildings.

2.2.1 End us es

The increase in electricity use in the sector reflects growing demand forin creas ed levels of illu m in ation, th e growth of A/ C an d u se of IT equ ipm ent .

The extent to which this has delivered increased levels of energy service isunclear .

Th e res u lts of the E-comm erce Inqu iry 2000 sh ow tha t 92% of UK bu sinessesnow use PCs, workstations or terminals (Williams, 2001).

Energy consumption for cooling is particularly high in offices. Electricity

demand for cooling is expected to increase rapidly in coming years, sinceonly a s m all proportion of s ervice s ector floor area curren tly ha s aircond itioning plant fitted a nd n ew er prem ises are more lik ely to be air

conditioned. These factors indicate that cooling energy use may increase

s ubs tantially in the future (Pou t et al. , 1998 p. 63).

Over ha lf of new office premises bu ilt in t he 19 90s ha d A/ C. In t he 19 80s an d197 0s t hes e proportions were 43% an d 36 % respectively. Over the last d ecadeUK sa les (by volum e) for A/ C ch iller-u n its ha ve more tha n tr ipled (55 ,50 0u n its were sold in 198 8, compa red to ju st over 22 0,000 in 200 1) almost all of

these units were sold to the commercial sector, with around 45% installed incommercial offices (BSRIA, 2002). If this trend continues, coupled with therap id increas e in floor a rea discus sed below, ene rgy cons u mp tion will continu eon its rapid u pward tr ajectory.

2.2.2 Floor s pa ce

Figure 3 demonstrates the rapid growth in commercial office floor space sincethe early 1970s in England and Wales. From 1970 to 1994 office floor space

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almost dou bled. The da ta for 2000 sh ows a m arked increase in th e floor spa cesince 1994 . Th is is cons isten t with a growth in th e am oun t of out -of-townbusiness parks, but the intervening data have not been located throughsta tistical research so far.

F i g u r e 3 : Gr o w t h i n c o m m e r c i a l o ff ic e f lo o r s p a c e i n E n g la n d a n d Wa l e s 1 9 7 0 t o

2 0 0 0

Data f rom Pout et al. (199 8) Pout et al. (2002) and DTLR (2001)

2 . 3 Of f i c e e n e r g y u s e : m a j or e n d u s e s

Th e En ergy Efficiency Best Pra ctice Progra m m e ha s s tu died typical an d goodpractice energy consumption in 4 types of offices (DETR, 2000b). The office

types a re a s follows:

1. Nat u ra lly ven tilat ed cellular

2. Nat u ra lly ven tilat ed open-plan

3. A/ C, s tan dard

4. A/ C, prest ige.

Tab le 4 presen ts good pr actice a nd typical energy con su m ption for th ese officetypes. It demon str ates th e followin g:

A typical prestige office consumes 2.8 times more energy per unit of floorarea th an a typical na tu rally ventilated cellu lar bu ilding.

Typical offices use 60% to 90% more energy than offices using good

practice.

A/ C offices u se su bs tan tially more energy th an n on-A/ C offices to deliverenergy services s u ch as h eating, lighting an d ventilation.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

km2

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Table 4: Typical and good practice energy consum ption in offices in the UK.

k Wh / m 2 of t rea ted floor a rea

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical

Heating &hot water

79 151 79 151 97 178 107 201

Cooling 0 0 1 2 14 31 21 41

F a n s , p u m p s

an d cont ro ls2 6 4 8 30 60 36 67

Hu m idification 0 0 0 0 8 18 12 23

Light ing 14 23 22 38 27 54 29 60

Office

equ i pm en t12 18 20 27 23 31 23 32

Cater ing 2 3 3 5 5 6 20 24

O t h e r

electricity3 4 4 5 7 8 13 15

Com put e r

room0 0 0 0 14 18 87 105

TOTAL 1 1 2 2 0 5 1 3 3 2 3 6 2 2 5 4 0 4 3 4 8 5 6 8

Based on DETR (2000 b)

Furthermore, energy consumed for cooling, fans, computer rooms,humidification, pumps and controls tends to be electricity. Therefore the CO 2emissions are even more divergent between A/ C an d n atu rally ventilated

bu ildings: a typica l pres tige A/ C office emits almos t 4 times a s m u ch CO 2 perunit of floor area as a typical naturally ventilated cellular office (see Table 5an d Figu re 4).

The da ta in tab le 5 an d figu re 4 demons trate tha t:

The difference between good practice and typical CO2 emissions in A/ Coffices is of roughly equal magnitude to total CO2 emissions in a typical naturally ventilated office. Therefore if one is aiming to reduce total CO2emiss ions from th e office sector, mu ch greater s avin gs are poss ible in A/ Coffices th an in tra dition ally ven tilat ed bu ildings .

A typical prestige A/ C office produ ces 3 to almost 4 times as mu ch CO 2 perunit of floor area as naturally ventilated offices. (It should be noted thatsome of the additional energy consumption and CO 2 emiss ions in prestigeoffices a rise b ecau se of en ergy cons u mp tion for dedicated comp u ter rooms .Th is is effectively pr ocess en ergy an d cou ld be discou n ted , bu t CO2

emissions still remain 2.3 to 3 times as high as in naturally ventilatedoffices).

Th ese obs ervation s a re par ticularly pertinen t given th e rapid switch t o A/ C inn ew offices.

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Table 5: CO 2 emissions per u nit of floor area for 4 office types

k gC / m 2 t reated f loor area

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical Good

practice

Typical

Cooling, fans,

p u m p s ,

controls &

humidification

0.3 0.8 0.6 1.3 6.6 13.8 8.8 16.6

Heating & hot

w a t e r4.1 7.9 4.1 7.9 5.0 9.3 5.6 10.5

Lighting 1.8 2.9 2.8 4.8 3.4 6.9 3.7 7.6

O t h e r 2.2 3.2 3.4 4.6 6.2 8.0 17.7 21.7

T OTAL 8 .3 1 4 .8 1 1 1 8 .7 2 1 .3 3 8 .0 3 6 .6 5 6 .4

Based on DETR (2000b)

Figure 4: CO 2 emissions for d ifferent office types

2 .4 Cos t -e f f ec t i ve energy e f f i c iency im provem en t s

Using read ily availab le a n d cos t effective tech n ologies t o sa ve energy in n on -domestic bu ildings wou ld s ave 4.14 to 4.60 MtC per an nu m (19 to 2 1% of totalcommercial sector CO 2 emissions) (Pout et al, 2002). (This range of savings is

obtained by defining cost-effectiveness using discount rates of 15 and 6%respectively). In the commercial sector alone savings of up to 2.46 MtC perannum could be made around 20% of this coming from commercial offices.The mea su res th at could be ins talled include th e following:

Condensing natural gas boilers

Comp act flu orescent lam ps

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Good practice

Type 1

Typical

Type 1

Good practice

Type 2

Typical

Type 2

Good practice

Type 3

Typical

Type 3

Good practice

Type 4

Typical

Type 4

1: Natural ventil'n cellular, 2: Natural ventil'n open-plan, 3: a/c, standard, 4: a/c prestige

Kg

C/m2

Cooling, fans, pumps, controls & humidification Heating & hot water Lighting Other

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Low energy compu ting equipm ent a nd access ories

Th erm osta tically contr olled ra diator valves

Imp roved design an d u se of A/ C systems

Replace electric room hea ters with na tu ral gas room hea ters

Loft a n d ca vity wall in su lation

Hot water ta n k laggin g

Lighting timers

CHP

It should be stressed that much greater carbon savings than those statedab ove a re tech n ically poss ible, bu t t h ese estim at es refer on ly to cost-effectiveoptions tha t sa ve bu siness es m oney and were readily available in 2 000.

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3 . M OVING FORWARD: INITIAL THOUGHTS

3 . 1 E x i s t i n g i n i t i a t i ve s

3.1.1 Bu ilding Re gulations

Recent p olicy activity in both UK an d Eu rope is a ttemp tin g to add ress non -

domestic buildings. Amendments to the provisions for energy efficiency in theUK Building Regulations published in 2001 (DTLR, 2001) stipulate that officebuildings with over 200 m 2 of floor ar ea, an d with A/ C or mecha n icalventilation, sh ould meet m aximu m em iss ions ta rgets a nd sh ow complian ce viacalcu lation of a Car bon Perform an ce Rating. Th e propos al is th at t h e

emissions should be no higher than those for the typical buildings in theirclas s, ba sed on th e dat a p resen ted ab ove in Tab le 6. Given th e large differencebetween typical and good practice CO 2 emissions this seems a ratherunambit ious st ipulat ion. The resultant CO2 savings, not surprisingly, wouldbe rather small (though highly profitable in energy cost savings, with a net

pres ent valu e of 3 .50 per 1 in vested ) (DETR, 200 0c).

In tota l th e proposed am end m ents to the Building Regu lations a re predicted toresu lt in an nu a l CO2 sa vin gs in th e entire non -domestic sector of less th an 0.4MtC. Th is is ra th er sm all compa red to th e Building Research Esta blish m ents

estimate t ha t u p to 2.46 MtC could be s aved each year u sing cost-effective an dreadily available tech n ologies in th e comm ercial s ector alone (see S ection 2.4above).

3.1.2 European Bu ildings Directive

However, to achieve these higher savings, more stringent legislation is needed

to improve energy efficiency in existing buildings. The Energy White Paper

(DTI, 2003 p.36) has now committed the Building Regulations to review every5 years , pa rtly to comp ly with th e Bu ildin gs Directive.

The EC directive on the energy performance of buildings (European Union,

2003) will not only ensure the application of minimum requirements on theenergy performance of new bu ildings, bu t a lso on lar ge existing buildings(>1000m 2) that are subject to major renovation. Through the Directive,Memb er States will be requ ired to review minim u m bu ilding stan da rds at leastevery 5 years and take appropriate steps to bring standards up to date with

modern building practices.

In addition the Directive proposes that all buildings carry an energy certificate,valid for a maximum of 10 years that is made available at every change oftenan cy/ owners hip. Public bu ildings an d th ose frequen tly visited by the pu blic(>1000m 2) must display their energy certificate in a prominent place. The

Directive will therefore provide a tool for tackling energy performance inexisting buildings and provide a framework for stepwise improvement ofenergy efficiency in both new and existing commercial buildings. However,al thou gh it was rat ified in 200 3 a t th e earl iest , it can tak e u p to 6 m ore years

to enter into force, as Member States have three years to transpose theDirective into national law and a further three years if needed to implementcertain of th e requiremen ts.

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3.1.3 Clim ate Cha nge Levy

The Climate Change Levy is sending a small but positive signal to businessesab ou t the n eed to cons erve en ergy (des pite the fact th at recycling of th erevenue into a reduction in National Insurance premiums will mean that manyservice sector businesses will make a net financial gain). This signal is a

positive change, but there may be a limit to its effectiveness in a sector whereenergy bills represen t s u ch a sm all proportion of total costs.

3.1.4 Enh an ced Capital Allow an ces

Enhanced capital allowances have been introduced for a limited range ofenergy efficiency investments in properties, alongside the introduction of the

Climate Change Levy. This is a positive gesture, and consideration should begiven to some of th e oth er proposed incen tives. However, un less th esein centives a re very lar ge it is dou btfu l tha t th ey would h ave a m ar ked effect onnew a n d existing b u ildin gs given t he bar riers wh ich exist.

The leisure industry is another sector in which similar trends to those in

comm ercial offices are obs erved. In th is case, the in du str y h as en tered avolu n tary agreemen t with th e governm ent to redu ce its en ergy consu mp t ion(EIBI, 2000). This is the first sector in which such an agreement has beenmade relat ing to energy use in buildings rather than in industr ial processes,

and the agreement has been reached without the incentive of an exemptionfrom t h e Clim ate Ch an ge Le vy.

3.1.5 Inform ation p rovision a nd ad vice

Aside from policy and fiscal incentives there is also a major information

provision initiative designed to promote best practice in the commercial sector.Action Energy (formerly EEBPP) is a government funded service, designed tosupport and promote best practice in the industry. It provides free

pu blications offerin g practical gu ida nce a n d imp art ial in forma tion, as well asnumerous events and design advice services for new-build projects and

refurbishments.

3.1.6 Bus ines s led initiatives

In addition to government led initiatives there are also some key industrysta keh olders working togeth er to p romote bes t p ractice in office developmen tand re-fit. The British Council of Offices Office Fit Out Guide is currently

being developed by a team including representatives from Land Securities,Bovis an d J ones Lan g LaS alle (BCO, 200 3). Co-ordina ted by th e BREEnvironment group and the BCO the new guide to office fit out is designed to

inform building clients, in particular, with a good background about therequirements for a fit-out project. This will include information on judging theenvironmental impact of fit-out options(through assessing embodied energy,lifecycle costs etc).

It is hoped that the updated guide will have a wide and receptive audience, asit has been designed by and for those with a stake in the commercial office

sector. However, unlike the Action Energy information and guidance, itperha ps does n ot go the fu ll dista nce t oward s promoting very best p ractice inbu ilding ener gy efficiency an d developing stron g en vironm en ta l creden tials.

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3 . 2 S t a k e h ol d er s

There are a number of factors which contribute to the problem of low energy

efficiency in commercial offices by discouraging action amongst keystakeholder groups.

Problems begin at the design stage, with clients rarely demanding energy

efficient bu ildings, a n d a rchitects r arely forcing it on t o th e agend a (th is m ayimp rove now tha t su sta ina bility cons iderat ions a re a requ iremen t in a ll British

a rch itectu re degree cour se des ign projects ). Arch itects, su rveyors an d lettingagents all have a financial interest in upping the specifications of buildings,since their commission reflects total cost, although the extent to which thisaffects actual practice is unclear. Environmental engineers are then called into design building services to overcome the effects of inappropriate building

design (Bordass 1993). The result may be an inefficient, uncomfortable andunhealthy building, but this will not necessarily be reflected in a loweredvalu at ion if it is oth erwise of investm en t qu ality. Indeed , th e opp ositesituation is more likely: when confronted with a non-standard product (such

as a highly energy-efficient building), UK valuers actively mark down prices(Gibson & Lizieri, 1999).

Conservatism and vested interests across the property professions inhibitprovision of the kinds of workplaces occupiers actually want. So why dooccu piers not press for cha nge? The report Toward s su sta ina bility: a s trategy

for th e con stru ction indu st ry (SCFS, 20 00) des cribe it as a circle of blam e assh own in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The commercial bu ilding Vicious Circle of Blame

A report (Parn ell & Sa yce, 19 99 ) by lead ing qua n tity su r veyors Drivers J ona san d Kingston Univers ity explores th e attitu des t o green bu ildin gs am ong

property investors, developers, ban kers a nd consu ltan t cha rtered su rveyors.

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In a postal survey of 100 property professionals, 89% responded that theywere qu ite or very con cern ed a bou t th e st at e of th e en viron m en t. However,only 17% s aid th ey were frequ ent ly ab le to m ak e a contribu tion toward s th epromotion of environmentally friendly new buildings or refurbishments.

Amon g property professionals can vas sed for the r eport th ere was a widely held

view tha t environm enta lly friend ly buildings cost m ore an d th at th e add ition alcost of cannot be recouped in higher rental values and investment yields.Investment companies and surveyors were particularly sceptical, though thema jority of all resp onden ts th ought th at in 5 years time environm enta l iss u eswould affect rents and yields. Well over half of the respondent developers and

financial institutions believed environmental factors would affect their strategywith in 5 years, yet only a minority of in vestm ent compan ies a nd su rveyorsshared this view. The worrying revelation is that these statements almostexactly m irror the res ults from a s im ilar su rvey cond ucted 5 y ears previously.

Th e report goes on to cons ider resp onden ts views on 5 poss ible fin an cialincen tives for investm ent in green bu ildings:

A carbon tax. Th ree qua rters of respon den ts felt tha t a car bon ta x would beeffective and over half were in favour of its introduction. However 70% feltit wou ld b e difficu lt to im plemen t.

Rates discoun ts for green bu ildings. This p roposa l was very popu lar ,th ough two thirds th ought it would be difficult to implement.

Capital allowances incentives. This proposal was very popular andcons idered likely to be effective an d easy to implemen t.

Lower VAT on green bu ildin g ma terials. This pr oposa l was also popu lar an dconsidered likely to be effective, but half of respondents foresaw problems

with implementation due to difficulties in identifying green products. Theyalso felt that interference in the markets for products might be politicallyunacceptable .

An environmental sales tax. A sales tax based on independently assessedcriteria was the only suggestion that was rejected by the majority of

resp onden ts. Over two thirds t h ough t it wou ld b e effective, bu t few thou ghtit would be straightforward to implement.

Overall 90% of respondents were in favour of financial incentives, andin terestin gly th e respon se to the carb on ta x proposal sh ows tha t sticks aswell as car rots m igh t be welcomed . Over th ree qu ar ters of res pon den ts felt

that the UK government should take the lead in creating financial incentives

for green in g the property ind u stry.

3 . 3 L a n d l o rd -t e n a n t i s s u e s

One commonly cited reason for the lack of investment in energy efficiency inbuildings is that energy represents a small percentage of total occupancycosts , a n d th erefore it is given little a tten tion . However, in offices, pa rticularly

air conditioned ones, energy and the maintenance of heating and coolingequipment comprises a significant proportion of service charges. Althoughthese are a small proportion of overall costs, they may be an area whichtenants are concerned about and hence may provide a potential lever foraction.

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In 200 0, A/ C office bu ildings h ad an average an nu al service cha rge of 53 .82per m 2, compa red to 3 7.24 for non -A/ C bu ildings (J ones Lang LaSa lle, 2001).Table 6 br eaks thes e service charges down by componen ts. Thu s, in A/ Coffices energy itself represents 16% of total service charges; by includingma inten an ce of heating and A/ C systems th is br ings the proport ion u p to

35%. These are significant proportions, and therefore one might expect thattena nt s would be in terested in lowering energy consu mp tion in th eir prem ises.

Table 6: Service charges in UK offices b y compon ent percentages in 2000

A/ C Non A/ C

Energy 16 % 11 %

Heating and A/ Cmaintenance

19 % 9 %

Other 65 % 80 %

Based on Jones Lang Lasalle (2001)

Unfortu n ately th is is often not a n option. In th e comm ercial sector almost h alfof the stock (by value) is owned by institutional investors (Callender & Key,1997). In 1990 52% of offices and 35% of retail outlets were owned byins titu tion al in vest ors (Scott, 19 96 ). Total UK comm ercial prop erty stock h ad a

value of 265 billion (bn) in 1995 (Callender & Key 1997). The largest investorsare long term insurance companies, with 36.4 bn worth of assets (14% oftotal UK commercial property stock). The other large investors are UK quotedproperty companies (28.2 bn, 11% of total stock), pension funds (24.3 bn,9%) and foreign investors (12-15 bn, approximately 5%). Other insurance

interests, property unit t rusts and investment trusts hold a further 4.1 bn(1.6%) of the UK assets. Traditional landowners, such as the Crown Estate,

Church Commissioners, Oxbridge colleges and urban estates such as theGrosvenor and Bedford, own a further 8 bn worth of commercial property

as sets. Institution al in vestors domina te in th e prestige an d A/ C end of them ar ket, wh ere bu ildings a re cons idered to be of in vestm ent qu ality.

J u st 10% of commercial property is occu pied b y the freeholder, an d 7 0% ofcommercial buildings a re m u lti-tena n ted (Herrin g et al, 1988). Th u s we h ave aclas sic lan dlord/ ten an t bar rier to im proving energy efficiency: tenan ts a re

u n ab le or u n willing to in vest in imp rovin g the efficiency of bu ildings owned byanother party, and the owners are happy to pass on the fuel costs to thetenants. An extended quote from Gibson and Lizieri (op cit) illustrates theproblem. Their research focuses on the mismatch between office space

provision an d th e needs of bu sinesses, bu t th e argum ents apply equally to theprovision of en ergy services in comm ercial bu ildings:

The m ajor fina ncial ins titutions , de fined as both ins titutiona l inv es tors , pens ionfu nds and life as s urance com panies , and property com panies , con tin ue to

dominate the UK property m arket. With properties view ed purely as an

inves tmen t as s et, such firm s ha ve been unw illing to act as provide rs of produ ctand service to occupiers. The cost and time involved in management of the

property inves tm ent are s een as a d isadvanta ge for property inves tm ent w hencom pared to other ass et clas s es Many finan cial ins titutions thus outsource the

m an agem ent of their inve s tme nt p ortfolios to property cons ultants w ho se e it

purely as an adm inis tra tive fu nction. Their m eas ures of perform ance are relate d

to minimising voids, keeping management costs down and ensuring that tenants

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are paying promptly and meeting their obligations. The client is the financial

ins titution, not the ten an t, w ho ha s little pow er or influen ce.

This arms length attitude to space provision contributed to the development ofthe UK ins titutiona l lea s e w ith its long term, one rous cond itions an d FRI (fullrepairing and insuring) provisionsThis lease structure minimises the

involvem ent of the land lord a nd m aximises the input of the tena nt.

3 . 4 T h e r ol e of t h e in s u r a n c e i n d u s t r y

The insurance industry, which owns almost 40 bn worth of commercialproperty assets in the UK (15% of the total value) (Callender & Key, 1997),might be expected to take a lead in improving energy efficiency in its propertystock. For example, Prudential Property Portfolio has called for legislation toensure that every commercial building is audited every 5 years, with

recommendations to be implemented before the next audit (EIBI, 1999).Furthermore, Prudential has already taken steps to assist i ts tenants to saveenergy, in particular by making efforts to ensure that all tenants receive

individual bills based on their energy consumption rather than on floor areaalone. Individual metering and billing is required under Article 3 of the ECSAVE Directive 93/ 76. In a ddition, th e am endm ents to the Bu ildingRegulations covering conservation of fuel and power also require sufficientinform ation to be provided to tenan ts/ occu piers to operate and ma inta inbuilding services effectively (DTLR, 2001 note 19). This includes enabling

occupiers to measure their own actual energy consumption even where thisrequires sub-metering. Enforcing compliance with this regulation would be apositive step, but a limited amount can be saved before attention must betu rn ed to th e bu ilding fabr ic, heating an d cooling system s.

The ins u ran ce ind u stry is concerned abou t th e impacts of clima te chan ge,

particularly in terms of extreme weather events, which could lead to heavyinsurance claims. In a United Nations Environment programme InsuranceIndustry Position Paper on Climate Change (UNEP, 1996) it states:

Man m ad e clim ate chan ge w ill lead to sh ifts in atm osph eric and ocean ic

circulation p atterns . This w ill probably increas e th e lik elihood of extreme

w eathe r events in certain areas . Su ch effects carry the ris k of drama ticallyincreas ed p roperty d am age, w ith s erious im plications for property ins urers(UNEP, 19 96, pa ra. 2.1.2 ).

Over 60 insurance companies from 23 countries are now signatories to a

United Nations En vironm ent Program m e Sta tem ent of En vironm ent alComm itm ent by th e In su ra n ce In du st ry (UNEP, 199 5). Th is calls forprecau tiona ry action to reduce greenh ouse gas em issions , an d s tates:

The insu ran ce ind us try recognis es that economic deve lopmen t need s to be

com patible w ith hu m an w elfare and a he althy en vironm ent. To ignore this is toris k increas ing s ocial, environme ntal and fina ncial cos ts. Our ind us try play s an

im portan t role in m an aging an d reducing environm enta l ris k , in conjunction w ithgovernmen ts, individu als a nd organisations . We a re comm itted to w ork togetherto add res s k ey iss ues su ch as pollution reduction, the efficient us e of res ources,

an d clim ate cha nge. We end eavour to ide ntify realis tic, sus tainable solutions.

Life and health insurance companies should carefully examine the dividendsin terms of loss prevention afforded by investing in healthier, more energy

efficient real estate. One US author(Mills, 1997) has identified 33 energyefficiency measures which can contribute to 8 categories of insurance loss

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mitigation. These are fire and wind damage, ice and water damage, extremetemperature episodes, power failures, professional liability, theft, and healthan d s afety liab ility relating to in door air a n d lightin g. Th ere a re pos itive signs :

We a re comm itted to ma na ge internal operations an d p hy sical as s ets u nd er our control

in a manner that reflects environmental considerations (UNEP, 19 95, par a . 2 .2).

Presently this appears only to mean gestures to help tenants reduce theirconsu mp tion , at n o cost to th e freeholder.

3 .5 Under -so ld ben e f i t s o f energy e f f i c iency

In m an u factu ring in du str y there is m oun ting eviden ce of a s ignifican t positivecorrelation b etween prod u ctivity an d en ergy efficiency (Boyd & Pan g, 200 0). Inth e services s ector, produ ctivity in term s of worker ou tpu t is a d ifficu lt concep tto measure empirically. This has been overcome by measuring workers

perceptions of their own productivity, as it relates to their workingenvironment.

The first stu dy of th is kind, in 1 987 , reported on th e cau ses of bu ildingsickn ess (Wilson & Hedge, 198 7), also kn own a s sick b u ildin g synd rom e orbu ildin g relat ed s ickn ess . Using a qu estionn aire su rvey of over 40 00 workers

in 46 buildings, the report found that 80% of workers experienced symptomsthat they associated with being in their place of work. They found that air-conditioned buildings had consistently higher rates of sickness than buildingsw ith e ither na tural or m echan ical sy s tems of ventilation. Fu rth erm ore,

perceptions of comfort were n o greater in A/ C bu ildings. A lack of perceivedcont rol over on es local en viron m en t, plu s a n oppr ess ive feeling of exclus ionfrom the outside world (which is associated with the deep plan structures thatA/ C facilitates ), ad ded t o th e dissa tisfaction an d p erceived redu ction in workproductivity.

Su bsequ ent s u rveys (Leam an n & Borda ss , 1999) ha ve confirmed a nd extend edthese conclusions. They warn that it is very difficult to isolate causes andeffects in buildings: ..there is no such thing as an independent variable in abuilding! Non eth eless , there is a consensus that indoor environment factors

im prove output, as w ell as a lot of eviden ce to s how as s ociations w ith a clus ter

of related factors such as perceived health, comfort and satisfaction. There areals o data to sh ow tha t some of the m ana gemen t, des ign and us e characteristics

w hich improve perceptions of ind ividua l w elfare also contribu te tow ards betterenergy efficiency, thereby closing the loop on a potential virtuous circle

Leaman and Bordass (ibid) identify four clusters of building-related variables

which affect worker productivity: personal control over the work environment;responsiveness to problems as they arise; building depth; and size ofworkgrou ps . A/ C bu ildings often perform ba dly in all respects. By allowin gbuilding depths greater than 15 metres, and reducing options to control

personal environments (by opening windows, for example) workers often findthemselves in large, deep, open-plan spaces with large workgroups.Dependence on sophisticated technology to control the interior environmentcreates problems where building ma na gemen t is u nres pons ive or incompetent

when problems arise. Lack of perceived control significantly increasesintoleran ce of discom fort. Th ou gh A/ C is n ot necessarily a cau se of low workerprod u ctivity, it is clear ly implicat ed.

US research confirm s th e im porta n ce of in door environmen ts in th e workplacefor health and productivity (Fisk & Rosenfeld, 1998), and that numerous

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building technologies and practices have the potential to simultaneously

increas e produ ctivity a nd s ave en ergy .

3 . 6 S t a k e h ol d er c om m u n i c a t io n

As identified earlier there is a circle of blame that commercial office

stakeholders are using as an excuse for inaction. There is the perception thatit is always the responsibility of another member of the chain to demand orimplem en t en ergy efficient, en viron m en ta lly sou n d office b u ildings.

A number of groups are now working on projects to increase communicationbetween s ome or all of th e sta keh olders involved in pr odu cin g new bu ildings orretrofitting existing ones. From building occupiers to investors there iscon s iderable scope to promote dialogue a n d intera ction th at allows all par tiesto spell out th eir needs , an d discus s th e options open to them.

Work commissioned by the BCO with Arup Associates looks to bridging thegap between developer and occupier (Beavan, 2002). The work explores the

opportu n ities for tra de off between differen t ar eas of a b u ildin g an d its s ervicesto achieve more sustainable buildings. Case study examples of this approach

show that by involving the occupier at an early stage their requirements canbe m et, an d en ergy efficien cy bu ilt in, with ou t comp rom isin g the d esirab ility ofthe bu ilding for fu tu re tena nts .

Additional work from BRE Environment and the British Institute of FacilitiesManagers has also been striving to improve communication between Building

Services and Facilities Managers and Building Designers (seeprojects.br e.co.uk / des ign ). Th rou gh the involvem en t of facilities ma n agersfrom the outset the design process can benefit from the addition of specificexpertise that goes beyond initial specification and into running and

maintenance. This results in a better specified building that is morerespon sive an d b as ed on a m ore (energy) efficient system .

On a larger scale, research in the US into the barriers to developing energyefficient buildings proposed a solution loosely defined as a CollaborativeProcess Model that encourages all actors in a new build project to interact

an d comm u nicate with each other (Reed et al, 2000 ). Th e stra tegy proposed bythe report takes a team approach whereby the architect , engineers, inter iordesigners, site planner, mechanical and electrical contractors etc are allinvolved at every stage of the design, and also implementation process.

Althou gh t h e circle of blam e is a clear con tribu tory fact or to th e leth ar gy in

advancing sustainable buildings, enhancing communication and creating a

forum for dialogue between stakeholders is showing itself as a clearopportunity for promoting energy efficiency whilst meeting the needs of allplayers.

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4 . CONCLUSION

Although this paper has given considerable thought to meeting the challenge,

the authors were disappointed by the effort put into answering the questioncited from the consultation for the UK White Paper (see page 1) in the Energy

Wh ite Pa per itse lf (DTI, 2 00 3).

No new challenges were presented to business, merely a repetition of thepackage already in place the Climate Change Levy, Emissions Trading and

En ha nced Capital Allowan ces. Some encou ragemen t was given to u singenergy efficient plant and to reporting on environmental impacts.

It appears that far more emphasis needs to be given to the roles ofsta keh olders a nd to the land lord-tena nt issu e, in order to lead to real cha nge.

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