:1 I C 0 -: 0 s t i'

ED 023 031 74 A.: 002 750

By -Kreitlow, Burton W.Educating the Adult Educator Part 2. Taxonomy cs,f Needed Research, Report from the Adi.,It Re ,,clucationProiect.

Wisconsin Univ., Madison. Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning

Spons Agency -Office of Education (DHEW). Wash-ngton.DC B,,reat.. of Research.

Report No -Theoretical paper -13Bureau No -BR -5 -0216Pub Date May 68Contract -OEC -5 -10 -154Note -27p.EDRS Price MF -$025 HC -$145Descriptors -*Adult Education, Adult Education Programs. Aduit Learning. Continuous Learning,Cultural F .3c tor s .

Educational Obiectives, ',Research Needs, Soc:oeconomic Influences, *Taxonomy

This theoretical paper is the concluding part of an extensive two-partexamination of the problem of educating adult educators The firzt part dealt with the

relationship of adult education to other disciplines. This part establishes a frameworkfor classifying areas of needed .-esearch in the field of adult education The

framework used here is based on application-learning, teaching. social c'nange.guidance, and other activities. Sorne_of 1!--..e areaz of r:ced identified are tied almostwholly to a specific discipline or an applied fiEld, while others are associated withcertain program areas. Three interrelz-ited categories of application are used (1) theadult as an individual and as a learner, (2) the adulrz rezponze to z:ociocoltural

phenomena. and (3) the adult education enterprise A background :5 provided for each

area of need; series of questions are asked in order to demonztrate the scope ofthese needs. and each need is given focus by a short -:taterriPnt or a few surnrnariz;ng

ques bons . (ly)

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE Of EDUCATION

, EDUCATING THE ADULT- EDUCATOR: PART 2. TAXONOMY

OF NEEDED RESEARCH,

W!SCONSiN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

CENTER FOR

COGNITIVE LEARNING

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED RON THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

Theoretical raper No. 13

EDUCATING THE ADULT EDUCATOR:

PART 2. TAXONOMY OF NEEDED RESEARCH

By Burton W. Kreitlow

Report from the Adult Re-Education ProjectBurton W. Kreitlow, Principal Investigator

Wisconsin Research and DevelopmentCenter for Cognitive LearningThe University of Wisconsin

Madison, Wisconsin

May 1968

kiN

NPart 1 of this report was published as Bulletin 573 of the United States Department of Agricul-

Ckture, March 1965. The preparation of this paper was supported by contracts with the UnitedStates Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, under the provisionsof the Cooperative Research Program.4

CRP No. E-012

..) Center No. C-03 / Contract OE 5-10-154

.4:-

EDO 23031

FOREWORD

This Theoretical Paper is the concluding part of an extensive examina-tion of the problem of educating adult educators. The first part dealt Withthe relationship of adult education to other disciplines. This part estab-lishes a framework for classifying areas of needed research in the field ofadult education.

This study is a product of an activity which was supported by theUniversity of Wisconsin Research and DevelopMent Center when the Centerwas established. At that time one of the areas of interest was re-education.To narrow the focus of the Center in order to more efficiently attack instruc-tional problems, the projects on re-education are being phased out. Thisdoes not imply that re-edtqation or projects dealing with adult learning arenot important. In fact this theoretical paper should be quite helpful for itprovides a conceptual basis for research and development of instructionalprograms for adults.

T. A. RombergDirector of Programs 2 and 3

iii

PREFACE

This study is reported in two parts, of which this is the second. Itestablished a usable framework for classifying the areas where researchin the field of adult education is needed. Part 1, previously published,deals with concepts for the curriculum for-those who are in training tobecome adult educators. It relates adult education to other disciplines.

The developing pattern of social and technical change in the UnitedStates is exerting a great pressure on adults for retraining, continuouseducation, and new learning. This pressure, long predicted by thoseengaged in adult education, now calls for answers to questions notpreviously resolved by practice or research. The need for solutions topressing problems about the education of adults is recognized andimmediate.

Four entities have joined forces to make possible this study, eachhaving a particular concern to satisfy and a particular contribution tomake. They are:

1. The Commission of the PilOfessors of Adult Education of the AdultEducation Association has been concerned about (a) the paucity of soundbasic research, as well as (b) the limitations of applied research com-pleted to date. Efforts of its members in preparing the volume, AdultEducation: Outline of An Emerging Field of University Study, often werefrustrated by lack of a research base to support the framework of the field.

2. The U. S. Office of Education has encouraged the undertaking offundamental adult education research projects and the developments ofgraduate prograw.;:.

3, The Federal Extension Service in the U. S. Department of Agricul-ture, in cooperation with State colleges and universities , is engaged inserious explorations of both research and training in Extension Serviceeducational programs.

4. The University of Wisconsin, one of twenty-six institutions withan advanced degree program in Cooperative Extension and one of fifteenwith a doctorai program in adult education, is engaged in a number ofapplied research projects developed as a means of resolving problems ofthe field level adult educator.

In 1965, under the direction of George F. Aker, an extensive classifiedbibliography of research literature published from 1953 through 1963 dealingwith Adult Education Procedures. Methods and Techniques was produced inbook form, but this leaves great g....pr which have not been filled by researchbibliographies. The annual summer' issue of Adult Education has attempted todo this each year, with the Summer 1967 issue being compiled by the ERICClearinghouse on Adult Education recently established at Syracuse University.

The Clearinghouse on Adult Education established in cooperation with

the Educational Research Information Center (ERIC) of the U. S. Office of

Education has clasAified research work already completed into categories

analogous to the thirteen reported in the June, 1950, June, 1953 and June,

1959 issues of the "Review of Educational Research." Howe, ..T, it isinteresting to note the gaps in research reported by ERIC/AB, relation of

AE to society, and the psychology of adults. Likewise, it is interesting

to note the research reported by ERIC in categories unmentioned by RER:

Adult Education personnel recruitment, selection and retention; learningenvironments and formats; and vocational, job-related training, includingcontinuing education in management and the professions. Thus, when one

looks at the overall picture of Research in Adult Education, one sees greatconcentrations of effort in certain categories (where, undoubtedly, fundsare available) at the same time that great gaps exist in all other research

categories. It was the objective of this study to integrate the "adult

education" literature with relevant material from other fields and to cate-gorize it in terms of the basic researchable problems in adult education,emphasizing not only gaps where research is needed but also the priorities

by which these gaps should be filled. ,

Those who wish to examine the overall objectives and the procedures

used in the entire project of which this report is a part are urged to secure

a copy of the publication Educating the Adult Educator, Part 1 Concepts for

the Curriculum. It is available from either of the following offices:

The University of Wisconsin U. S. Department of Agriculture

College of Agriculture Bulletin Room Federal Extension Service

Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Division of Research and TrainingWashington , D . C . 20025

B. W. K.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report is the result of more cooperation on the part of differentorganizations and persons than could ever have been anticipated. Itsfinancial support has been a blend of resources from the School ofEducation, the College of Agriculture and University Extension of theUniversity of Wisconsin and from the United States Departments of Agri-culture and of Health, Education and Welfare.

In human support, 34 persons of national reputation in their respectivescholarly disciplines or fields of work gave from 30 minutes to three hoursof their time to a discussion of the research needs of adult education andthe contributions, potential or actual, of their own fields of study.toresolution of these needs. In addition, 36 leading adult educators, afterreviewing the initial draft of this report, met in Washington, D. C. , fora three-day session of constructive criticism of the paper and an exami-nation of the research within the framework outlined.

The documentary base for contributions to this study is a result of theloyal work of staff members and graduate students of the University ofWisconsin. Included in this group are:

Paul Butterfield Project AssistantEvan Clingman Project AssistantArdyce Haring Instructor, Agricultural JournalismJames Long Project AssistantBeatrice Loy SecretaryDean O'Brien Assistant Professor, School AdministrationWilliam Portel

Foster Project Assistant

Of special note is the work of the Project Associate, Mrs. LudmillaMarin, who was responsible for the coordination of the project work on theWisconsin campus; Darcie Byrn, United States Department of Agriculture,for his critical review of the initial draft of the report; and John Gaus whoupdated the report between its release as a mimeographed document in 1965and its publication in 1968.

CONTENTS

Page

I Introduction to Research Areas Needing Attention 1

Framework for Research 1

Needed Research 2

II The Adult as a Learner 4

III The Adult's Response to Social-Cultural Phenomena 8

IV The Adult Education Enterprise 11Purpose and Goals of Adult Education 11Understanding Adult Education 12The Educational Process 13

V Summary 19

VI The Look Ahead 20

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AREAS NEEDING ATTENTION

There is a veritable symphony of researchneeds in adult education, but careful listeningwill identify the different themes. Certain ofthem can be heard again and again in everyphase:and kind of adult education. Others areheard very infrequently but, when 'heard, standout clearly and distinctly in unforgettable jux-taposition. Still others are all but lost in thestream of sound.

The main themes are identified in this report.In reviewing the literature, as reported in Part1, it was noted that each discipline rind eachapplied field believes that its theme is the mostimportant. Any reviewer of the field may misscompletely some of the themes. This limitationif, recognized and accounts for the aid soughtfrom the conferees in reviewing the earlier sum-mary.

Often the same sound comes from severalsources and the research problem can be identi-fied under several areas. For example, theneed to know more about the psychologicalimpact of the various media of communicationcan be identified in either psyChology or com-munication, or both.

The interrelations among problems and re-source fields make necessary a minimum frame-work about which to organize the findings.

FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH

Research needs found in the literature andsuggested by the interviewees could be struc-tured in a number of ways. Reasonable struc-tures can be developed in ways such as thefollowing:

az program area (homemaking, parent educa-tion, vocational training, liberal studies, etc.)

az institution (public schools, evening col-lege, Cooperative Extension, libraries , etc.)

az discipline (psychology, anthropology,sociology, etc.)

132. application (learning, teaching, socialchange, guidance, etc.)

The framework chosen here is hx, application.In this type of structure, some of the identifiedareas of research need will be tied almost com-pletely to a specific discipline or an appliedfield and some will be associated with certainprogram areas.

In structuring the research needs by appli-cation, care is taken not to overlook the poten-tial of basic research in any discipline. Re-search which eventually may contribute to adulteducation is not limited to that which now showsa promising line of application. The potentialfor projective, theoretical and speculative re-search in the field is developed from the inter-relationships between the applied fields and thedisciplines and should be recognized. It isoften in the speculative area that breakthroughson new approaches to investigation are made.

The choice of a framework related to appli-cation is somewhat allied to the referencepoints used by Brunner in An Overview of AdultEducation Research.' It is unlike the cilapterin the Handbook of Adult Education2 which isorganized around program areas and institutions;and it is unlike the Hendrickson3 chapter in the

1Brunner, Edmund deS.; Wilder, David S.;Kirchner, Corinne; Newberry, John S.; AnOverview of Adult Education Research. AdultEducation Association of the U. S. A. , 1959.

2Kreitlow, Burton W. , "Research in Adult Edu-cation," Handbook of Adult Education in theUnited States. Chicago: Adult EducationAssociation of the U. S. A., 1960.

3Hendrickson, Andrew, "Adult Education,"Encyclopedia of Educational Research (ChesterW. Harris, editor). New York: The MacmillanCo., 1960.

1

Encyclopedia of Educational Research whichconcentrates on programs.

In listing the research needs, no order ofimportance (first to last) is suggested, butthose areas where greatest emphasis has beennoted in the literature, interviews, and discus-sions are identified as having priority.

NEEDED RESEARCH

Research needs identified during the courseof this investigation are organized into threeinterrelated categories of application. Asnoted in Figure 1, they are:

A. The Adult as an Individual and a LearnerB. The Adult's Response to Social-Cultural

PhenomenaC. The Adult Education Enterprise

In some instances the area of research needsis arbitrarily placed in one category of applica-tion when it is also closely allied with another.This is noted in such an item as personality andbehavior change which could be placed in either

2

the Learning or the Adult's Response category.It would also be reasonable to reinterpret sev-eral of the areas of need in the Adult EducationEnterprise category and place them in Learningor Adult's Response. It is the intent of thisreport to provide a tenable structure that canbe used as a base for further development.

Figure 1 also demonstrates that there aredisciplines in addition to psychology, sociology,and anthropology which contribute to the field.All of these disciplines, in coordination withthe adult education enterprises and the totalfield of education, provide the climate in whichprojection, theory building and speculation canoccur. When these activities occur, the poten-tial is present for developmental and experi-rnsntal programs in adult education.

Each area of research need is presented inthree steps: First, a background to the areais provided; second, a series of questions isasked to demonstrate the scope of researchneed; and third, the need is given focus by ashort statement and a limited number of sum-marizing questions.

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II

THE ADULT AS A LEARNER

1. The social need for continued learning re-quires that those who 4e-7elop programs for orteach adults resolve a number of questionsabout the quality and quantity of the learning.Many program developrvint and teaching typequestions can be answered by interpolationsfrom previous research.

Much information on learning can be found

in the research of psychologists, and a good

deal of it appears to have application to adulteducation. A limit to direct application, how-ever, is the fact that research on human learn-ing almost always has taken place among cap-tive audiences, such as those found in schoolsor in groups where the decision to learn hasbeen imposed. The differences in backgroundexperience that adults bring to a learning set-ting, when compared to those of youth, stronglypress for studies of validation. Is the frame-work of adult education satisfactorily alignedwith learning theory? What do selected learn-ing theories explain about successful adultprograms? Which program development theoriesare supported by learning theory? How do cer-tain sociopsychological factors influence thelearning of adults? What barriers do they pro-vide to learning, to acceptance of retraining?What physiological basis is there for a differ-ential approach to learning by adults ?

What social conditions are the most con-ducive to learning? How do social valuesaffect the learning process? To what extentdo value demands affect learning outcomes?What are the social consequences of learningnew skills, adopting new practices?

What are the functional relationships be-tween successful group action and individuallearning? What are the most effective condi-tions for learning as an individual in pairs,as part of a group? To what extent does groupinvolvement influence the quality and quantityof learning?

sat are the best predictors of the potentialfar ..dividual adult learning? Are there process

4

distinctions between learning for work andlearning for leisure? What are the changesin learning that occur with increased age?How do these relate to social class, the natureof motivation, personal goals, the organizationfor teaching?

This is a PRIORITY area: What are the mostappropriate conditions for adult learning?

2. Change in overt behavior, skills, attitudes,feelings or values is the ultimate educationalgoal for which learning experiences are pro-vided. A change in adult behavior dependsupon many factors of which some are known,some are suggested and some are missing fromthe research literature. A great deal of what

is known about behavior change in childrendoes apply to adults, but again, the nature ofthe background an adult brings to a learningexperience may stand in the way of a grosstransfer of this knowledge. Adults are differentfrom children. Changing the behavior of oneis not the same as changing the behavior of theother. Thus, those involved in planning pro-grams for and teaching adults ask questionsabout changing adult behavior that have yet tobe answered by psychologists and sociologists.Are the developmental psychology concepts"developmental tasks" and "dominant concernsof adulthood" usable benchmarks for planningbehavior change? What is the most usefulmodel for development in the adult years? Isthe concept of "margin" valid and useful inteaching adults? In planning for behaviorchange, how important is the client's personalcommitment, his self-insight? How are thesedeveloped? How does the edueAtor use orovercome group pressure and social values inorder to bring about change?

,What is the effect of '"nonwork" on thepotential for behavior change? In what waysdo social values, social structure and languagepatterns restrict or encourage change? Whatare the psychological conditions under which

-

behavior change is the most stable or flexiblewhen self-determined, determined by a smallgroup, or determined by a community?

In what way does the nature of the goallearning or action-orientedrelate to behaviorchange?

More knowledge about the pressures for andagainst behavior change is a research need ofHIGH PRIORITY: What are the personal (inter-nal) and social (external) factors that lead tochanged behavior in adults?

3. Most youth accept school attendance,classes, and learning as facts of life overwhich they have no control. Adults tend tohave a great deal of control over their partici-pation in continued learning activities. Withyouth, the teacher uses a variety of approachesto get the individual in the class (the captiire)to want to learn. With adults, the teacher usesa variety of approaches to get the individual tocome to the class (conference, meeting, dis-cussion group, etc.) or to select materials ortake action for self-study (reading, educationaltelevision or radio, gallerY, etc-) -

Although the characteristics cif motivationmay be much the same for youth and adults,the adult educator would prefer to use whatpsychologists have reported on studies withadult subjects. However, there are many gapsin this kind of knowledge at both youth andadult levels. This gives rise to a series ofquestions needing further research and inter-pretation.

Are the.findings of studies dealing with theeducational motivations of youth and collegestudents (young adults) applicable to educa-tional programs for adults in general? Whatare the quantitative differences among selectedmotivating factors for youth and adults? Arethere differences between these two groups inhow selected factors stimulate the imaginationand the will to act?

In what ways is motivational orientation(learning, goal, activity) related to learningand behavior change? How does the level ofmotivation relate to such change? Under whatconditions and to what extent can motives bemodified through adult education? Are theconcepts of "growth-expansion" and "anxiety-threat" useful in dealing with adult motives atdifferent periods of life? In what ways of re-sponse do different groups make to externalforces of motivation? How do adults with dif-ferent patterns of motivation respond to flexi-bility or stability in an educational program?What are the characteristics of motivationchange in the later adult years?

The results of previous studies on motiva-tion must be applied to the volunteer adult

setting, and new investigations must be under-taken that are specific to the adult: What fac-tors pcompt adult participation in learningactivities (individual or group) and what arethe means la which these factors are internal-ized?

4. The attitudes of adults are being studied agreat deal by behavioral scientists, and surveysand pools have been used more extensively eachyear. In the field of advertising, the search forinformation on the attitudes of consumers hassPearheaded a drive for better understanding ofattitudes and the use of this understanding tochange attitudes and buying habits. In thisdescriptive type of research, psychologistsand sociologists have used many adult sub-jects, thus making possible a more direct ap-plication to adult education than is the casewith most research.

In recent studies on attitudes, the majorconcern has been to identify the responsecovariation along with attitude description.Knowledge of the attitudes of adults and theirinterrelationships are of prime importance inan educational program where the participantsare volunteers. This requires of the educatornot only a basic knowledge of attitudes andtheir psychological base, how to measure themand what relationships they have to each other,but, more specifically, how they can be changedto enhance learning. The promising researchcompleted in this area has not reached thepoint where it is ready for wide application.The adult educator has many questions aboutattitu4es that need to be answered.

What are the interrelationships among atti-tudes toward continued learning and such fac-tors as willingness to participate in an educa-tional ehterprise, to forego nonwork leisurehours , to change jobs, or to migrate to othergeographic locations? In what ways are posi-tive attitudes toward learning developed? Canthe attitudes of a group toward that which isbeing taught be made'more-positive? Does theatmosphere of the group (interpersonal feelingswithin the group) affect attitudes toward learn-ing? What attitudes in an adult are conduciveto accepting leadership roles in programs wherevolunteers teaóhs? What effect do resistors tochange have upon their peers ?

Are an individual's attitudes more difficultto change if they are group-anchored? If theyare, how can they be changed through groupaction? To what extent must-tre-group's ob-jectives change, or, if they are unable tochange by evolution, how can the revolutionbe least painful? How can the adult educatoruse knowledge about attitude differencesamong social classes to vary his approach and

5

program? .How am he use knowledge of adultattitudes in recruiting participants for eductional programs ? What kinds of learning xperi-ences are most effective in changing attitudes?

A few adult educators may be "artists" who

perceive by some inherent sixth sense just how

to adjust self and program to client attitudes.But, for most, only research on the problemarea will suffice: In what ways can knowledge

of adult attitudes be used to change, develop,or guide 2rosma of continued learning?

5. The literature on adult interests is moreconfusing and contradictory than research onthe interests of youth. There are few firmbases upon which to build practice. In adulteducation, where the interest of an individualmay be the factor leading to a tentative deci-sion to seek a new behavior or new knowledgeand thus participate in a program, the concernfor more knowledge about interests is urgent.The part attitudes, social expectations, andvalues play in determining interests, if andwhen clearly identified and understood, would

Se of great value to adult educators.What are the psychological ingredients of

interest change? What factors lead to suchchange? How can adult interests be identi-fied or measured? To what extent is partici-pation in a program of learning a function of

a measurable interest? How can the knowledge

of interest variation among social classes andin different social groups be used in developingeducational programs? How can knowleege of

interests be used in iecruitment to programs?To what extent are interests built upon random

success experiences? What are the factcrs ofcongeniality which, if used jointly with mea-sures of interests , can be used to predict thedegree of success in vocational adult educa-tion programs? Is greater participation in

adult education activities associated withmore or less stable adult interest patterns ?

The area of interests has much to offeradult educators when sufficiently refined byresearch to make generalizations possible.The area of concern is: In what ways canknowledge of adult interests be used to improvethe quantity and quality of participation inadult education programs?

6. The development, structure, and function-ing of an adult's personality over the yearsseems to be described from such a variety ofviewpoints that adult educators have difficultyin understanding the relationships of the vari-ous concepts. A single framework for describ-ing them would give the educator a sounderbase upon which to build many aspects of hisprogram.

6

In general, the adult educator looks at per-sonality from the behavioristic point of viewperceiving the behavior of the adult in relationto learning opportunities that are available.He sees in continuing education not only thepractical value-potential related to new skillsattftudes , and knowledge but also a potentialfor education as a continuing shaper of person-ality. When he approaches personality from

this stance, but is aware of the lack of defi-nitiveness in the research literature on thesubject, he becomes an avid seeker for knowl-

edge about personality manifestations.Are there predictable personality changes

during the adult years? What aspects of per-sonality change continue from one decade oflife to the next? What is the relative impor-

tance, in the personality change of the adult,of stimuli reaching adults every day from theirtotal environment as compared to the stimulipresent in programs of continued learning (indi-vidual or group, self- or agency-directed)?

What are the anticipated responses of adultswith different personality patterns to educationalstimulation and opportunity? What personalitypatterns are associated with selected socialclass and other cultural variables (language,education, ethnic background, income, etc.)?What do each of the major theoretical frame-works of personality development suggest forthe action level of adult education?

Do role conflicts in family and communitysituations influence the potential for educa-tional participation and personality change?Do the personality characteristics of profes-sional and volunteer adult teachers influenceparticipation LA and effectiveness of learningexperiences for adult or potential adult partici-pants ?

An area of research concern for adult edu-cators is built around the need for a betterunderstanding of personality: What are thecharacteristics of personality change in theadult years , what factors influence the changepatterns, and in what ways can knowledge ofthese factors be applied in inson_is of con-tinuing education?

7. The adult educator is responding to achanging educational situation as he identi-fies his need for knowledge of the adult learnerand the process of learning. The pressures forcontinued learning guide him to seek answersto questions about the continuity of learningthroughout the life span, the ability of theadult to learn, the different response patternsto different learning tasks, and the nature ofthe "learning to learn" concept.

The mounting pressures of modern societyfor a more learned adult have focused attention

on the need to know more about him and howhe learns. The research and developmentactivities that have been recorded are far fromadequate to resolve the key questions whichneed resolution. When applied to adultsmany of the past studies lack both focus anddepth; others deal with the wrong problems.The security of the adult educator often isthreatened by false generalizations from find-ings of research dealing with youth in formalclassrooms.

What is the nature of the "learning to learn"concept? Does learning to learn follow a dif-ferent development pattern in youth than inadulthood? To what extent has the high school

or college graduate learned to learn? In whatways does overdeveloped behavior of adultsinterfere with continued learning? What is therelationship between the instructional methodsaad techniques applied and the development ofan adult's learning on his own? What methodsand techniques of instruction interfere with the"learning to learn" concept?

The development of youths or adults whohave "learned to learn" is an ideal goal foradult educators. There is a search for a betterunderstanding of the concept and a means forits development: What are the conditions underwhich one learns to learn and what educationalinaredients encouraae learning to learn in adults?

7

III

THE ADULT'S RESPONSE TO SOCIAL-CULTURAL PHENOMENA

1. There is a bond between education for indi-vidual change, small group change, and broadsocial change. This being noted, educatorsand sociologists have been engaged individuallyand jointly on investigations of the process ofchange. Although under a variety of titles,many of these studies are focused on the adop-tion process. They trace specific practicesfrom individual exposure or awareness to gen-eral community adoption. _In the course of theresearch a framework has been developed thatin some instances can identify everyone fromthe innovator to the late or last adoptor.

The process of diffusing technical, socialand cultural information into a community is ofsuch concern that one author was able to cite506 references dealing only with that generaltopic. In spite of the great wave of scientificinterest in change that has developed duringthe past decade, maw; of the first questions tobe asked have yet to be answered. Some ofthese are in the two following paragraphs.Nevertheless , a good base has been set anduseful frameworks for organizing and analyzingdata have been designed.

At what stages in the social action processis an "input" of education most effective inproducing change? Which sociocultural back-ground factors stand in the way of acceptingchange and new ideas? Which encourage in-novation? Which, if supported by educators,aid or delay adoption? What is the role of the"change agent" (educator) in bringing aboutsocial action? How can a useful framework ofcommunity development be established as abase for scientific study of educed communitychanges? What are the results of selectedpatterns of outside innovation on the individual,the group, and the community?

What are the response patterns of differentsocial groups, to outside and inside changeagents? What is the role of crisis in bringingabout change? In what ways is social controlmaintained or reestablished during of after a

8

period of great social readjustment induced bytechnological factors? What changes in therole of the individual in his social group occuras a result of cybernation? Can the educatoruse technological change advantageously inprograms of individual and community develop-ment? To what extent does tampering with acommunity's social and economic structurebring positive outcomes?

This area of research need should be con-tinued as one of high priority: What are thesociocultural factors that most influence changein human behavior individual, family, smallgroups, or community? In what areas of humanconcern are educator-induced opportunities forchange most likely to elicit favorable response?In what ways can action that is more positivethan negative be achieved?

2. The concept of "anticipation of change" bythe individual adult, family, small groups, orcommunity is as important a concept to thesociologist as the "learning to learn" conceptis important to the psychologist. It is recog-nized that in the United States culture changeis expected to occur, and there are those wholook forward to change with a considerabledegree of satisfaction. There are others wile)

look toward change with dissatisf3ction andwillingly delay the effects of change as longas they can.

The adult educator, by the nature of hisfield of work, tends to deal more closely withthose who look forward to change than withthose who would delay it. There is knowledgeof both groups that is helpful in adult programs,but at this stage in the development of thefield the educator and the participant tend torespond program-wise to change that has oc-curred rather than to change that is anticipated.

What sociocultural factors lead to planningfor change on the part of adults? What are thedifferential responses to new social organiza-tions by adults who welcome change as com-

pared to adults who wish to delay it? Whatare the differential responses of those withvarying degrees of openness towards changeto educational programs based on establishedchanges, developing changes , potential changes?

Should the educator encourage programs thatdeal with the potential rather than the fact ofchange? What is the effect of anticipatoryprograms on the social order? What is the in-fluence of those who anticipate change on thesocial order, on the precipitation of change,on the educational programs in which they par-ticipate? How can we identify adults who re-spond to change in different ways ?

An important followup of the studies ofadoption and educator-induced social actionlies in a study of those who anticipate change:What factors are responsible for a positiveanticipation of change? What characteristicsof educational prmrams elicit positive learningresponses from those with different changeanticipation patterns ?

3. There are a variety of demographic andecological problems of society that have beengiven consideration by sociologists and edu-cators. Certain aspects of such problems havebeen suggested as barriers to the extensive re-training that is necessary in a country wherebusiness and industry are rapidly being auto-mated and where maximum effectiveness fromthe labor force is demanded. Technologicaladvances always raise questions of concernfor educators.

Is training for a new job more effective priorto or after change in employment? If suchtraining is compulsory, is it effective whenjobs are being eliminated? Under what condi-tions will workers trained for new jobs migrateto other areas to find employment? Shouldliberalizing studies accompany retraining ifmigration is likely to occur? What is the effectof liberalizing studies on migration? What isthe relative cultural strength of community andvocational ties? How can they be transcended?What are the sociopsychological barriers tomigration that technological change induces?What is the role of the educator in helping acommunity adjust to loss of a c .bstantial por-tion of its lab& force?

Adult educators are faced with differentkinds of problems in this area of researchneed: What are the roles of the educator inhelping adults make the social, physical, andretraining adjustments arising as a consequenceof technological unemployment?

4. The decisions 'about what to teach and howto teach that are made by the educator, and thedecision about whether or not to make the effort

to learn that is made by the adult subject, havea substantial impact on the surrounding society.Some information about the characteristics ofadults who participate in adult education activi-ties such as social status , education level,economic level, and general cultural level havebeen known for some time. There are, however, ,

a large number of unanswered questions that,if resolved, would aid educators to create waysof reaching previously unreached adults, toprogram for more effective learning , and tounderstand both failure and success of ongoingprograms. Chief among these is that of deter-mining the real needs of people where theyare, as they are, so that programs are plannedto meet these needs.

Social relationships among clientele, bothin class and out, have become a fruitful fieldfor investigation. Many findings in learningand adult development can be applied effec-tively in education only it they are related tothe local community as it really is. Thus,educators seek answers to a host of questionsabout relationships adiong people and groups,and between local groups and the larger society.

What are the barriers to communication from

one social class to another? What differencesexist among classes on the value attached toactive participation in a group as compared tobeing a spectator at a lecture? What kinds ofapproaches to learning are effective with lowersocioeconomic class adults? What barriers tothe desire for learning exist in urban slums andrural impoverished areas? Can useful instru-ments be developed to provide valid local evi-dence to the educator on such factors as com-munity power structure, class systems , andcommunity values ?

How do culture-induced objectives affect theorganization of educational programs ? Whatrole is seen for adult education by differentcommunity groups ? What does each group seeas its scope, its function, and its status in botheducational and social organizations? Whatinfluence does type of family structure haveon participation and learning in a community?

How does a learning group form its ownsocial structure? What kinds of social sys-tems develop and operate in the classroom,in conferences , and in ongoing voluntary adulteducation programs? How does the socialclimate of a community affect program planning,participation, acceptance of leadership, andultimatc :y the learning outcomes of an adulteducation program?

This is a priority area: What socioeconomicand cultural information is essential to theplanning of adult education programs ? Howcan such information help adult education pro-grams achieve both relevance and effectiveness ?

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5. There are a number of developmentalaspects of the emerging field of adult educa-tion which, if better understood, would helppromote its continued growth. Education ofadults has taken place in a great variety ofsettings under the sponsorship of many differ-ent agencies and organizations, each virtuallyindependent of all others. The knowledgegained from these diverse experiences has notbeen sufficiently integrated to build a generalframe of reference for the field. A historicaloverview could thus do much to help developthe framework and provide guidelines for growth.Up to now we have had historians of numerousparts of the field, but not a historical integra-tion of all the parts. Furthermore, in a researchframework dealing with application, the his-torian's role can be interrelated with the roleof the sociologist as patterns of developmentare noted.

To whom have different types of programsappealed in the past? What does analysis ofprogram content over several decades tell aboutthe changing nature of offerings and their accept-ance by differing sociocultural groups? Whatdoes program format and content explain aboutthe way adult educators have responded tochanging learning theory and to knowledge ofsociety, to general changes in values andsocial norms, to specific changes in technol-ogy and means of communication?

Before making a forward thrust of conse-quence, adult educators need a clearer per-spective of their own past as it relates tosocial and cultural phenomena: What chancesin the social and cultural setting during thelast several decades have affected the program-Haw of adult education, its content, its format,its varitv?

IV

THE ADULT EDUCATION ENTERPRISE

PURPOSE AND GOALS OF APULT EDUCATION

Put, Present, and Future

The literature in adult education aboundswith subjective documentation dealing with agreat variety of boncerns, potentials , goals,and statements of what the purposes of adult'education ought to be. Agencies of adult edu-cation tend to revise original documents identi-fying their own goals every ten years , usuallyfrom.the base of an earlier statement ratherthan from the base of the present setting inwhich they operate.

A number of historical studies provide someperspective on the changes in purposes andgoals of adult education through the yearsbut research has yet to give the overall viewof the past that is needed. Statements onpresent goals and objectives of the many sep-arate agencies have not been analyzed in afashion that provides a useful structure foreither administrator or teacher. Thus, an ever-present call for integrated studies of purposesand goals is noted in the literature. Most ofthe following questions would not have to beasked if the goals and purposes of the overallfield were clear.

What is adult education all about? What isit trying to do? Where is it really heading ?What is adult education's philosophical base?To what is the field of adult education commit-ted? Does the adult educator know only whathe has observed or does he have some broadpurpose to his action?

In what ways are the goals of adult educa-tion coordinated with those of education foryouth? Is it the purpose of the educator, todeal only with goals identified by the clientor is there more global purpose of the field?To what extent is there an overlapping amongthe goals and purposes of the different agenciesof adult education? Are overlapping goals amongagencies conducive to positive outcomes?

There is a need for normative and descrip-tive studies of adult education's goals andpurposes: What purposes have been soughtand achieved, what goals and Purposes arenow being sought, and what goals should zo-grams of adult education be trying .tg achieve?

The Scope of Adult Education

Adult education enterprises are scatteredthrough various branches and levels of govern-ment, are on the periphery of public educationprograms from elementary through graduateschools, and are organized for the education-ally, economically, and socially illiterate aswell as for those with Ph.D. degrees. Thescope of educational programs for adults isalmost beyond believing. Programs are estab-lished by business and industry to retrainworkers and to provide liberalizing experiencesfor executives. Professional fields developinduction training programs and postdoctoralseminars. Universities teach farmers how toapply fertilizer and economists how to controlproduction. Voluntary agencies and organiza-tions provide study opportunities in life saving,picture taking, international relations, andphilosophy. Libraries in a single evening pro-vide their resources to encourage study of con-versational French for tourists and great ideasof Western civilization for homemakers.

Small wonder the adult educators are asking:What am I supposed to be doing? The goalsand purposes of adult education are so broadand pervasive on the one hand and so narrowand focused on the other that one would expecteducational schiTophrenia as a routine outcomeof being too long in the field. A combinationof policy studies and research is needed toprovide a clearer image of the goals and pur-poses of continuing education.

To what extent should selected agencies ororganizations limit their goals and purposes ?Would integration of planning by the many

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groups providing education for adults be desir-able? To what extent are the learning goals ofadults and the educational objectives of theagency coordinated within a program? By whatmeans can the adult educator identify the goalsand purposes of the client? Is it possible todistinguish client needs from client wishes?To what extent is a client's ability level in thearea of agency goals the determining factor inhis participation in a program? What criteriashould be used to determine goals of groupsneeding or seeking continued learning? Shouldthe adult educator take into account, in estab-lishing goals and purposes of education pro-grams , the great variation among clients' socialand economic status ?

At this point in time the coordination amongagencies in their search for goals and a centralpurpose has a higher priority than the need forresearch. The need for research, however,should not be overlooked: What should be therelationship between the immediate and long-term goals of adult education agencies ?

UNDERSTANDING ADULT EDUCATION

The Practice of Continuous Learning

Although the practice of continuous learninghas not gained sufficient acceptance to be con-sidered characteristic in the United States , aleadership climate favorable to its developmentnow exists. There are those who use the in-creasing enrollments in colleges and graduateschools as evidence of the acceptance of thispractice. There are others who point to otherthan learning reasons for the increased enroll-ment and follow with a generalization as to themillions whose attitude toward continued learn-ing is anything but positive. From the literatureand through interview come questions about thedevelopment of continued learning that beg foranswers.

Should special efforts be made to develop acontinuous learning experience, or will it suf-fice to wait for the pressures of social changeto mold continuous learning into the value sys-tem of the family? Should this learning patternbe developed in the early years of formal edu-cation? Can it be taught? If it can be taught,what type of learning situations, what scope,and what sequences will be effective? Shouldthis be the task of a social agency or of thehome? What contributions can elementary andsecondary schools and colleges make towardthe development of the practice? How generalis the acceptance of continuous learning amongvarying social and economic settings (socialclasses , economic levels, age levels, employ-ment classifications, ethnic backgrounds, placesof abode)?12

This is an area of both theoretical and prac-tical research need: To what extent does thepractice of continuous learning exist? Howcan the practice of continuous learning be de-veloped effectively?

Marginality

Among the established institutions of oursociety adult education almost always appearsat the margin and seldom near the center ofactivities. In the educational programs of mostschool districts, the adult program gets tackedon as an afterthought, if at all. Business andindustry rarely seek the competent educator todevelop an inservice program; instead, a tech-nician is given this responsibility and the edu-cational program is begun by trial and error.

How does marginality affect attitudes towardand outcomes of educational programs for adults?Does it discourage commitment or alter worth-while forms? Does the layman understand whatadult educators are up to? How can adult edu-cators build acceptance for themselves and theprogram? What effect does this marginal imagehave on learning in the classroom, in the shop,in the home? How is the.morale of adult edu-cators affected by their marginal position inagencies, profesiional associations or com-ir unities?

The methods and application of historicalresearch need to be focused on marginality:How have once marginal fields of work over-come .11a handWap of marginality and gainedboth internal and external acceptance? Whatfactors within and outside ol the field affectmarginality?

Patterns of Participation

The many different research approaches toparticipation of adults in continuing educationpoint up the lack of focus on hoW to obtain dataon this vital subject. Neverthelesa, empha-sized throughout the extensive literature isconcern for the problem of participation and thevalues to accrue from its resolution.

What clues to particiPation and subsequentlearning come from information about the atti-tudes and interests of adults? How do generalcommunity social needs influence the partici-pation of adults in selected programs ? Underwhat conditions do threat and social pressurelead to participation and learning in organizedgroups? In what way does the social climatewithin the group affect continued participationfor learning purposes?

In what ways are individual personalitycharaCteristics related to participation? Towhat extent is the goal of selfo-study encour-aged by participation in learning groups? How

does internal and external goal assessmentaffect participation in learning activities?What aspects of method and technique affectcontinued participation? What are the mosteffective means of appraising the quality ofparticipation?

Recently there has been an increase in par-ticipation studies (Johnstone, etc.) but littlebeyond gross participation has been examined:What are the influences of different adult groupParticipation patterns and independent study onthe achievement of selected goals?

Resources Available

The social, cultural, educational and tech-nical climate in the United States has becomemore positive toward continued learning duringthe past decade than during any previous periodof history. It is because of this climate thatthe resources for continued learning are beingsought, developed, and appraised. Yet, theliterature in this field provides limited assist-ance in answering questions about the locationand use of resources.

What resources of.elementary and secondaryschools are available for adult programs? Whatresources of government are available for adultprograms ? What resources of government areavailable to the field? By what means can con-tinued learning programs be financed? Whathuman resources (professional and voluntarY)are available for program development? Whatis the value to adult education of such resourcesas museums and the theatre? How can theseresources be used? What financial and humanresources in voluntary associations and profes-sional groups are available for education? Howcan human resources in developing technicalfields be utilized?

It can be generalized that almost unlimitedresources are available if they can be identifiedand their potential use understood. Thus: Inwhat ways can the potential resources for con-tinued learning be organized, integrated, andactivated to meet society's need for intellectualgrowth?

THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

Communication and the Independent Adult

The literature makes clear that teachingadults requires more than the application of aselected pattern of methods and techniques.But not having such a pattern and being facedwith a clientele whose only compulsion to par-ticipate is its own, the educator of adults oftenfeels that he must be an educational and con-tent expert, artist, comic, diplomat, and police-men at one and the same time.

He borrows from college, grade, and sec-ondary school teachers; he questions his col-leagues; he reads a dozen different answersto the same question in professional journals;and he continues to teach. But all of the timehe carries unanswered questions around withhim. He is tempted to create new forms forteaching adults because, somehow, those usedfor dealing with captive audiences never quitefit. Some teachers of adults become insecurein their lack of knowledge of the educationalprocess; others believe that they alone arecorrect; but most continue to sleek answers toquestions related to instructural improvement.

What are the conditions under which majormethods of reaching adults are effective (smallgroup, large group, individual, classes , massmedia, etc.)? Within each method, what teach-ing techniques are most appropriate (discussion,panel, correspondence study, lecture, tele-vision, etc.)? How can the human and physi-cal resources of the commtinity be used to en-rich adult learning? What relationship to theclient is the best to establish for a partfcularprogram and set of objectives What adjust-ments in teaching should be made when dealingwith divergent communities and social groups ?How should the learning environment be changedfor different types of objectives ? Under whatconditions can volunteer teachers be used withsuccess ? How can one's own adult teachingcompetency be assessed? What stereotype ofadult educators is held by adults ? How doesattitude toward the adult relate to teachingeffectiveness of full time, part time and vol-unteer adult teachers ? What do adults expectof the teacher or adult program leader?

Although this area of research need lacks aflrm structure, it is great priority to those whoare teaching: How can the teacher be effectivein his communication with and stimulation anddevelopment of the adults he seeks to teach?

Communication and Program Goals

There are no exceptions: communication,whether by seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting,or touching, or by some sixth sense, is nec-essary if adults are to learn. Yet too oftenadult educators have taken communication forgranted. The methods, techniques and devicesused in communication, however, can be nomore effective than the purpose for which theyare used. Thus, if the purpose of the commu-nication is clear to the communicator and he isfamiliar with the media, he will know whichmethod, technique or device of the ones avail,able to him is the most effective to accomplishhis task. Adult educators want to know howthey can best use what is known about commu-nications as they work with adults.

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In what ways can a common base of experi-ence be provided for the communication process?What are the starting points of experience thatcan be used as a channel for communicationamong different vocational and professionalgroups, socioeconomic classes and educationallevels?

What is the psychological impact of selectedcommunications media on learning? How doesthe form of presentation (language and style)influence behavior? Under what conditionswill selected means of communication blocklearning? In what ways does language usagehelp develop or deny the social process? Howcan feedback be used to improve the climate oflearning? What distinctions in communicationshould be made in dealing with different typesof social groups? What are the communicationvariables that need to be considered in teachingindividuals or groups, instructing or propagan-dizing, persuading or teaching, teaching in aformal or informal setting?

This area of research need is most importantto the adult educator at the teaching level:What are the means 122 which communicationcan be effectively used to help reach adult pro-gram goals?

Instructional Groups

Much of adult education is accomplished ingroups. The instructor of such a group maywell be aware of the research findings comingfrom psychology, sociology, and social psy-chology pertaining to experimental studieswhich deal only indirectly with instructionalgroups. These studies have almost always hadhighly controlled variables; however, the vari-ables they did control are usually not germaneto the types of study which are made of instruc-tional groups, because the variables that canbe studied in instructional groups are different.The kinds of questions raised in the studies inthe three aforementioned fields and the way inwhich they are raised do not really addressthemselves to the type of focus with whichadult instructional groups are concerned.

If an instructional group is one whose feed-back system must be completely open cogni-tively and whose size is such that each memberhas access to all other members in order thatits learning task may be accomplished ratherthan impeded, what are the limits of behaviorwithin which a group remains open enough toaccomplish its learning task ? The opennessof the feedback system gives the instructionalgroup an emerging quality which takes accountof content as it goes along, thus correctingitself as it plans its purposeful goals and themeans of achieving them. In so doing, aspects

14

of the history of the participants and their inter-action with each other become part of the con-tent they consider. Which aspects of thishistory are conducive to learning and thus needto be encouraged and which are deleterious andneed to be overcome? How much of the affec-tive domain should serve as part of this histori-cal cognitive domain? How can an instructionalgroup use the knowledge and skill of its partici-pants to achieve its learning tasks?

What is the role of the teacher in an instruc-tional group? What guidelines would help himto help the group achieve more cognitive learn-ing? Do any "problem-solving" techniquesapply to instructional groups ? If so, which?

What personality variables among the indi-viduals in a group prevent the sought-for open-ness and thus encourage a buildup of structuralstratification among group members ? Whatconditions of the social milieu prevent thissought-for openness?

.Since a high proportion of all adult educationtakes place in groups whose goals are learning-oriented rather than decision-oriented or therapy-oriented, how can the research findings fromsociology, Psychology, and social psychologywhich deal with decision-making groups bereinterpreted and coordinated so as to becomemeaningful for instructional groups? This isa PRIORITY area.

Volunteer Teachers and Leaders

The area of leadership has been of concernto adult educators because of their dependenceupon voluntary participation in educational pro-grams and the extensive use the CooperativeExtension Service and other agencies have madeof volunteers to provide leadership in their pro-grams. The matter of dealing with adults ratherthan children inserts a very different factor intothe setting for leadership. The uncertaintiescreated by forces of change provide furthercomplications to the setting in which leader-ship is sought.

Much has been written about leadership, butonly recently have psychologists and sociolo-gists given specific attention to it as an areaof research. This attention coincides with theincreasing participation of adults in educationalprograms and the growing number of specialinterest groups seeking to lead others towardprogram goals. Because of this recency of in-tensified interest, there are numerous problemsof definition throughout the leadership fieldremaining to be resolved.

The adult educators, in their predispositiontoward idealism, often overlook studies ofleadership that border on manipulation or delib-erate management of people. Management and

aro imoo-olt.4

advertising studies have much basic materialto offer the adult educator who seeks researchanswers to certain kinds of leadership questions

What are the characteristics of a leadershiprole that promotes learning? Can such a rolebe developed among volunteer participants ?To what extent is one's subject-matter compe-tency a factor in establishing a leadership rolein a learning setting? Does one's expressedattitude toward learning affect his leadership?Are volunteers or professiOnals more effectivein leading lower socioeconomic groups to con-tinued learning? What characteristics areassociated with effectiveness ? What petsonalpsychological factors ree related to an adult'svolunteering for a leadership role in an adulteducator'i program? What sociological factorsare so related? Which methods of leadershiptraining bring about the most constructivesocial outcomes in terms of the individual whois trained and the group which is led?

k great deal of investigation by educators,psychologists . and sociologists is needed inthis area: In what v2an do learnsin experiencesas a volunteer teacher (leader) add to the learn-.W outcomes of educational programs using,volunteer,teachers (leaders)? What personaland social factors influence the effectivenessof volunteer leaders?

Occupational Retrainiag

As the industrial part rjf our society movesirrevocably onward to increased automatikm andcybernation, a drastic reduction in the nced forunskilled labor and the virtual disappeazanceof the small farmer becomes evident at the sametime that an increase in the need for highlyskilled personnel shows itself. The answer isobviously vocational retraining. However, inalmost all instances, retraining presupposesa floor of basic knowledge and skill. If theindividual does not have these basics, thenthe adult educator is challenged to provide it.For example, an awareness of learning needmay come to a group of reasonably sophisticatedtradesmen and mechanics who have seriousdoubts about their ability to learn new technicalskills at their stage in life. Yet learn they mustif they are unwilling to face the consequencesof nonwork at an evly age. The concept ofself-sufficiency which a person has who is notonly willing but able to work needs to be re-kindled as a part of the retraining process sothr:t not only does the individual acquire skillsthat are currently marketable, but also his senseof self-worth is concomitantly rebuilt into thenew framework.

What are the means by which educators candevelop a recognition of the needs to learn on

the part of adults facing retraining? When isthe most appropriate time to seek a commitmentto new learning and to begin retraining? Whatare the mo3t effective means df giving guidanceon goal setting inTelation to present abilitylevel and future employability? If the conceptof continued learning has not been accepted,how can this be built into the technical trainingprogram? What are the social, psychologicaland economic barriers to acceptance of retrain-ing and how can their be overcome?

Technical retraining.is a PRIORITY need

today: Nm can technical, retraining be amp-plished with the met positive effect on m-sonal goals at71 achievement and the least dis-notion of business and industrial development?

Admit laic Education

The problem of technological unemploymentis most critical for those adults with a lowlevel of work skill (as those mentioned in theprevious section) and for those who alio lackthe qualifications of social and educationalliteracy required as a basis for desiring andusing vocational retraining. The adult basiceducation needed by such persons (functionallydefined by the OFA as having less than a sixth-grade education) is simply learning the language:speaking, reading, writing. With the passageof the Economic Opportunity Act, this hereto-fore partially hidden need was exposed andprovisions were made for programs to meet theneed. Most of the nonliterate are living inpoverty pockets where society has passed themby: migrant agricultural workers , other farmworkers, school dropouts, urban slum dwellers,Indians both on and off reservations, and theelderly who grew up in preliterate times orplaces. If we define poverty as those circum-stances which prevent a man from approachingor reaching his full potential as a man or any.part of that potential, then we can see thebasic necessity of acquiring literacy skills todevelop a proper self-image and so get out ofthe descending poverty spiral.

For the one who is to be an adult basic edu-cator, the kind of research information neededis that which could answer questions such as:What are the conditions which led to the devel-opment of illiteracy? If such conditions arebeing maintained, how can they be overcome?If people choose not to be literate, if they havenot the courage even to ask how one can be-come literate, if their self-concept or self-image is so low that they are unable to acceptthe adult basic education which is offered,then isn't research needed in how they can bemotivated, individually and/or collectively, towant to learn these basic skills?

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What potential for adult basic educationlies in the promotion of cooperatives that areproducer-oriented to make salable merchandiseand/or consumer-oriented fo teach improvedbuying procedures ? How can the members offamily, friends, or neighborhood groups beorganized so that all members of such group:.may help one another attain literacy? How can

such adults be identified prior to unemployment?How can adults participate in literacy programswhile employed?

This area is a PRIORITY research need:How can all persons in our nation who are notnow literate most effectively overcome thishandicap?

Pluming dm Educational Program

Without the establishment of overall pur-poses, the development by an adult educatorof a program for continued learning is hazardous.Once purposes are clear, however, programplanning (curriculum development). can be under-taken with a degree of confidence. Even_so,there are no firm procedures that adult edUcators

can use to accomplish this task:The process of program planning in adult

education has in it many of the same charac-teristics as curriculum development in schoolsand colleges, but once again the voluntarynature of adult learning provides a differentset of circumstances. A number of theories ofprogram planning are in use with somewhat dif-ferent principles of planning suggested asguidelLnes.

One point of difference among these approachesis a judgment on the extent to which the clientshould be involved in determining needs andidentifying objectives. Research on the effec:-tiveness of different means of program planningand testing some of the approaches to it havebeen underway. The Cooperative ExtensionService, in cooperation with rural sociologists,has been most involved in this research but,as yet, it does not have firm answers to a number

of basic questions.Should program objectives be determined on

the basis of individual needs, learning theory,or subject matter that fits agency purpose?Should objectives be adjusted to general socialneeds of the time? What is the most effectiveway of determining those needs which an indi-vidual can resolve through education? What

types of client-need analysis can be used bycommunity level adult educators?

Which of the alteriative approaches to pro-gram planning are most effective in achievingselected purposes ? Does the method of plan-ning used (formal "agency planned" vs. in-formal "client-and-agency planned") make a

16

difference in quality of participation, quantityof participation, or actual achievement ofbehavioral change? Does the amount of clientinvolvement in planning affect learning out-comes? Are suggested principles of soundplanning (flexibility, etc.) more or less con-ducive to learning? Under what conditions?What program planning procedures can be usedto encourage self-learning? What proceduresdiscourage participation in educational programs?Which planning procedures work most effectivelywith selected socioeconomic classes?

Planning programs for adult learning is anarea of needed research now under study, butit needs greater emphasis: What proceduresof program planning lead to maximum adultlearning ?

Administering Programs of Adult Education

Three kinds of administrative concerns arepresent in adult education programs. One con-cern is tied to the regular administrative pro-cess faceil by any organization; the seconddeals with coordination among the many agen-cies purporting to meet the educational needsof adults; and the third deals with policy for-mation for a segment of an organization lyingon the margin of acceptance. There may becertain problems of administration unique toadult education in industry and others toCooperative Extension, but research in generaladministration tends to apply regardless of thenature of the institution or its method of organi-zation. Of more concern to adult educatorsare administrative problems related to coordi-nation, use of volunteers, informal action,voluntary financing andif the adult educationrole is marginaldeveloping policies and pro-cedures amenable to a marginal position with-out, on the one hand, losing acceptance in the.parent organization or, on the other hand, get-ting closer to the central purpose of the organi-zation and further from the marginal goals.

What kind of structural organization wouldbe most useful as a means of coordinatingselected portions of the programs of manyagencies? Should this structure be formal orinformal? What is the most effective admini-strative structure for voluntary adult educationagencies? To what extent should planning,organizing and administering adult educationactivities in a business be tied to the generaladministration of that business? Likewise inindustry, in public schools, in government?Are policies successful in administering adultprograms withiq a parent organization usefulin a voluntary educational organization? Areselected means of policy determination equallysuccessful in both? What is the relative effec-

tiveness of advibory committees and councilsin helping to establish organizational and ad-ministrative policies in both types of organi-zations?

Are established patterns of policy formationin educational agencies serving youth appro-priate for those agencies serving adults?

What are the perceived functions and respon-sibilities of administrative and supervisotypersonnel in different kinds of adult educationagencies? What administrative restructuringis needed to effectively relate to a rapidlychanging society?

The variations in adthinistrative structurein adult education lead to an area of researchneeding solution: What is the proper functionof administration in adult education when ft isthe mainstream goal of an educational agency;when it is the marainal activity and god of theagency? What is .the most effective adminis-trative structure for coordinating adult educa-tion activities of diverse agencies and organi-zations?

Coons* lling Adults About Their Educational Needs

The need for continuous learning has in-creased manyfold in a short time.. Pressuresto encourage voluntary efforts toward new oradditional learning come from many sources,including work changes, community changes,and family changes. Left to his own devices,an adult often will seek help and advice on avery casual basis from his peers, whether ornot they are equipped to give such advice.Inquiries do come to adult educators from someof the more sophisticated adults seeking guid-ance and counsel on plans for learning, buteven in these cases the effectiveness of suchaid has not been determined. The potential ofadult educators to help adults arrive at decisionsabout their mobility, retraining or independentstudy problems is not well known.

Who are the most likely users of educationalguidance and counselling services for adults?With what kinds of educational decisions canadult educators give the most ialp? What arethe outcomes of different kinds of adult guid-ance programs? What are the characteristicsof adults who are amendable to positive aid ina counselling situation? What measuring in-struments are useful in collecting informationwith which to counsel adults? What are therelative values for adult counselling of theinstruments developed for high -school and col-lege age youth? What new instrumentation isneeded? What special materials and informationare needed to provide educational guidance toretired adults, poverty stricken adults, theunemployed, the handicapped? How do social

status, social role, and natute of the commu-nity relate to guidance and counselling effec-tiveness?

Here is an area of research need that isdeveloping rapidly; What are the means andmethods by which educational guidance andcounselling can be provided to aid in the resolu-tion of the continuing education challepges ofadulthood?

Preparation of Adult Educators

The opportunities for graduate study in adulteducation have been greater than in many fieldsundergoing rapid expansion. These opportuni-ties generally have developed in relation toprograms in schools of education or collegesof agriculture. These institutional ties havemade growth possible with only limited clari-fication of goals and purposes, curricular or-eganization, and kinds of learning experienceto be provided. In effect, adult educators haveborrowed from or added to vocational and edu-cational programs ad libitum. Those in chargeof such graduate programs in adult educationnow find themselves faced with a multitude ofphilosphical, policy, content, and administra-tive probleths. Some of the problems can beresolved by study groups and institutional com-mittees; others need extensive research.

What are the unique characteristics of adulteducation that should be provided for in planninggraduate curricula? What concepts, skills,and values should be (can be) developed in thecurriculum? How effective in moving towardthe major goals of adult education graduateprograms are such devices as the internship,the teaching assistantship, interdisciplinaryseminars, and independent study? Can theobjectives of the program be met more effec-tively in a curriculum focused on a specialtype of adult education or on adult educationin general? Under what conditions should thegraduate program give special attention to in-creasing competence in content areas outsideof the behavioral sciences? Hoe effectivehave graduate programs been in providing re-search, content, and philosophical leadershipfor the field?

Here is an area of research need that requiresthe special attention of the university: What isthe relative usefulness of each aspect of thegraduate curriculum in adult education for re-paring leaders in the emerging field?

Evaluating Programs

Although the nature of evaluation is muchthe same for all types of educational programs,there are some unique characteristics in the

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emerging field of adult education that demandcareful scrutiny and different approaches. Thefact of voluntary participation needs to beaccounted for in evaluating programs , as wellas the practice of using volunteer (amateur)teachers for many phases of the programs.

The wealth of experience that an adult bringsto a learning situation is quite removed fromthat brought to the setting by a child or teenagerand needs to be considered when progress towardthe objectives of instruction is measured.

The potential for direct financial rewardsfrom continued learning needs to be consideredseriously in evaluating most vocational adulteducation programs. The social objectives ofcertain adult programs have a more meaningfulbase and a potential of earlier achievement thando programs for youth. The nation's continuedprogress in technology engenders a prime needfor higher and higher qualifications among thosealready employed in both creative and technicalfields; evaluation of the effectiveness of pro-grams of continuing education to meet that kindof need is imperative.

Do specialized programs of adult educationaimed at maintaining or improving vocationalcompetence in a rapidly developing technological

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world result in increased technical creativity andproduction? What are the social consequencesof such programa ? To what extent do the out-comes of programs change the behavior of adults ?What kinds of behavior change occur as a con-sequence of class participation, specific teach-ing methods, differing adult learning objectivesdiffering agency goals, self-designed studyactivities ? What is the relationship among thelearning outcomes of programs with identicalobjectives held at different locations on auniversity campus, in a public high school,in an industrial building, in a library? Underwhat circumstances and for what kinds ofobjectives, are professional adult educatorsmore productive than volunteer teachers ?

What kinds of criteria are most useful inevaluating programs of self-study?

It Is important to learn more about theevaluation of voluntary learning programs.The research here has been limited; =Allthe individual and/or agency objectives inadult education prmrams, which are attained?What approaches to and means of evaluationare useful in measuring outcomes of voluntaryand7Wnandatory participation in programs ofcontinued learning?

V

SUMMARY

The contributions of this part-of the investi-gation are the gleanings from a series of relatedefforts that involved (1) reviewing and integra-ting the relevant recent research in adult educa-tion with that cited in previous reviews, (2)reviewing recent research in related disciplinesand applied fields; -(3) interviewing leadingpersons in these disciplines and applied fields(4) carefully reviewing the writings of the pro-fessors of adult education, and (5) synthesizingthe recommendations emerging from a work con-ference in which leading adult educators ap-praised and criticized a preliminary report Ofneed research.

The two most important contributions of thispart of the study are (1) the development of atenable structure within which research relatedto adult education can be identified and (2) theidentification of the research needs of the fieldin relation to that structure.

The evidence is clear that the adult educa-tion enterprise is an important field of study.There are research problems related to theenterprise that can be resolved by research ina number of disciplines and allied fields.Chief among the disciplines that can makesubstantial research contributions are sociologyand psychology. The allied fields of communi-cations, human relationships, and social workalso have important roles they can play in the

[

resolution of other field problems. Further-more, since the adult education enterpriserests within the total field of education, thereare important contributions it can make toadult education.

There will be added contributions from other)tarious disciplines and ffelds of study as theAmerican society moves closer to the time whencontinuing education and retraining is the posi-tive alternative to unemployment; to the timewhen the adult's response to questions abouthis employment will elicit but three alternativerespores, (1) "I have a job," (2) "I'm in re-training," and (3) "I'm retired." Within thisframework there can be no "unemployment." Itis then that the narrow walls of thinking abouteducation must crumble; walls that have tendedto corifine elementary, secondary, and highereducational systems alike to an image of them-selves and their institutional structures as ter-minal educational facilities a role assignmentadult educators would have them abandon.

Similarly, as our American society movesto a level where people spend fewer hours earn-ing their income and more hours living theirlives as they see fit, adult education willincreasingly need to develop programs whichwill add constructive creative life to thesehours, programs of general education as wellas recreation.

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VI

THE LOOK AHEAD

The organization of areas of research intocategories of application should not close thedoor to theoretical explorations , basic research,or speculation. In a field that is very practicalon the one hand (vocational retraining programs)and theoretical on the other (development semi-nars), there is an unusual opportunity to sys-tematically explore both the past and the futurein addition to systematically facing the present.

There are theoretical questions at both theedge and heart of adult education that needprobing by minds searching for truth. Strategyand policy famation in adult education needexamination. Applied researchers often consider

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behavior as a one-to-one relationship amongfactors, but behavior of adults is too complexfor this kind of simplification. The potentialthat institutions of continued learning have tomanipulate educational variables in the broadcommunity setting often is ignored when, in-deed, this manipulation may be the most signi-ficant element of cultural change.

The applied research needs identifed in thisdocument should be pursued with all possiblespeed, but not without a concern for the philo-sophical and theoretical contemplations andspeculation that can help provide a basis forJudgement and a guideline for development.

ERIC Clearinghouse

,NOVI. 51968_ ..,..

on Adult Education

"*".... .assom --

GPO 11100:11124.4. . .